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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

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FLAGS OF VARIOUS NATIONS. 



1 

San Domingo,Mer. 





Belgium .Royal. I Belgium,Merchant. 


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Tunis,Man-of-war. || Turkey,Man-ofwar. 

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Sweden .Royal. 



Sweden, Merchant. 



Germany, Imp 


Germany,Merchant. 


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Uruguay. 



Hawaiian Isl.Roy 



Spain.Merchant. 




Liberia. I Mexico.Merchant 



Turkey.Merchant. 



U.S.of Colombia. 
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Norway. Merchant. I Paraguay,Merchant 





Russia, Imperial, 1 Russia,Merchant 


THE HATCH LITM.CO NEW rO*K. 





































































































































































































Morocco,Tripoli,Tunis. 


Netherlands Royal. Netherlands Ensign. | Norway, Royal 


Persia. 


Peru,Merchant. Portugal, Royal. 


Portugal, Ensign. 


Egypt. 


Guatemala. 



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Italy, Merchant. 


Great Br tain Royal. 


Great Britain, Mer. 


FLAGS OF VARIOUS NATIONS 




Nicaragua. 


Austria imperial. 


Austria,Merchant 




Brazil, Imperial 


Brazil,Ensign. 


Bolivia. 


TMC HATCH UTH.CO HEW YO*K 

































































































































































































W orld’s 



and LIBRARY of 


UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE. 


CONTAINING A DESCRIPTION OF THE ELEMENTS AND INHABI¬ 
TANTS OF AIR, EARTH AND WATER; RISE AND FALL OF 
NATIONS ; PLANETS, SUNS, MOONS, STARS, COMETS ; 
COINS AND CURRENCY; WEIGHTS AND MEASURES; 
BANKING AND BROKERAGE ; MILITARY, 

CIVIL, AND BRIDGE ENGINEERING AND 
SURVEYING ; HUMAN ANATOMY 
AND PHYSIOLOGY; DISCOVER¬ 
IES, ANIMALS, PLANTS, 

minerals; 

LEARNING, SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, CHURCHES; GOVERNMENTS; NA¬ 
TIONAL debts; laws; lands; ships; storms, tornadoes, 
cyclones; fisheries; and a myriad of 

OTHER SUBJECTS. 



COMPILElJ^iY' 

PROF. H. L. WILLIAMS, 

(.Author of “Analysis of Gems ”etc., etc.,) assisted by a number of 
leading Scientists and other learned Professors. 

/ ~ 

188 


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NEW YORK: 

WORLD MANUFACTURING CO., Publishers, 

122 NASSAU STREET. 




































PREFACE. 


-♦- 

The intent of the publishers and compilers has been 
to make a work to fill a void felt in almost every house¬ 
hold; to furnish in a single book “an abstract and brief 
chronicle” of a multitude of things—many of which are 
difficult of access to the general reader, who is not the 
owner of a well-stocked library. Very carefully writ 
ten essays are devoted to almost every art and science. 
In Natural History the discoveries of Linnaeus, Cuvier, 
and later savants are given, in a style to please as 
well as instruct. Space is given to many subjects too 
often treated as specialities, and relegated to text¬ 
books: notably, Vocabularies of Business; Spelling 
and Pronunciation of Ancient Geographical Names; 
and explanation of Legal and other Phrases in Latin. 
A Biographical Dictionary furnishes much interesting 
information. Considerable attention has been given 
to a vast number of topics, embracing almost all theo¬ 
retical and practical questions relating to government, 
law, finance, commerce, agriculture : upon which sub¬ 
jects every person is often called to think, talk, or 



iv. 


PREFACE. 


write about; yet which rarely enter into the range of 
an ordinary education. Care has been taken to sim. 
plify and thus render easier of comprehension, all the 
branches of mechanics, learning, and science, which 
from their nature are intricate and complex; so that 
a plainly educated person can at once clearly under¬ 
stand involved questions, too often obscured by un¬ 
necessary technical phrases. Numerous well-executed 
engravings illustrate the letter press. 


The Compiler. 



AND 


LIBRARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE. 


ABA 

A, the first letter of the alphabet of all 
the known languages, except the Etliio- 
pic, in which it is the thirteenth and 
the Runic in which it is the tenth. It 
stands for the indefinite article as, a 
man ; for the sixth note in the gamut, 
for the first of the dominical letters in 
the calender,as a numeral for one among 
the Greeks and 500 among the Romans, 

or with a stroke over it A, 5,000, for an 
abreviation, as A. M. Artium, Magister, 
Master of Arts, A. D. Ante Meridum.etc. 

A. A. A. In Chemistry stands for Al- 
magam or Amalgamation. 

A. 1. A mark to denote a ship of the 
first-clas's, as to newness and being sea¬ 
worthy. 

AAM. A Dutch measure of liquids, 
varying from 35 to 41 English gallons. 

AARD-VARK. An edentate animal, a 
native of Southern Africa. 

AARD-WOLF. A carniferous animal 
intermediate between the Civit and the 
Hyena. 

AAVORA. The fruit of a species of 
West Indian palm tree. 

AD . The Hebrew name of father. In 
the Jewish calendar, the 11th month of 
the civil year, and the fifth of the ec¬ 
clesiastical year, answering to a part of 
July and of August. In the Syriac cal¬ 
endar, Ab is the last summer month. 

ABABILO. A fabulous animal which 
has the feet of a dog and the beak of a 
bird, mentioned in the Koran. 

ABACA. A kind of flax, which grows 
in the Philippine Islands. 

ABACAY. The calangay, a species of 
parrot. 

ABACISCUS. In archaeology, any flat 
member, the square compartment of a 
Mosaic pavement. 

ABACUS. An instrument for calcula¬ 
tion, consisting of a board of an oblong 
figure, divided by several lines or wires, 
and mounted with an equal number ol 
balls arranged so as to express units, 
tens, hundreds, thousands, &c. The 
ball on the lowest line expresses 1; each 
Of those on the second line, 10, &c. ; 


ABE 

those in the middle spaces, halfas much 
as those on the lines above them, 



ABADA. A species of large African 
Deer, which has two horns on its fore¬ 
head and a third on the nape of its 
neck. 

ABBEVILLE FLINTS. Rude flint im¬ 
plements in the form of spear-lieads, 
&c., found in great abundance in tho 
post-tertiary sands and gravels of the 
river Somme near Abbeville, in France. 

ABDALAVI. The Egyptian melon. 

ABDALS. Certain religious fanatics 
in Persia and other Mohammedan coun¬ 
tries, who occasionally rush into the 
streets, and attempt to kill all they 
meet who are of a different religion to 
themselves. 

ABDERITE. An inhabitant of Abaera, 
in Thrace. Democritus is called fi’om 
being a native of this town, and as he 
was much prone to laughter, foolish or 
incessant laughter has been termed 

tibclGriiiii 

ABELIANS, ABELONIANS, or ABEL- 
ITES. In church history, a sect which 
arose in Africa during the reign of Ar- 
cadius ; they married, but lived in con¬ 
tinence, after the manner, as they pre¬ 
tended, of Abel, and attempted to main¬ 
tain the sect by adopting the children 
of others. 

ABERRATION. A small apparent mo¬ 
tion in the fixed stars, discovered by 
Mr. Molyneux and Dr. Bradley in the 
year 1725; also a deviation of therays of 
Light, when inflected by a speculum by 
















ACC 


2 ABS 

which they are prevented meeting in the 
same point. 

ABETTOR. One who instigates another 
to commit a crime. 

ABEYANCE. The expectancy of an 
estate, honour, or title. 

ABJURATION. A declaration on oath, 
that the son of James II. and his issue 
have no right to the throne of Great Brit¬ 
ain ; also a voluntary banishment, or lead¬ 
ing the realm on oath never to return. 

ABLACTATION. A sort of engrafting 
trees, by leaving the graft on its proper 
stock, until it be fully incorporated with 
the new stock. 

ABLATIVE. The sixth case of nouns in 
grammar. 

ABLUTION. A religious ceremony of 
washing the body, still used by the Turks 
and Makomedans ; also the washing away 
the superfluous salts out of any body in 
chemistry. 

ABOLLA. A kind of military garment 
worn by the Greek and Roman soldiers. 

ABOMASUS (in Comparative Ana¬ 
tomy). The fourth stomach of ruminating 
animals. 

ABORIGINES. The ancient and origi¬ 
nal inhabitants of Italy, supposed to have 
been conducted into Latium by Saturn; 
also the original inhabitants of any country 
In America we call the native Indiana, 
Aborigines. 

» ABOUT. A sea term, signifying the sit¬ 

uation of a ship immediately after she has 
tacked. 

ABRAUR1. A kind of red clay used by 
cabinet-makers to deepen the colour of 
new mohogany. 

ABREAST. Side by side ; a sea term, ap¬ 
plied to two or more ships ranged together. 

ABRIDGING (in Algebra). The re¬ 
ducing a compound equation to a more 
simple form. 

ABRIDGMENT. The bringing the con¬ 
tents of a book within a short compass ; in 
Law, the shortening a count or declaration. 

ABSCESS. An inflammatory tumour 
containing purulen matter. 

ABSCISSE. The part of any diameter 
or axis of a curved line, cut oflT by a per¬ 
pendicular line, called the ordinate. 

ABSOLUTION. The forgiveness of 
sins, which the Romish Church claims to 
Uself the power of granting; in Civil Law, 
a sentence whereby the party accused is 
declared innocent of the crime laid to 
his charge. 

ABSORBENTS. Medicines that have 
the power ofdryingup redundant humours; 
also what causes acids to effervesce, as 
Quick lime, soda, &c. 


ABSORBENT VESSELS. Vessel* 
which carry any fluid into the blood, as 
the inhalent arteries. 

ABSORPTION (in Chemistry). Th« 
conversion of a gaseous fluid into a liquid 
or solid, on being united with some othei 
solid. 

ABSTERGENTS. Medicines for cleans 
ing the body from impurities. 

ABSTINENCE. An abstaining from 
meat diet, as practised in the Romish 
Church. 

ABSTRACTION (in Logic). The intel 
lectual act of separating accidents or qua¬ 
lities from the subjects in which they re 
side, as whiteness from snow or a wall, 
&x.; animal from man or the brutes; in 
Chemistry, the process of drawing off by 
distillation any part of a compound, and 
returning it again any number of times tc 
be redistilled. 

ABUTMENTS. The extremities of any 
body adjoining another, as the extremities 
of a bridge resting on the banks or sides 
of a river. 

ABYSS. Any deep place that is bottom 
less, or supposed to be so, as the deepest 
or unfathomable parts of the sea. 

ACACIA. A beautiful shrub, a species 
of which bears rose-coloured flowers. A 
thorny shrub of this name is common in 
She deserts of Asia and Africa, and pro 
duces gum Arabic. 

ACADEMICS. A sect of ancient philo¬ 
sophers ; the term is sometimes applied to 
the followers of Socrates and Plato. 

ACADEMY. A school or college for the 
improvement of arts and science, so called 
from the grove of Academus in Athens, 
where Plato kept his school of philosophy. 
The first modern school of this name is 
said to have been established by Charle¬ 
magne at the instance of Alruin, an Eng¬ 
lish monk. This was followed by the 
Academia Secretorum Naturse, established 
at Naples by Baptista Porta in 1560, and 
the Academia Lyncei at Rome, &c. 

ACANTHUS (in Botany). Bearsbreeeh, 
or Brank Ursine, a plant, the leaves of 
which resemble those of the thistle; in 
Architecture, an ornament representing 
the leaves of the ancient acanthus, and 
used in the capitals of the Corinthian and 
Composite orders. 

ACCELERATION. Increased velocity 
of motion, particularly applied to falling 
bodies tending towa? k- the centre of the 
earth by the force of gravity. 

ACCENT. The raising or lowering ol 
the voice in pronouncing certain words or 
syllables; also the marks on the words or 
syllables, as the acute accent marked thus 




ACE 

(’), grave accent thus ('), the circum¬ 
flex thus (*). 

ACCEPTANCE. The signing or sub¬ 
scribing a bill of exchange with the word 
* accepted,’ and one’s name, by which the 
acceptor obliges himself to pay the con¬ 
tents of the bill. 

ACCESSARY, or ACCESSORY (in 
Law ). One guilty of an offence, not prin¬ 
cipally, but by participation. 

ACCIDENCE. The rules of the inflex¬ 
ions of nou«s and conjugations of verbs 
arranged in grammatical order. 

ACCIDENT. That which belongs acci¬ 
dentally* not essentially, to a thing, as 
sweetness, softness, &c.; ; n Grammar, the 
.emanation of words. 

ACCIPITRES. The first order of birds, 
having an angular toothlike process on the 
upper mandible, as the vulture, falcon, 
owl, &c. 



ACCLAMATION. A shouting in con¬ 
cert, which was practised among the Ro¬ 
mans as a token of applause, particularly in 
the theatres. 

ACEPHALOCYST. A genus of Euto- 
zoa or intestinal Animal which has the 
appearance of a simple bladder, without 
any visable organs. 

ACELDAMA. In Hebrew, the field of 
blood ; a field said to have lain south of 
Jerusalem, and thus called, because pur¬ 
chased with the bribe which Judas took 
for betraving his Master. 

ACEPHALAN, orACEPHALA. A class of 
mollusca having no head, as the oyster, 
scallop, mussel, &c. Also, an order of 
insects. 

ACEPHALI, or ACEPHALITES. In 
ecclesiastical history, a name given to 
several sects who refused to follow 
some noted leader ; also, to churchmen 
who were under no bishop. In Eng¬ 
lish history, certain levellers in the 
reign of Henry I. who acknowledged no 
head or superior. In old law, men who 
held lands of no particular lords, that 
is, not in fee. 

ACETATES. A kind of salts formed 


ACT 8 

by the combination of acetic acid with a 
salifiable base, as the acetate of potash. 

ACETIC ACID. Radical vinegar, ai 
the strongest acid of vinegar. 

ACHROMATIC. Colourless, a term 
applied to telescopes which were first con 
trived by Dr. Bevis, to remedy the aberra¬ 
tions of colour. 

ACIDIFIABLE. An epithet signifying 
capable of being converted into an acid by 
an acidifying principle ; an acidifiable base 
or radical is any substance that is capable 
of uniting with such a quantity of oxygen 
as to become possessed of acid properties. 

ACIDS. Substances which are in taste 
sour, change blue vegetable colours to red, 
and combine with all the alkalis, and most 
of the metallic oxides and earths, so as to 
form the compounds called salts. Acids are 
disti nguished according to the proportion of 
oxygen which they contain, by the termina 
tions ic and ous, as nitric acid, and nitrous 
acid, sulphuric acid, and sulphurous acid, 
the former of which denotes the larger dose 
or portion of oxygen, and the latter the 
smaller ; when the syllable hypo is added 
to either of these, it denotes a degree below 
it in pointofo\idizement.,ashyposulphuric 
acid, an intermediate between the sulphur¬ 
ic and the sulphurous acid. 

ACONITE, Wolfsbane, or Monks¬ 
hood. A plant, the flower of which resem¬ 
bles the hood of a monk; it is a violent 
poison. 

ACOUSTICS. That branch of science 
which treats of the nature and modifica¬ 
tions of sound. 

ACQUITTAL. A deliverance or setting 
free from the suspicion of guilt, as where 
a person, on the verdict of a jury, is found 
not guilty. 

ACQUITTANCE. A written discharg* 
for a sum of money that has been paid. 

ACRE. A measure of land containin' 
four square roods, or 160 square poles of 
5 yards and a half, or 4840 square yards. 
The French acre is equal to one and a 
quarter of an English acre. 

ACROSTIC. A set of verses, the first 
letters of which compose some name, title, 
or motto. 

ACTION (in Physics). The pressure« 
percussion of one body against another 
By a law of nature, action and reaction 
are equal; that is, the resistance of tli6 
body moved is always equal to the fore* 
communicated to it. 

ACTION (in Rhetoric). The carriage 
and motion of the body, and the modula 
tion of the speaker’s voice in delivericf 
an address 



4 


AD J 


ADV 


ACTINIA. A genus of Acalephans or 
polypes, which, have a soft fleshy body, 
frequently ornamented with bright 
colors, and numerous tentacles or rays 
extending from their mouth, or centre, 
like the petals of a double flower; and 
hence they have the popular names of 
sea- me mo lies and animal-flowers. 

A!'.’iNOUTE. In mineralogy, ray- 
stone ; a bright green variety of horn¬ 
blende, occurring usually in glassy, 
prismatic crystals, and also fibrous.—• 
Actinoliteschist, a metamorphic rock, 
consisting chiefly of actinolite, with a 
mixture of mica, quartz, or felspar. 

ACTINOMETER. An instrument for 
measuring the intensity of the sun’s 
rays. 

ADANSONIA. The Ethiopian sour 
gourd, monkey’s bread, or African cala¬ 
bash-tree. It is considered to be the 
largest of trees. It seldom exceeds 18 
feet in height, but its circumference is 
often upwards of 75 feet. 

ADAPIS. An extinct pachydermatous 
animal, resembling a hedge-hog. 

ACUPUNCTURATION. A method of 
bleeding, in use among the Chinese and 
Japanese, by making punctures or pricks 
with a gold or silver needle in any part of 
the body. It is chiefly employed in head¬ 
aches, convulsions, lethargies, &x. 

A. D. Anno Domini, In the Vear of our 
Lord. 

ADAGIO. Softly, leisurely ; a term in 
music books, denoting the lowest time ex¬ 
cept the grave, as adagio, adagio.’ 

ADAMANT. The hardest sort of dia¬ 
mond. 

ADAMANTINE SPAR. A sort of earth 
brought from India and China, that is of 
iho hardness of adamant. 

ADDER. A small poisonous serpent 
with plaits on the belly, and scales under 
the tail ; it is not rare in Britain. 

ADDITION. The first of the four fun¬ 
damental rules in arithmetic, whereby sev¬ 
eral small sums are added or collected into 
one that is larger. 

ADHESION. The property of certain 
bodies to attact other bodies to themselves, 
3r the force by which they adhere to each 
other. Adhesion denotes a union to a cer¬ 
tain point between two distinct bodies; 
cohesion, the union of the parts of the same 
body so as to form one mass. 

AD INFINITUM. Indefinitely, or to 
Infinity. 

ADIPOCERE. A substance resembling 
spermaceti, which is formed from an ani¬ 
mal in its progress towards decomposition. 

ADIT. The shaft or entrance into a 
mine. 

ADJECTIVE. A part of speech in gram¬ 
mar, which is added to a noun to qualify 
Its signification, as bitter, sweet, &c. 


ADJUTANT. One \vho assists a supe 
rior officer in a regiment; the adjutant-gen¬ 
eral assists the general with his counse 
and personal service. Also a very large 
bird of the heron species, common in India 
and New Holland. 

AD LIBITUM. At pleasure 

ADMEASUREMENT ^in Law.) A writ 
against those who usurp more than their 
own share, as the Admeasurement of Pas¬ 
ture, or the Admeasurement of Dower. 

ADMINISTRATOR (in Law). The 
person to whom the estate and effects of 
an intestate are committed, for which lie 
is to be accountable when required. 

ADMINICULUM. In natural history, a 
term applied to the abdominal semi¬ 
circular row of teeth, which enables 
certain subterranean insects to force 
their way to the surface. 

ADMETUS. In Mythology, a King of 
Pherae, in Thessaly, and one of the Ar- 
gonants who was at the hunt of the 
Calydonian boar. 

ADNA. In malacology, a term applied 
to those cut-shaped shells found at¬ 
tached to stones on the sea-coast ; a 
genus of Balani or Barnacles. 

ADNASCENT. In botany, growing to 
or on. 

ADNATE. Growing close to a stem. 

ADMONITIO FUSTIUM. A punish¬ 
ment among the Romans, which consisted 
in beating the offender with vine branches. 

ADONAI. The name of Jehovah 

among the Jews. 

ADO'NIS. A beautiful youth, the fa¬ 
vourite of Venus, who was killed by a 
wild boar. 

ADOPTION. A practice among the 
Greeks and Romans, of making a person 
one’s heir, and investing him with all the 
rights and privileges of a son. 

ADORATION. A mode of reverence or 
worship anciently shown to tire gods by 
raising the right hand to the mouth, and 
gently applying it to the lips; also, in gen¬ 
eral, any outward sign of worship, by 
kissing the hand or feet, walking barefoot, 
and tiie like. 

AD VALOREM. According to the 
value. 

ADVANCE (in Qbmmerce). Money 
paid before goods are delivered, work 
done, or any consideration given. 

ADVANCED-GUARD, or Vau-giurd 
(in the Military Art). The first line <« 
division of an army ranged or marching 
in order of battle. 

ADVENT. The coming of our Saviour; 
also the festival commemorative of the 
Advent, which falls about a month before 
Christmas. 

ADVERB. A part of speech in gram 





AER 


«ar, added to a verb to comp/ete its sig¬ 
nification, as largely, neatly, &c. 

ADVERSARIA. A term among literary 
men for a common-place book, wnerein 
vhey enter whatever occurs to them in 
reading or conversation that is worthy of 
notice. 

ADVERTISEMENT. Any printed pub- 
. n ation of circumstances, either of public 
nr private interest, particularly that inser¬ 
ted in the newspapers. 

ADULT (in Civil Law). Any person be¬ 
tween the ages of fourteen and twenty- 
live. 

ADULTERATION. The debasing of 
the coin by the mixture of impure metals ; 
also the debasing and corrupting any arti¬ 
cle of trade by putting improper ingredients 
in it, as is done very frequently . 

ADYTUM. The inner and most sacred 
part of the ancient heathen temples. 
None but the priests were permitted to 
enter it, and from thence the oracles 
were delivered. The Jewish Holy of 
Holies was a similar part of the Temple 
of Jerusalem. 

ADVOWSON (in Law). A right of pre¬ 
sentation to a vacant church or benefice, 
lie who possesses this right is called the 
patron of the living. 

A2DILE. A Roman magistrate who had 
the charge of all public buildings, partic¬ 
ularly temples and theatres, also of all 
"streets, highways, &c. 

ASGIS. A shield, particularly Jupiter’s 
shield. 

A3NEID. The title of Virgil’s poem, in 
which he celebrates the adventures of 
iEneas. 

yEOLlAN HARP. A number of strings 
so disposed as to produce a set of musical 
tones by the action of the wind upon them. 

AlOLIC DIALECT. One of the five 
dialects of the Greek tongue. 

jEOLIPILE. A hollow metal ball with 
a slender pipe, used to show the converti¬ 
bility of water into steam 
/ERA, or ERA. Any date, period, or 
e> mt from which a calculation of years is 
made to commence. The principal $ras 
are the vulgar, or Christian sera, dated 
from the birth of our Saviour; the fera of 
the creation, dated by Usher and most 
chronologists 4004 years before the vulgar 
ffira ; the aera of the Olympiads, dated about 
776 years before the vulgar aera; the aera 
of the building of Rome, according to Var- 
ro, is 753 years before Christ; the aera of 
Nabonassar, so dated from Nabonassar 
the first king of Babylon, 747 years before 
Christ; the aera of the Hegira, or the Ma¬ 
hometan sera, dated from the hegira or 
Sight of Mahomet from Mecca, dated 
I * 


AER a 

about 622 years after Christ, or the vulgar 
tera. 

AEROLITES. Air stones, or meteoric 
stones falling from the atmosphere. These 
are semimetallic substances, the descent of 
which, though mentioned several times in 
history, has not been authenticated until 
these few years. The fact is, however, by 
recent and frequent observations now put 
beyond all doubt. Two showers of stone* 
are recorded by Livy and Julius Obsequens 
to have happened at Rome in the reign of 
Tullus Hostilius, and during the consulate 
of C. Martins and M. Torquatus ; a shovYer 
of iron, in Lucania, mentioned by Pliny, 
and a shower of mercury by Dion. Among 
the moderns, Carden speaks of about 12,000 
stones, one of 120 lbs. another of 60 lbs. that 
fell at Padua in Italy, in 1510; Gassendi, 
of a stone of 59 lbs. on Mount Vaiser in 
Provence; Musclienbrock of two large 
stones in Ireland ; St. Amand de Baudin 
and others of a great shower of stones in 
the environs of Agen, in 1790 ; the earl of 
Bristol of twelve stones at Sienna in Tus 
cany, in 1794; captain Topham of a stone 
of 56 lbs. at Wold Cottage in Yorkshire, 
in 1795; Dr. Southey of a stone of 10 lbs. 
in Portugal, in 1796; Philosophical Maga¬ 
zine, of a mass of iron 70 cubic feet, in 
America, in 1800; and M. Eourcroy of 
several stones from 10 lbs to 17 lbs. that fell 
near L’Aigle in Normandy, besides other 
instances equally well attested. The largei 
sort of these stones have been seen as lumi¬ 
nous bodies to move with great velocity, 
descending in an oblique direction, and 
frequently with a loud hissing noise, re¬ 
sembling that of a mortar shell when pro¬ 
jected from a piece or ordnance. About 
the year 1807, a luminous body of this 
kind passed over Connecticut, and explo¬ 
ded with a loud noise like thunder, and 
large masses of stones fell in Weston in 
that state, specimens of which are in the 
Cabinet of Yale College. Though differ 
ent from every other know® terrestrial sub 
stance, yet these stones perfectly resemble 
each other, having the same appearance 
of semimetallic matter, coated on the out¬ 
side with a thin black incrustation, and 
being in their chymical composition very 
similar. The stone which fell at L’Aigle 
in France, in 1803, was found to contain 
of silica 54 parts, oxyde cf iron 36, mag¬ 
nesia 9, oxyde of nickel 3, sulphur 2, lime 
I; their specific gravity is also nearly the 
same, being about 3 and a halfthat of com¬ 
mon water. 

AERONAUT. One who sails or floats 
in the air in a balloon. 

AEROSTATION. The modern art of 







AEROSTATION 


i 

wising bodies into and nLvigating the air, 
*y means of rarefied air collected within 
an envelope, commonly called a balloon 
(see Balloon). 

AEROSTATION, History of. This 
trt is founded on the principle that any 
body which is specifically lighter than the 
atmospheric air will be buoyed up by it 
and ascend ; a principle which had doubt¬ 
less long been known, although the appli¬ 
cation of it to any practical purpose is 
altogether a modern invention. It is true 
that we read of the attempt which was 
made by Daedalus and his son Icarus to 
pass through the air by means of artificial 
wings, in which the former is said to have 
succeeded, but this is commonly reckoned 
among the fables ofthe ancients. Dr.Black, 
in his lectures in 1767 and 1768, was the 
first who, after Mr. Cavendish’s discovery 
of the specific gravity of inflammable air, 
threw out the suggestion that if a bladder, 
sufficiently light and thin, were filled with 
air, it would form a mass lighter than the 
same bulk of atmospheric air, and rise in 
it. But want of leisure prevented him from 
trying the experiment, the honour of which 
uelonged to Mr. Cavallo, who communi¬ 
cated the result to the Royal Society, on 
the 20tli of June in that year. After having 
made several unsuccessful experiments 
with bladders and skins, he succeeded at 
length in making soap balls, which being 
inflated with inflammable air, by dipping 
the end of a small glass tube, connected 
with a bladder containing the air, into a 
thick solution of soap, and gently compres¬ 
sing the bladder, ascended rapidly. These 
were the first sort of inflammable air bal¬ 
loons that were made. But while philoso¬ 
phers in Britain were thus engaged in ex¬ 
periments on this subject, two brothers, in 
France, Stephen and John Montgolfier, pa¬ 
per manufacturers of Annonay, had made 
rapid advances towards carrying the pro¬ 
ject i nto execution. Thei r idea was to form 
an artificial cloud by enclosing smoke in a 
fine silk bag; and having applied burning 
paper to an aperture at the bottom, the 
air thus became rarefied, and the bag as¬ 
cended to the height of 70 feet. This ex¬ 
periment was made at Avignon, about the 
middle ofthe year 1782, and was followed 
by other experiments, all tending to prove 
the practicability of the scheme. An im¬ 
mense bag of linen, lined with paper, and 
containing upwards of23,000 cubic ft., was 
faund to have a power of lifting about 500 
pounds, including its own weight. Burning 
chopped straw and wool under the aperture 
ofthe machine caused it to swell and ascend 
hi the space of ten minutes to the height of 


6000 feet: when exhausted, it fell to ihi 
ground at the distance of some thousand 
feet from the place where it ascended. In 
an experiment tried before the Academy 
of Sciences, a large balloon was made tc 
lift eight persons from the ground, who 
would have been carried away had ths 
machine not been kept down with force 
On the repetition of the experiment before 
the king at Versailles, with a balloon near 
60 feet high and 43 in diameter, a sheep, 
a cock, and a duck, the first animals that 
ever ascended in a balloon, were carried 
up about 1440 feet, and after remaining in 
the air about eight minutes, came to tire 
ground in perfect safety, at the distance cf 
10,200 feet from the place of ascent. Em¬ 
boldened by this experiment, M. Pilatre 
de Rozier offered himself to be the first 
aerial adventurer. A new machine was 
accordingly prepared, with a gallery and 
grate, &c. to enable the person ascending 
to supply the fire with fuel, and thus keep 
up the machine as long as he pleased. On 
the 15tli of October, 1783, M. Pilatre took 
his seat in the gallery, and, the machine 
being inflated, he rose to the height of 84 
feet, and, after keeping it afloat about four 
minutes and a half, lie gently descended : 
he tl’Fn rose again to the height of 210 feet., 
ano .ne third time 262. In the descent, a 
gust of wind having blown the machine 
over some large trees, M. Pilatre extricated 
himself by throwing straw and wool on the 
fire, which raised him at once to a suffi¬ 
cient height, and in this manner he found 
himself able to ascend or descend to a cer¬ 
tain height at pleasure. Some time after, 
he ascended with M. Girond de Vilette to 
the height of 330 feet, hovering over Paris 
at least nine minutes, in sight of a 1 the 
inhabitants, and the machine keeping all 
the while a steady position. In 1783, he 
undertook a third aerial voyage with the 
Marquis d’Arlandes, and in the space of 
twenty-five minutes went about five miles 
In this voyage they met with several differ¬ 
ent currents of air, the effect of which was 
to give a very sensible shock to the machine 
They were also in danger of having the 
machine burnt altogether, if the fire had 
not been quickly extinguished by means of 
a sponge. After this period aerostatic ma¬ 
chines were elevated by inflammable air en 
closed, instead of fire, with which Messrs 
Roberts and Charles made the first experi¬ 
ment. In this case the bag was composed 
of lutestring, varnished over with a solu¬ 
tion of elastic gum, called caoutchouc, and 
was about 13 English feet in diameter 
After being filled with considerable diffi¬ 
culty, it .vas found to be 35 pounds light<x 



AEROSTATION. f 


Jinn an equal bulk of common air. With 
this they ascended, and in three quarters 
of an hour traversed fifteen miles. Their 
sudden descent was occasioned by a rup¬ 
ture which happened to the machine when 
it was at its greatest height. On a subse¬ 
quent day the same gentlemen made an 
ascent in a balloon filled with inflammable 
air. This machine was formed of gores of 
siIk, covered with a varnish of caoutchouc, 
of a spherical figure, and measuring 27 feet 
6 inches in diameter. A net was spread 
over the upper hemisphere, and fastened 
to a hoop which passed round the middle 
of the balloon. To this a sort of car was 
suspended, a few feet below the lower part 
of the balloon: and in order to prevent the 
bursting of the machine, a valve was placed 
in it, by opening of which some of the in¬ 
flammable air might be allowed to escape. 
In the car, which was of basket-work, and 
covered with linen, the two adventurers 
took their seats in the afternoon of the 1st 
of December, 1783. At the time the bal¬ 
loon rose the barometer was at 30°. 18'. 
and it continued rising until the barometer 
fell to 27°, from which they calculated that 
they had ascended 600 yards. By throw¬ 
ing out ballast occasionally they found it 
practicable to keep nearly the same dis¬ 
tance from the earth during the rest of their 
voyage, the mercury fluctuating between 
27° and 27° 65', and the thermometer be¬ 
tween 53° and 57° the whole time. They 
continued in the air an hour and three 
quarters, and alighted at the distance of 
27 miles from Paris, having suffered no 
inconvenience, nor experienced any of the 
contrary currents described by the marquis 
d’Arlandes. M. Roberts having alighted, 
and much of the inflammable gas still re¬ 
maining, M. Charles determined on taking 
another voyage. No sooner therefore was 
the balloon thus lightened of 130 pounds of 
its weight, than it arose with immense ve¬ 
locity, and in 20 minutes was 9000 feet 
above the earth, and out of sight of all ter¬ 
restrial objects. The globe, which had be¬ 
come flaccid, now began to swell, and 
when M. Charles drew the valve, to prevent 
the balloon from bursting, the inflammable 
gas, which was much warmer than the 
external air, for a time diffused a warmth 
around, but afterwards, a considerable 
change was observable in the temperature. 
His fingers were benumbed with cold, 
which also occasioned a pain in his right 
ear and jaw, but the beauty of the prospect 
compensated for these nconveniences. 
The sun, which had been set on his ascent, 
became again visible for a short time, in 
eonaequence of the height which he had 


reached. He saw for a few seconds vapour* 
rising from the valleys and rivers. The 
clouds seemed to rise tom the earth, and 
collect one upon the other; only their col¬ 
our was gray and obscure from the dimness 
of the light. By the light of the mo. u he 
perceived that the machine was turning 
round with him, and that there were con¬ 
trary currents which brought him hack 
again: he also observed with surprise, that 
the wind caused his banners to point up¬ 
wards, although he was neither rising nor 
descending, but moving horizontally. On 
aiightingin afieldabout three miles distant 
from the place where he set out, he calcu¬ 
lated that he had ascended, at this time 
not less than 10,500 feet. Hitherto all ex¬ 
periments of this kind had been unattended 
with any evil consequences, but an attempt 
which was made to put a small aerostatic 
machine with rarefied air under an inflam¬ 
mable air balloon, proved fatal to the adven¬ 
turers, M. Pilatre de Rozier and M. Ro- 
maine. Their inflammable air balloon was 
about 37 feet in diameter, and the power ol 
the rarefied air one was equivalent to about 
60 pounds They were not long in the air 
when the inflammable air balloon was seen 
to swell considerably, and the aeronauts 
were observed, by means of telescopes, to 
be very anxious to descend, and busied in 
pulling the valve and giving every possible 
facility of escape to the inflammable air, 
but, in spite of all their endeavours, the 
balloon took fire without any explosion 
and the unfortunate gentlemen were pre¬ 
cipitated to the earth at the height of about 
three quarters of a mile. M. Pilatre seem¬ 
ed to have been dead before he came to the 
ground ; but M. Romaine was found to be 
alive, although he expired immediately 
after. The ill success of this experiment, 
which had been made for the purpose ol 
diminishing the expense of inflating the 
machine with gas, did not interrupt the 
progress of aerostation. Aerial voyages 
continued to be made on the old scheme 
The first trial in England was made by 
Vincent Lunardi, an Italian, on th'e 15tli 
of September, 1784. His balloon, the di¬ 
ameter of which was 33 feet, was made of 
oiled silk, painted in alternate stripes of 
blue and red. From a net, which went 
over about two thirds of the balloon, de¬ 
scended 45 cords to a hoop hanging below 
it, and to which the gallery was attached. 
Instead of a valve, the aperture at the neck 
of the balloon, which was in the shape of 
a pear, served for admitting or letting out 
the inflammable air. The air for filling 
the balloon was produced from zinc, by 
means of diluted vitriolic acid M t 






P AFF 

-ficeiided from the Artillery Ground, at two 
j’clock, having with him a dog, a cut, and 

pigeon. He was obliged to throw out 
some of his ballast, in order to clear the 
houses, when he rose to a considerable 
height, proceeding first IN. VV. by W. and 
then nearly N. About half after three he 
descended very near the earth, and lauded 
the cat, which was half dead with the cold; 
he then reascended by throwing out some 
more of his ballast, and ten minutes past 
lour he alighted in a meadow near Ware, 
in Hertfordshire. His thermometer stood 
in the course of his voyage as low as 29°. 
and he observed that the drops of water 
collected round the balloon were frozen. 
The second aerial voyage in England was 
performed by Mr. Blanchard, on the IGth 
of October in the same year, in which he 
was accompanied by Mr. Shelden, profess¬ 
or of anatomy at the Royal Academy, the 
first Englishman that adventured in such 
an excursion. They ascended a few minutes 
past 12 o’clock, and after proceeding about 
14 miles beyond Chelsea, Mr. Blanchard 
landed Mr. Sheldon, reascended alone, and 
finally landed near Rumsey, in Hampshire, 
about 75 miles from London, which v/ n at 
the rate of about 20 miles an hour Mr. 
Blanchard ascended so high, that lis- feat a 
difficulty in breathing; and apigeon, which 
flew from the boat, laboured for some time 
to sustain itself, but was at length compel¬ 
led to return and rest on the boat. 

Aerial voyages now became frequent in 
England and elsewhere, and afforded no¬ 
thing worthy of notice before the ascent of 
M. Garnerin, in 1802, who undertook the 
singular and desperate experiment of de¬ 
scending by means of a parachute (See 
Parachute.) In this descent it was ob¬ 
served that the parachute, with the appen¬ 
dage of cords and the basket in which M. 
Garnerin had seated himself, vibrated like 
the pendulum of a clock, and at times the 
vibrations were so violent, that more than 
once the parachute and the basket seemed 
to be on the same level, or quite horizon¬ 
tal, which presented a terrific spectacle of 
danger to the spectator. They diminish¬ 
ed, however, as M. Garnerin approached 
the earth, and he was landed in safety, 
though strongly affected with the violent 
shocks that his frame had experienced. 
Various excursions have since been made 
by Mr. Sadler, Mr Green, and others. 

AETITES, or Eagi.e-stonf.. A stone so 
called, because it was originally found in 
eagles’ nests. It is a sort of ore of a kid- 
sey shape, imbedded in iron-shot clay. 

AFFECTUOSO. ' <«n affecting style : 


AGE 

a term in music books at the beginning of 
a movement. 

AGALLOCH, or AGALLOCHUM. Aloes- 
wood, the product of a tree growing in 
China, and some of the Indian Isles. 
There are three varieties, the calambac, 
the common lignum aloes, and the cal- 
ambour. The first of these is light and 
porous, and so filled with a fragrant 
resin, that it may be moulded by the 
fingers ; the second is denser and less 
resinous ; and tho third is the aloes- 
woocl used by cabinet-makers, &c. 

AGALMATOLITE. A soft stone, a sub¬ 
species of mica of various colors, which 
different mineralogists severally term 
soap-stone, lard-stone, steatite, talc 
grapliique, &c. It contains no magnesia, 
but otherwise has all the characters of 
talc. The best specimens are brought 
from China. It is used in that country 
in the manufacture of images. 

AG AMI. A remarkable bird, inhabit¬ 
ing the woods of Central America. It is 
of the size of a large fowl, has a short 
tail, and long legs, and runs with great 
speed. It is sometimes otherwise cal¬ 
led the gold-breast6d trumpeter. 

AGATE. A precious stone, first found in 
Sicily ; it is a mineral composed of various 
substances, as chalcedony, cornelian, jas¬ 
per, Szc .; also a stone of the agate kind 
engraven by art, which constitutes among 
antiquarians a species of gems. 

AGE. A certain period or limit of time, 
marked tor the convenience of chronology 
and history by some remarkable events 
Chronologers commonly reckon seven such 
ages, namely, 1. From the creation to the 
deluge. 2. From the deluge to the birtn of 
Abraham. 3. From the birth of Abraliain 
to the departure of the Israelites out of 
Egypt. 4. From the departure of the Is¬ 
raelites to the building of the temple by 
Solomon. 5. From the laying the founda¬ 
tion of the temple to the reign of Cyrus in 
Babylon. 6. From the reign of Cyrus to 
t“he coming of Christ. 7. Since the birth 
of our Saviour. Chronologers are generally 
agreed as to the dividing the time from the 
creation into seven ages, but they differ 
materially as to the time contained in these 
periods. The poets distinguished the period 
of the world into four ages ; namely, into 
the golden age, or the age of simplicity 
and happiness ; the silver age, which was 
inferiorto the golden age in enjoyments; in 
this age man began to till the ground for 
their sustenance. In the brazen age strifes 
and contentions began, which, in the iron, 
were carried to the utmost extent, and 
accompanied with every evil that afflicts 
mankind. It is most probable that this no¬ 
tion of the four ages was taken from tht 
history ol*the golden image, seen by Neb- 




AGR 


AGR 


8 


nchadnezzar in a dream, mentioned in 
Daniel, by which tlie first monarchy was 
denoted the golden one, the second silver, 
tlte third brazen, and the fourth iron. The 
Greeks, who derived their mythology from 
the Egyptians, doubtless gathered this idea 
from the same source, and wrought it into 
a fable by the ingenuity of their poets. 

AGE. A term in law for those special 
fimes which enable men and women to do 
that which they could not do before ; thus, 
in England, a man may take the oath of 
allegiance at twelve years of age, is at the 
age of discretion at fourteen to choose his 
guardian and contract a marriage, and is 
at full age at twenty-one. A woman at 
the age of nine is dowable, at twelve may 
confirm her consent to marriage, at four¬ 
teen may receive her land into her own 
hands, and at twenty-one may alienate 
tier lands and tenements. The laws in 
the United States, are similar. 

AGENT (in Law). A person empow¬ 
ered to act for another. 

AGENT (in Physics). Any thing having 
the power to act on another object, as cold 
or heat. 

AGGREGATE. An order of plants in 
the Linnaian system, having compound 
flowers with separate anthers. 

AGGREGATION (in Chemistry). The 
adhesion of parts of the same kind j as 
pieces of sulphur united by fusion form an 
aggregate. 

AGIO. A term used chiefly in Holland 
and Venice, to denote the difference be¬ 
tween the bank money and the current 
money, or cash; as when a merchant stipu¬ 
lates to receive for his goods 100 livres 
bank money or 105 cash, or current money, 
the agio is said to be 5 per cent. 

AGRICULTURE. The art of tilling the 
land according to certain rules of experi¬ 
ence and science. 

AGRICULTURE, Historv of. As the 
ground was, by divine appointment, to fur¬ 
nish subsistence for man, and after his fall 
he was doomed to procure it by labour, 
husbandry, or the practical part of agricul¬ 
ture, was of necessity the first and most 
important occupation of the descendants of 
Adam; wherefore we learn from Scripture, 
that his two sons, Abel and Cain, were 
both employe 1 In this manner, the former 
being a keepei of sheep, and the latter a til¬ 
ler of the ground. With what implements 
this work of tillage was carried on, and 
what degree of art was employed in produ¬ 
cing the fruits of the earth, is left to con¬ 
jecture ; but writers on those early periods 
are generally agreed that the antediluvians 
wrre in possession of many arts and inven¬ 


tions which were in process of time lost, 
or at least but imperfectly retained among 
the different nations that were scattered 
abroad after the confusion of tongues 
Agriculture was one of the a -ts which Noah 
and his posterity retained; for we find that 
he cultivated the vine. Those of the line 
of Shem appear to have followed the breed¬ 
ing and feeding of cattle: but those of the 
line of Ham, who took possession of Egypt, 
applied themselves to the tilling of the 
ground, and with so much ingenuity, in¬ 
dustry, and success, that, owing to the in¬ 
undations of the Nile, and the consequent 
fertility of the soil, Egypt was enabled in 
the time of Abraham, and still more so in 
the time of Joseph, to supply its neighbours 
with corn during a period of famine. Nor 
were the inhabitants backward in assisting 
the liberality of nature: they busied them¬ 
selves in embanking, irrigation, and drain¬ 
ing, in order to derive all the benefits which 
the benignant river was capable of afford¬ 
ing them. These works are said to have 
been carried on with particular spirit under 
the auspices of Sesostris, 1800 years before 
the Christian sera. So sensible were the 
Egyptians of the blessings which agricul¬ 
ture afforded, that, in the blindness of their 
zeal, they ascribed the invention of the art 
to their god Osiris, and the culture of bar¬ 
ley and wheat to their goddess Isis. 

The Pelasgi, or aboriginal inhabitants of 
Greece, were among the number of those 
who lost all the primeval arts, and fed upon 
acorns and wild fruits, until they were led 
by the Egyptians, with whom they had an 
early communication, to the cultivation of 
the ground. Like them, too, they placed 
their benefactress Ceres, to whom they 
ascribed the introduction of corn, among 
the number of their deities; a goddess whom 
authors agree was no other than the Egyp¬ 
tian Isis. In the time of Homer, agricul¬ 
ture was in such esteem that King Laertes 
laid aside his royal dignity, that he might 
cultivate a few fields. Hesiod, the contem¬ 
porary of this author, has devoted a whole 
poem to the labours of the field in the dif¬ 
ferent seasons of the year. Of other writ¬ 
ings, among the Greeks, on agriculture lit¬ 
tle remains except a treatise by Xenophon 
on rural afhtfrs, and scattered notices on 
the subject in the works of Aristotle and 
Theophrastus; but we learn from Varro, 
that there were in his time not less than 
fifty Greek authors to be consulted on 
agricultural matter. 

The Jews, aa Scripture informs us, ay- 
plied themselves when they came into the 
land of Canaan, to the cultivation of the 
soil, having each their territory allotted te 



AGRICULTURE. 


A 

*»hem. We may also infer, from the fre¬ 
quent allusions to this subject in different 
parts of the Old Testament, that husbandry 
formed their principal occupation. The 
laws of Moses have, many of them, for 
their object the regulation of their docks, 
their herds, and their fields. David culti¬ 
vated his own land, having officers to take 
charge of his flocks, his herds, his camels, 
his asses, and his warehouses of wine and 
oil, &c. Elisha was in the field with 
twelve yoke of oxen when Elijah found 
him. Besides the frequent mention of 
husbandry business in different parts of 
the sacred writings, as the digging of 
wells, the planting of vineyards, the leas¬ 
ing, gathering in, threshing, sifling, and 
winnowing of corn, with a number of 
other things of the like kind. 

That the Carthaginians did not neglect 
agriculture is evident from this, that they 
had writers on the subject, of whom a fa¬ 
mous general, Mago, was one, who is quo¬ 
ted by Varro. He wrote no less than twen¬ 
ty-eight books. It is probable that, under 
the auspices of these people, agriculture 
flourished in Sicily, which was afterwards 
the granary of Rome. 

No subject engaged the attention of the 
Romans more than agriculture, theoretical¬ 
ly as well as practically. They divided their 
time between war and husbandry; their 
greatest men in the early ages of the re¬ 
public, being employed alternately in the 
one and the other. Cincinnatus was taken 
from the plough to fill the office of dictator; 
and Regulus besought the senate that he 
might return to his little farm for a short 
time, to prevent it from being ruined. Pliny 
observes, that the Romans ploughed their 
fields with the same diligence that they 
pitched their tents, and sowed their corn 
with as much care as they raised their 
annies. When riches had introduced lux¬ 
ury, and artificial manners and habits, the 
labours of the field were performed by their 
slaves; but there remained many among 
them of the higher orders who directed 
their personal attention to the subject. The 
writings of Cato the Censor, Varro, Pliny, 
Columella, and Palladius, as well as those 
of the poet Virgil, abound with practical 
and useful observations on the whole round 
of farming business. At the same time they 
ill agree in lamenting that agriculture was 
lot pursued with the same zeal as formerly. 
The great among the Romans had town 
louses as well as villas, and living more in 
the former than in the latter, the manage¬ 
rial! of tneir farms was left to their bailiffs 
•r servants. The ox, which was the prin- 
alpal beast of burden among the Egyptians, 


the Jews, and Grecians, was also high!} 
esteemed among the Romans. Many direo 
tions for the breeding, breaking, feeding, 
and working this animal are to be found 
in the writers abovementioned ; as also in 
regard to the management of bees, which 
were highly prized. As to the implements 
of husbandry used among the Romans, the 
description of them not being illustrated by 
any representation, it is not easy to speak 
precisely of them; but it is clear that they 
used the plough with and without wheels, 
with and without boards, with and without 
coulters, also with shares of different con¬ 
structions. A reaping machine is likewise 
spoken of both by Pliny and Palladius. 
which was driven by an ox; but for the 
most part they cut their corn with the hand, 
either with the hook close to the ground, 
or only the ears with a curved stick and a 
saw attached to it, or otherwise they cui 
the stalks in the middle, leaving the stubble 
to be afterwards mowed. They threshed 
either with a machine composed of rollers, 
or with rods or flails, or they trod it out 
with their feet. Haymaking was performed 
among the Romans much in the same man¬ 
ner as at present. Harrowing the corn was 
particularly recommended by the Roman 
writers; who also speak of hoeing, weed¬ 
ing, watering, draining, and fallowing the 
ground, which was universal among them 
Agriculture shared the fate of all the other 
arts on the decline of the empire: from the 
time of Pliny to the fifteenth century, there 
is no work extant on the subject, except 
the Geoponics, which was published by 
Constantine Pogonatus, and probably col¬ 
lected by the emperor himself. Crescenzio., 
a writer of Bologna, was the first who called 
the attention of his countrymen to this sub 
ject after this long interval. His little work, 
which was collected from the Roman wri¬ 
ters, was followed by some other Italian 
productions: but probably nothing contri¬ 
buted more to give an importance to agri¬ 
cultural pursuits than the introduction of 
the feudal system, which gave to every 
man a rank and distinction according to the 
quantity of land he either possessed or oc¬ 
cupied; for not only the great lord, who was 
the owner of the sal, or reaped the fruits 
of it, but also his tenants, who cultivated 
it, were invested with political privileges 
that were enjoyed by no other members of 
the community; and although the feudal 
burdens and restraints have ceased, yet the 
privileges and advantages attached to the 
possession of landed property still give it 
a paramount advantage. Hence it is, that 
since the revival of the arts, the science of 
agriculture has been zealous!) cultivated 




AIR 


rvy the higher orders. The writers likewise 
an this subject iiave within the last centu 
ry been more numerous than at any former 
period ; and every effort has been made 
oy experiments, inventions, and improve¬ 
ments to render the land productive. Nor 
Iiave these efforts been without effect, for, 
notwithstanding the immense increase in 
the population, there has been no such 
scarcity as we read of in former times. 

AGUE. An intermitting fever, with hot 
and cold fits alternately, 

AGOUTI. A South American animal, 
resembling a guineapig, having the charac¬ 
ters of the rat kind, and the hair and voice 
of the hog. When provoked, it raises all 
the hair of its back upright, and strikes the 
earth with its hinder feet 



AGUAPECACA. The Jacana, a Brazil¬ 
ian bird about the size of a pigeon. 

AGRYPNOCOMA. The three-toed 
sloth ; so named from its peculiar cry. 

AIA. Brazilian bird of the Spoon¬ 
bill kind. 

AICURUS. A large and beautiful 
species of parrot, found in Brazil. 

AILURUS. The panda, a carnivorous 
quadruped inhabiting the north of In¬ 
dia ; it is allied to the racoon, about the 
size of a large cat, and has a soft, thick 
fur, of a brilliant fulvous red, on the 
upper parts. 

AIR. An invisible, transparent fluid, 
which we constantly breathe, and which 
is essential to the support of animal 
and vegetable existence. It envelops 
the entire globe, and constitutes the 
atmosphere that surrounds it. Air is 
816 times lighter than its bulk of water; 
1,000 cubic inches at the ordinary tem¬ 
perature and pressure weighing 305 
grains. It consists of about 80 parts, in 
bulk, of nitrogen, and 20 parts of oxy¬ 
gen, and about' one-thousandth part of 
carbonic acid. Air, when inhaled into 
the lungs, unites with the carbon of 
the blood, and forms carbonic acid, a 
process which produces the heat neces¬ 
sary to sustain the proper temperature 
of the animal system.—In zoology, Air- 
cells are membraneous receptacles com¬ 
municating with the lungs, and in 
birds extending through the different 
parts of the body, by which their spe¬ 
cific gravity is diminished, and they are 


ALA 11 

rendered fitter for sustenation in the 
air.—In botany, air-cells are cavities in 
the leaves and stems of certain algse, 
which render them buoyant in water.— 
Air-plants are orchideous plants which 
live for many months suspended in the 
air.—Air-vessels are spiral vessels or 
ducts in plants containing air, and sup¬ 
posed to answer the same purpose in 
the vegetable system as lungs do in the 
animal. 

AIR-PUMP. A machine for exhausting 
the air out of vessels, in the same manner 
as water is drawn up by a pump. This 
celebrated machine was invented by Otto 
de Guericke, consul of Magdeburgh, who 
exhibited his first public experiments with 
this instrument before the Emperor and 
States of Germany, at the breaking up of 
the Imperial Diet at Ratisbon, in the year 
1654; but his description of the machin* 
was first published in 1672, at Amsterdam, 
under the title of Experimenta nova Mag 
deburgica de Vacuo Spatio. Before this 
publication, it appears that Mr. Boyle, who 
had particularly directed his attention to 
the study of pneumatics, a’so conceived a 
similar idea, which led Mr. Hooke to as¬ 
cribe the invention to him ; but Mr. Boyle 
himself, in a letter to his nephew, Lord 
Dungarvon, expresses his acknowledgment 
for the discovery of this useful machine 
from what he had heard reported of it, al¬ 
though, as he adds, he had not, at that time, 
perused the account of it. On his becoming 
acquainted with the machine, he made 
many improvements upon it; as did after¬ 
wards Mr. Hooke and many others. 



AIR-SHAFTS (in Mining). Holes or 
shafts let down from the open air to dis¬ 
charge the foul vapours. 

AIR-VESSELS. Spiral ducts or canals 
in the leaves and other parts of plants, 
which are supposed to supply them with 
air, after the manner of lungs in animals. 

ALABASTER. A soft kind of marble 
which is of a granular texture, and of a 
white colour, and has a certain degree of 
transparency, ft is found in Germany 
































1% ALO 

France, and Italy, and is used by sculptors 

for statues. 

ALBATROSS, or Man of War Bird. 
A large water fowl, which inhabits most 
seas between the tropics. 

ALBINOS. The white Moors, so called 
by the Portuguese ; they have flaxen hair, 
blue rolling eyes, and a pale livid white¬ 
ness. 

ALBUMEN. The white of an egg, and 
Any viscous fluid without taste or smell that 
is like it, as the serous part of the blood. 

ALBURNUM. The soft white substance 
n trees next to the liber, or Miner bark. 

ALCHEMT That obsolete branch of 
enymistry which hsasJ for its object the 
transmutation of metals into gold; the 
finding the panacea, or universal remedy; 
encl some other things equally ridiculous. 

ALCOHOL. Commonly called spirit of 
wine, but obtained by distillation in a state 
more ardent and purified than that liquor. 
It is chiefly employed in preparing var¬ 
nishes, and dissolving gums, resins, &c. 
Its antiseptic power makes it useful in pre¬ 
serving anatomical preparations. 

ALCOR. A small star, adjoining the 
hright one in the middle of the tail of Ursa 
Major. 

ALCORAN. See Koran. 

ALDEBARAN, or The Bull’s Eye. 
A star of the first magnitude in the con¬ 
stellation Taurus. 

ALDER. A tree which thrives partic¬ 
ularly in moist places. The principal sorts 
of alder are the round leaved, or common 
alder, the long-leaved, and the dwarf alder. 

ALDERMAN. A superior judge, who 
in England sat with the bishop in the coun¬ 
ty courts in the time of the Saxons. The 
alderman is now a magistrate next to the 
mayor in a city or borough. 

A-LEE. A sea term, signifying to the 
leeside, or side which the wind blows 
upon. 

ALEMBIC’. A vessel formerly used for 
distilling; in the place of which retorts are 
now mostly in use. 

ALEXANDRINE. A verse in modern 
poetry consisting of ten, twelve, or thirteen 
syllables. 

ALGjE. A natural order of plants in the 
Llnnean system, containing flags, sea¬ 
weeds, and other marine plants, whose 
root, leaf, and stem are one. 

ALGEBRA. The science of computing 
abstract quantities by means of symbols or 
signs. It is called Specious Arithmetic by 
Vieta, and Universal Arithmetic by New¬ 
ton. The first letters of the alphabet, a, b, 
it, i, Ace. are made to represent known 
quantities j and the last letters z, y, x, to 


ALG 

represent those that are unknown. The 
operations with these letters are performed 
by means of the clraracters (-f-) for addi 
tion, (—) for subtraction, ()k() tor multipli 
cation, (_j_) for division, (=; for equality 
ALGEBRA, History jf. The term 
algebra is of Arabic original, and is deri¬ 
ved by some from algeabar almocabaleh, 
signifying restitution and comparison, oi 
resolution, which properly expresses the 
nature of the thing: others have derived 
it from Geber, a celebrated mathematician 
This science is not of very ancient date, 
although it is not possible to fix the exact 
period of its commencement. The earliest 
treatise on this subject now extant is that 
of Diophantus, a Greek author of Alexan 
dria, who flourished about the year 350, 
and wrote thirteen books of Arithmetico- 
rum, of which six only are preserved. 
These books do not contain the elementary 
parts of algebra, only some difficult pro¬ 
blems respecting square and cube numbers, 
and the properties of numbers in general, 
to which the writings of the more ancient 
authors, as Euclid, Archimedes, and Apol¬ 
lonius might naturally be supposed to have 
given birth. Whether the Arabians took 
their hints from this and similar works 
among the Greeks, and drew out the sci¬ 
ence of algebra for themselves, or whether 
they more immediately derived it, as they 
dirt their notation, from the Hondoos, is a 
matter of doubt. It is certain, however, 
that the science was first transmitted by 
the Arabians or Saracens to Europe, about 
the year 1100; and that after its introduc¬ 
tion the Italians took the lead in its culti¬ 
vation. Lucas Paciolus, or Lucas de Burgo, 
was one of the first who wrote on the sub¬ 
ject, and has left several treatises, published 
between the years 1470 and 1509. In his 
principal work, entitled Summa Arithme¬ 
tic® et Geometri® Proportionumque Pro- 
portionalitatum, published first in 1494, he 
mentions several writers, and particularly 
Leonardus Pisanus, otherwise called Bo- 
nacci, an Italian merchant, who, in the 
thirteenth century, used to trade to the sea¬ 
ports, and thence introduced the science of 
algebra into Italy. After Lucas de Burge, 
many other Italian writers took up tb« 
subject, and treated it more at large, as 
Scipio Ferreus, who found out a rule for 
resolving one case of a compound cubic 
equation ; but more especially Hieronymus 
Cardan, who, in ten books published in 
1539-45, has given the whole doctrine of 
cubic equations ; for part of which, howev¬ 
er, he was indebted to Nicholas Taitalev, 
or Tartaglea, of Brescia, a contemporarr 
of Cardan’s who publish© 1 a book on (tubfr 





ALGEBRA. 


If 


equations, entitled Cluesite Invenzioni di¬ 
verse, which appeared in 159G. Cardan 
often used the literal notation of a, b, c, d, 
fee., but Tartalea made no alteration in the 
forms of expression used by Lucas de Bur- 
go, calling the first power of the unknown 
quantity in his language cosa, the second 
censa, the third cubo, fee. writing the 
names of all the operations in words at 
ength, without using any contractions, 
sxcept the initial R, for root, or radical¬ 
ly. About this time the science of alge¬ 
bra also attracted the attention of the Ger¬ 
mans, among whom we find the writers 
Stifelius and Scheubelius. Stifelius, in 
his Arithmetica Integra, published at Nu¬ 
remberg in 1544, introduced the characters 
-j-, —, and / y/, for plus, minus, and radix, 
/r root, as he called it; also the initials , 
Vp , for the power 1, 2, 3, fee., and the 
numeral exponents 0, 1, 2, 3, fee. which 
he called by the name of exponens expo¬ 
nent. He likewise uses the literal no¬ 
tation, A, B, C, D, &c for the unknown 
or general quantities. John Scheubelius, 
who wrote about the same time as Car¬ 
dan and Stifelius, treats largely on surds, 
and gives a general rule for extracting 
the root of any binomial or residual, 
aztb, where one or both parts are surds. 
These writers were succeeded by Robert 
Recorde, a mathematician and physician 
of Wales, who in his works, in 1552 and 
1557, on Arithmetic, showed that the sci¬ 
ence of algebra had not been overlooked 
in England. He first gave rules for the 
extracting of the roots of compound alge¬ 
braic quantities, and made use of the terms 
binomial and residual, and introduced the 
sign of equality, or^:. Peletarius, a French 
algebraist, in his work, which appeared at 
Baris in 1558, made many improvements 
on those parts of algebra which had already 
been treated of. He was followed by Peter 
Ramus, who published his Arithmetic and 
Algebra in 1560 ; Raphael Bombelli, whose 
\lgebra appeared at Bologna in 1579 j and 
union Steven, of Bruges, who published 
<iis Arithmetic in 1585, and his Algebra a 
little after. This latter invented a new cha¬ 
racter for the unknown quantity, namely, a 
^mall circle (q )? within which he placed 
die numeral exponent of the power; and 
also denoted roots, as well as powers, by 
numeral exponents. The algebraical works 
of Vieta, the next most distinguisnrd alge¬ 
braist, appeared about the year 1600, and 
contain many improvements in the methods 
of working algebraical questions. He uses 
the vowels A, E, I, O, Y, in* the un¬ 
known quantities, and the rouBunants, B, 
31, Z>, fee*, for the knowr «u 3 ^szu©»; and 


introduced many terms which are in pre¬ 
sent use, as coefficient, affirmative and 
negative, pure and adfected, fee.: also the 
line, or vinculum, over compound quanti 
ties (a+b). Albert Girard, an ingenious 
Flemish mathematician, was the first per¬ 
son who, in his Invention Nouvelle en 
l’Algebre, fee. printed in 1629, explained 
the general doctrine of the formation of 
the coefficients of the powers from the 
sums of their roots, and their products. 
He also first understood the use of negativa 
roots, in the solution of geometrical pro¬ 
blems, and first spoke of imaginary roots, 
fee. The celebrated Thomas Harriot, whose 
work on this subject appeared in 1631, in 
troduced the uniform use of the letters a, 
b, c, fee.; that is the vowels a, e, and 0 
for the unknown quantities, and the con¬ 
sonants, b , c, d, fee. for the known quan¬ 
tities ; these he joins together like the 
letters of a word, to represent the multipli¬ 
cation or product of any number of these 
literal quantities, and prefixing the numeral 
coefficient, as is usual at present, except 
being separated by a point, thus 5.bbc 
For a root he sets the index of the root 
after the mark , as^/3 for the cube root, 
ami introduces the characters and 
for greater and less; and in the reduction 
of equations he arranged the operations in 
separate steps or lines, setting the expla 
nations in the margin, on the left hand, 
for each line. In this manner he brought 
algebra nearly to the form which it now 
bears, and added also much information 
on the subject of equations. Oughtred, in 
his Clavis, which was first published in 
1631, set down the decimals without their 
denominator, separating them thus 2J(56 
In algebraic multiplications he either joins 
the letters which represent the factors, or 
connects them with the sign of multiplica¬ 
tion -j-, which is the first introduction of 
this character. He also seems to have first 
used points to denote proportion, as 7.9 :: 
28.36; ami for continued proportion has 
the mark ' n his w@r ^ we likewise 

meet with the first instance of applying 
algebra to geometry, so as to investigate 
new geometrical properties: which latter 
subject is treated at large by Descartes, in 
his work on Geometry, published in 1637- 
and also by several other subsequent wri¬ 
ters. Wallis, in his Arithmetica infinite 
rum, first led the way to infinite series, 
particularly to the expression of the qua¬ 
drature of the circle by an infinite series. 
He also substituted the fractional exponent! 
in the place of radical signs, which in many 
instances facilitate the operations. Huy 
gens, fberaw, and other mathematician* 




14 


ALL 


ALL 


employed the algebraical calculus in resol¬ 
ving many problems which had hitherto 
baffled mathematicians. Sir Isaac New¬ 
ton, in his Arithmetica Universalis, made 
many improvements in analytics, which 
subject, as well as the theory of infinite se¬ 
ries, was further developed by Halley, Ber¬ 
noulli, Taylor, Maclaurin, Nicole, Stirling, 
De Moivre, Clairaut, Lambert, Waring, 
Euler, &c. 

ALGOL. A fixed star of the second 
magnitude in the constellation of Perseus, 
ssr Medusa’s Head. 

ALGORITHM. An Arabic word, fre- 
qrtenily used to denote the practical rules 
of algebra. 

ALIAS (in Law). A word signifying, 
iiteraily, otherwise; and employed in de¬ 
scribing the defendant, who has assumed 
other names besides his real one. 

ALIBI (in Law). A term signifying, 
literally, elsewhere; and used by the de¬ 
fendant in a criminal prosecution, when 
he wishes to prove his innocence, by show¬ 
ing that he was in another place, or else¬ 
where, when the act was committed. 

ALICONDA-. An Ethiopian tree; from 
the bark of which flax is spun. 

ALTEN (in Law). One born in a foreign 
country. An alien is incapable of inheriting 
lands until he is naturalized by an act of 
the legislature. He has likewise no right 
to vote at elections, or to enjoy any office, 
nor to be returned on any jury, unless where 
an alien is to be tried. 

ALIMONY (in the Civil Law). The 
allowance made to a married woman upon 
ner separation from her husband. 

ALIQUANT PARTS. Such numbers in 
arithmetic as will not divide or measure a 
whole number exactly, as 7, which is the 
aliquant part of 16. 

ALIQUOT PARTS. Such part of a 
number as will divide or measure a whole 
number exactly, as 2 the aliquot part of 4, 
3 of 9, and 4 of 16. 

ALKALI or ALCALI. A perfectly pure 
salt, which combines with acids so as to 
neutralize or impair their activity, and 
produces salts. Besides, alkalies change 
the purple colour of many vegetables to a 
green, the reds to a purple, and the yellows 
to a brown. Some al kal ies are cal led fi xed, 
because they remain fixed in the fire, as 
potash and soda; others are volatile, as 
ammonia. 

ALLAH. The Arabian name of God. 

ALLEGIANCE (in Law). The faithful 
obedience which every subject owes to bis 
prince ; the oath of allegiance is that which 
every person is required to take before he 
«nters on any office. 


ALLEGORY. A series or chain of 
taphors continued through a whole dis 
course; thus the prophets represent the 
Jews under the allegory of a vine, planted, 
cultivated, and watered by the hand of God. 

ALLEGRO. An Italian word used in 
music, to denote that the part is to be play¬ 
ed in a brisk and sprightly manner. 

ALLIGATION. A rule in arithmetic, 
teaching how to compound several ingre¬ 
dients for any design proposed. It is either 
medial or alternate. Alligation medial is 
the method of finding the rate or quality of 
the composition from having the rates or 
qualities of the several ingredients, as to 
find the value of brandy per gallon, which 
is composed of 10 gallons at 24s. per gal¬ 
lon, 12 at 30s. per gallon, &c. Alligation 
alternate is the method of finding the quan¬ 
tities of ingredients necessary to form a 
compound of a given rate, as to find how 
gold of various degrees of fineness, that is 
of 19, 21, and 23 carats fine, &c. may be 
mixed together so that the mixture may 
be 20 carats fine. Questions of this kind 
are better solved by algebra. 

ALLIGATOR. An amphibious animal, 
abounding in both No *h and South Amer¬ 
ica in the torrid zone, and sometimes 
grows to the length of 18 or 20 feet. The 
Alligator is found in the lower parts of 
the Mississippi, but it is more common 
in the large rivers of South America. 
It is called Cayman by the Indians. 
It resembles the Crocodile of Africa and 
Asia, but it never grows as large, and is 
beside, different in formation, and in ft* 
habits. 



ALLITERATION. A repeating or play 
ing upon the same letter in a succession of 
words. 

ALLODIAL. An epithet for lands held 
without any acknowledgment to a lord or 
superior, in opposition to feudal land*?. 
Allodial lands are exempt from rent oi 
services. 

ALLOY, or ALLAY. A proportion of 
any baser metal mixed with one that U 
finer, thus the gold coin has an alloy of 
silver and copper, as silver has of eoppsi 











A LM 


ALT 


n 


alon®: the proportion in the former case 
for standard gold is 2 carats of alloy in 
a pound weight, or 22 carats fine; in the 
latter case, for the silver, there are 18 dwts. 
of alloy in 11 oz. 2 dwts. fine. 

ALL SAINTS. A festival observed by 
some Christians on the first day of Novem¬ 
ber, in commemoration of all the saints. 

ALLSPICE, or the Pimento Thee. A 
beautiful tree of Mexico and the West In¬ 
dies, the fruit of which is highly aromatic. 
The tree is about 30 feet in height, and 2 
in circumference 



ALLUVION. A gradual increase of land 
washed to the shore by inundations. Al¬ 
luvial formations are also to be found in 
valleys and plains, by the deposit of gravel, 
loam, clay, or other earths washed down 
from the mountains. 

A LMAG Ei8T. The name of a celebrated 
book on astronomy, composed by Ptolemy. 

ALMA MATER. The name given to the 
universities of Oxford and Cambridge, En¬ 
gland, by their several members who have 
passed their degrees in each of these uni¬ 
versities. The same is done by the Am¬ 
erican Colleges. 

ALMANAC. A calendar or table con¬ 
taining a list of the months and days, with 
an account of the rising and setting of the 
sun and moon, and other incidental mat¬ 
ters. The English Nautical Almanac, or 
Astronomical Ephemeris, is a kind of na¬ 
tional almanac, begun in 1767, under the 
direction and by the advice of the astrono¬ 
mer royal, the late Rev. Dr. Maskelyne. 
Besides most things essential to general 
use, which are found in other almanacs, it 
contains many new and important matters, 
pirticularly the distance of the moon from 
lie sun and fixed stars, computed to the 


meridian of Greenwich, for every three 
hours of time, for the purpose of computing 
the longitude at sea. This almanac is 
generally computed a few years forward, 
for the convenience of ships going out upon 
long voyages. A similar work is published 
in the United States. The American A! 
manac, first published at Boston in 1830, 
embraces a great mass of statistical know¬ 
ledge, beside that usually given in an alma¬ 
nac. 

ALMOND. The fruit ofthe almond tree, 
which is a nut, and is either sweet or bit¬ 
ter. 

ALMOND TREE. A tall tree, resem¬ 
bling the peach tree, whicn flourishes in 
Asia and the southern parts of Eu* ^pe. It 
is one of the first trees that bloom in Spring. 

ALMONER. Ir. Englanc an ecclesiasti 
cal officer ol the king, appointed todistrib 
ute the King’s aims to the poor every day 

ALOE. A tree ivhich originally came 
from India, is remarkable for a bitter juice, 
called aloe?, which is extracted from its 
leaves, arid is very useful in medicine. 
The aloe soccotrina is a European species 
much cultivated in Spain. 

ALPHA. The first letter in the Greek 
alphabet, which with ’he second letter, be¬ 
ta, forms tne word alpharet. 

ALPHABET. A Serbs of the several 
letters in a language, »vh ch vary in num 
her in different languages The Hebrew 
contains 22 lette.-s, as also the Chaldee, 
Samaritan, Syriac, Persian, AEtbiopic, Sa¬ 
racen, &c .; but the Irish, which is the same 
as the Pelasgian, or Scythian, still retains 
only 17; the Greek alphabet, which was 
brought by Cadmus into Greece from Phoe¬ 
nicia, and was also Pelasgian in its origin¬ 
al, consisted of 16 or 17, to which were af¬ 
terwards added 7 or 8 more, to make up 24. 
The ancient Arabic alphabet consisted of 
24, to which 4 more letters have since been 
added j the Coptic alphabet consists of 32, 
the Turkish of 33, the Georgian of 36, the 
Russian of 39, the Spanish of 27, the Ital¬ 
ian of 20, the Latin of 22, the French of 23, 
and the English of 26. See more on this 
subject under the head of Writing The 
Chinese have no proper alphabet, unless 
we reckon as such their keys to classes of 
words, distinguished by the number of 
strokes combined in each, of which they 
iiave 214 in number. As to the written 
characters of these alphabets, see Writing 

ALT. That part of the great scale of 
sounds lying between F above the treble 
clifl’note, and G in altissimo. 

ALTAR. A table or raised place on which 
any offering was made to the Almighty 
The first altar mentioned is that built by 






1 € 


alT 


AM A 


Noah after the flood. The two principal 
titan of the Jews were the altar of burnt 



>r' i 5 . t '* the altar of incense 



ALTERNATION A rule in arithmetic 
showing the different ways in which any 
number of quantities ma.. be changed or 

combined. 

ALTIMETRY. The art of measuring 
altitudes or heights. 

ALTITUDE. The height of an object, 
or its elevation above that plane to which 
the base is referred; thus in mathematics 
the altitude of a figure is the perpendicular 
or nearest distance of its vertex from the 
base. The altitude of an object is the ele¬ 
vation of an object above the plane of the 
horizon, or a perpendicular let fall to that 
plane, as a perpendicular let fall from a 
tower. 

Altitudes are either accessible or inacces¬ 
sible. An accessible altitude of an object 
is that whose base we can have access to, 
so as to measure the distance between it 
and the station from which the measure is 
to be taken. 

Inaccessible altitude is when the base of 
the object cannot be approached. Inacces 
riWe altitudes may be measured either by 


geometry, trigonometry, optical refleeiioa 
or by the barometer. The altitudes of 
mountains may be determined best by the 
barometer, for as the weight of the atmos¬ 
phere diminishes as we rise, the fall of the 
barometer determines cite, ele vation of any 
place. The altitude of the pyramids in 
Egy pt was measured in the time of Thales, 
by means of their shadow and a pole set 
upright beside them, making the altitudes 
of the pole and pyramid to be proportional 
to the length of their shadows. The in¬ 
struments now commonly used in measur¬ 
ing altitudes are the geometrical square, 
the quadrant, and theodolite. 

ALTITUDE (iu Optics). The height of 
an object above a line drawn parallel to 
the horizon from the eye of the observer. 

ALTITUDE OF THE EYE (in Per. 
spective). The perpendicular height ofthe 
eye above the geometrical plane. 

ALTITUDE OF A STAR, &c. (in As¬ 
tronomy). The height of any star, &e 
above the horizon, or an arc of a verticle 
circle, intercepted between the star and the 
horizon. This altitude is either true or ap¬ 
parent, according as it is reckoned from the 
rational or sensible horizon, and the differ¬ 
ence between these two is termed by as¬ 
tronomers the parallax of altitude. 

ALTO (in Music books). Italian for the 
upper or counter tenor, and is common in 
music of several parts. 

ALUM. A mineral salt, composed of 
sulphuric acid, potash, alumina, and water. 
It is of a white colour, and of an astringent 
acid taste; natural alum, which was well 
known to the ancients, is a kind of whitish 
friable stone, formerly found in the island 
of Melos, Macedonia, Egypt, &c. Facti¬ 
tious alum is commonly made of a stoni, 
of seaweed, and of urine. It is known by 
the harnes of rock or English alum, which 
is colourless ; and Roman alum, which is 
of a reddish colour. 

ALUM EARTH. The earth from which 
alum is extracted. 

ALUMINA, or ALIJMINE. The earth 
of alum, an argillaceous, soft, and insipid 
sort of earth, which is the base of alum, 
being the principal part of clay. 

ALUM WATER. A preparation used 
by painters in water colour, prepared by 
dissolving alum in water. 

A. M. An abbreviation for AnnoMundi, 
theyearofthe world, and Magister Artium, 
master of arts. 

AMALGAM, or AMALGAMA. The 
mixture of mercury with some othermetal 
Amalgams are used either to render a n.etai 
fit to be spread on some works, as in gilding. 




























AME 


AMP 


17 


ar else to reduce the metal to a subtle 
•owder. An amalgam of tin and mercury 
s used for looking glasses. 

AMALGAMATION. The operation of 
mixing quicksilver with some other metal, 
by fusing the metal, and in that state add¬ 
ing a portion of mercury to it. Gold of 
all metals unites best with mercury, next 
to that silver, then lead, tin, and every 
other metal, except iron and copper, the 
last of which admits scarcely any of such 
amalgamation. 

AMANUENSIS. A slave among the 
Romans, who used to be employed in 
writing for his master; also any one among 
the moderns who is employed to transcribe 
for another. 

AMARANTH. A plant which flourishes 
in the Indies and South America, remark¬ 
able for the lasting beauty of its flowers 

AMATEUR. One who follows a parti¬ 
cular art or profession not for gain but for 
pleasure. 

AMBASSADOR. One appointed by a 
sovereign power to represent him, and su¬ 
perintend his affairs at a foreign court. 

AMBER. A hard, brittle, tasteless sub¬ 
stance, mostly semitransparent, or opaque, 
and of a glossy surface. It is highly elec¬ 
tric, and if a piece be kindled it burns to 
the end with pungent white vapours, with¬ 
out melting. 

AMBERGRIS. A solid sebaceous or fat 
substance, found floating in the sea, near 
the coasts of various tropical countries. It 
is supposed to be the excrement of the 
spermatic whale, having frequently been 
met with in the intestines of that flsh. 

AMBER TREE. A shrub, tt? beauty 
of which lies in its small evergreen leaves; 
these grow as close as heath, and when 
rubbed emit a fragrant odour 

AMBIDEXTER. A person who can use 
both hands with equal facility. 

AMBUSCADE. A place where soldiers 
I'm concealed, in order to surprise an enemy. 

AMENDE. A pecuniary punishment im¬ 
posed, according to the customs of France, 
by a judge, for any false prosecution or 
groundless appeal 

AMENDE HONORABLE. An infa¬ 
mous kind of punishment formerly inflicted 
in France on traitors, parricides, or sacri¬ 
legious persons, who were to go naked to 
the shirt, with a torch in their hand, and 
a rope about their neck, into a church or 
a court, to beg pardon of God, the court, 
and the injured party. 

AMENTACEA3. A natural order of 
plants, bearing catkins, as the poplar, ha¬ 
zel, beech, &c. 

AMERCEMENT. A pecuniary punish-1 

2 * 


meat imposed on offenders at the mercy 
of the court; it is contracted from the Latin 
words a misericordia, which signify lite¬ 
rally from or at the mercy. Amercements 
differ front fines, in as much as the latter 
are defined, and the former are proportion¬ 
ed to the fault, or more properly at the dis¬ 
cretion of the court. 

AMERICAN ELK. A noble animal ot 
the deer kind. 

AMETHYST. A gem of great hardness 
and brilliancy, and of various colours, bu'i 
mostly purple or violet. It comes from 
India, and is use£ in medicine as an as¬ 
tringent. 

AMIANTHUS. An incombustible mine¬ 
ral flax, which may be drawn into threads 
and wove into cloth. It is mostly found 
among rocks. 

AMMON. The title under which Jupiter 
was worshipped in Libya, where a temple 
was erected to him, from which oracles 
were delivered for many ages. 

AMMONIA. A volatile alkali-, which, 
when in its purest state, exists only in the 
form of a gas. It forms a liquid when 
cooled, and is known by the name of harts¬ 
horn, because it is obtained from distilling 
the horn of the hart. It may also be ob¬ 
tained from urine and camel’s dung by 
distillation. 

AMMONIAC, or GUM AMMONIAC. 
A resinous substance brought from the 
East Indies in drops or granules. The 
best kind is of a yellowish colour without 
and white within 

AMMONITE SNAKE STONE. A 
sort of fossil shells, made up of small cir¬ 
cles, like those of a snake rolled up. 



AMMUNITION. A general term for 
all warlike stores, but more especia'ly 
powder, balls, guns, &.c. 

AMORPHOZOA. The lowest class of 
the animal kingdom, as sponges that 
have no regular symmetrical structure. 

AMPETITE. Alirm slate, earth used 
by the Ancients to kill insects on vines. 

AMPHIBIA. A class of animals which 
live equally well in air or water, such as 
the phoc®, or seal tribe, frogs, lizards, 
crocodiles, eels, water “erpents, snakes 
| They are remarkable for Heir tenacity of 






ANA 


ANA 


Me come will continue to move even 
wh»a the head Is cut off. 

AMPHISCII. A name applied by geogra¬ 
phers to the inhabitants of the torrid zone. 

AMPHITHEATRE. A circular building 
among the ancients, having seats entirely 
around, and an area in the middle, where 
s pectacles were exhibited. Some of these, 
as the Colisceum in Rome, could contain 
from 50,000 to 80,000 persons. 

AM PLiFIC ATI ON (with R hetorician s). 
An amplifying or enlarging upon an argu¬ 
ment, either by aggravating or extenuating 
a crime, heightening an eulogium, or en¬ 
larging a narration, by an enumeration of 
circumstances, so as to excite proper emo¬ 
tions in the audience. 

AMPLITUDE. An arch of the horizon, 
Intercepted between the east or west points 
and the centre of the sun or stars at their 
rising and setting. It is called ortive, or 
eastern amplitude, when the star is rising; 
and occiduous, or western, when the star 
is setting. 

AMPLITUDE MAGNETICAL. Is an 
arc of the horizon, contained between the 
sun or a star at its rising and setting, and 
the magnetical east or west point of the hori¬ 
zon, indicated by the magnetical compass, 
or the amplitude or azimuth. 

AMPUTATION (in Surgery). The cut¬ 
ting off a limb or other part of the body 
with an instrument. 

AMULET. A supposed charm or pre¬ 
servative against witchcraft, mischief, or 
diseases. Amulets consist of stone, metal, 
simples, or whatever else the fancy sug¬ 
gested; sometimes words or sentences 
might be employed in this manner. 

AMZEL. A bird of the blackbird kind, 
belonging to the same genus, merula, in 
the Linnaian system. The ring-amzel is 
remarkable for having a fine broad white 
ring at the lower part of its throat. 

ANA. A name given to amusing mis¬ 
cellanies, consisting of anecdotes, traits of 
character, and incidents relating to any 
person or subject. 

ANABASIS. The title of Xenophon’s 
description of the younger Cyrus’s expedi¬ 
tion against his brother, in which the wri¬ 
ter bore a principal part. 

ANACHRONISM. An error in chrono¬ 
logy, as when an event is related to have 
happened in the reign of a certain prince, 
which happened either before or after. 

ANACLASTICS. Another name for 
dioptrics, or that branch of optics which 
relates to refracted light. 

ANACREONTIC VERSE. A sort of 
verse so called from the Greek poet Anac- 
ieon by whom it was first used. It con¬ 


sists of three feet, generally spondees and 
iambic. It is adapted to soft and tender 

subjects. 

ANAGRAM. The transposition of the 
letters of one word so as to form another, 

as amor changed into Roma. 

ANALEMMA. A projection ofthe sphere 
on the plane of the meridian, orthographi 
cally made by straight lines and ellipses, 
the eye being supposed at an infinite dis¬ 
tance, in an equinoctial point. 

ANALEMMA. Is also an instrument, a 
kind of astrolabe, made either of brass or 
wood, with an horizon fitted to it; it is 
used for finding the time of the sun’s rising 
or setting, the length of the longest day, 
&.c. The most ancient treatise on this in¬ 
strument was written by Ptolemy, and 
published in 1562, with a Commentary 
by Cominandine. Other authors, as Aqui- 
lonius, Jacquet, Deschales, &c. have since 
written on the same instrument. 

ANALOGY. The relation which things 
bear, or are supposed to bear, to each other, 
from their resemblance or proportion to one 
another ; as the analogy' between animals 
and plants, from which a similar treatment 
of them in many cases may be inferred. 
Analogy is one of the principal grounds of 
reasoning in matters of experience. 

ANALYSIS (in Logic). The resolution 
or unfolding of anything, so as to discover 
its component parts as opposed to synthesis 
Analysis is the method of finding out truth, 
and synthesis is the method of explaining 
that truth toothers. Among mathematician! 
it is the art of discovering the truth or false¬ 
hood of a proposition, by supposing the 
question to be solved, and then examining 
the consequences, till some truth is disco¬ 
vered, or the absurdity and impossibility of 
the proposition is discovered. The analysis 
of finite quantities is properly called spe¬ 
cious arithmetic, or algebra; the analysis of 
infinite quantities is the method of fluxions 
or differential calculus. 

ANALYSIS (in Chemistry). Is the de¬ 
composition of bodies, as vegetables am? 
minerals, to discover their component parts 

ANALYTICS. A name given to algebra 
being nothing else but a general analysis 
of pure mathematics; or else because it 
teaches how to solve questions, and demon¬ 
strate theorems, by searching into the fun 
damental nature and frame of the thing, 
which is, as it were, resolved into parts 
or taken to pieces, and then put together 
again. 

ANAMORPHOSIS (in Perspective aatf 
Painting). A monstrous projection, or re¬ 
presentation of an image on a plane c* 
curve surface, which beheld at a certain 





AM A 


ANA 


itfiww* ahiuf appear regular and in pro¬ 
portion- 




ANAPA5ST. A metrical fool, having the 
wo first short and the last long ( ), as 

iietis. 

ANARCHY. A society without a govern¬ 
ment, or where there is no supreme gov¬ 
ernor. 

ANATHEMA. In the general sense, a 
religious curse; in the particular sense, 
ecclesiastical excommunication. 

ANATOMY. The act of dissecting bo¬ 
dies for the purpose of examining their 
structure, and the nature, uses, and func¬ 
tions of their several parts ; aiso the know¬ 
ledge of the human body derived from such 
dissections and examinations; when ap¬ 
plied to animals it is termed Comparative 
Anatomy. In the science of anatomy, the 
body is divided into the head, trunk, and 
extremities, and is composed of solids and 
fluids. The solids are the integuments, 
bones, cartilages, ligaments, membranes, 
vessels, muscles, nerves, arid glands. The 
principal fluids are the blood, tbe chyle, the 
lymph, and the bile. Anatomy, from the 
names of the parts treated of, is divided into 
Kt«'}geny I 0 r the doctrine of the growth of 


19 


| the bones; osteology, the doctrine of the 
bones in the adult subject, chondrology, 
the doctrine of the cartilages; syndesmo- 
logy, the doctrine of the ligaments; my 
ology, the doctrine of the muscles ; bursa- 
logy, the doctrine of the bursaB mucosae • 
splanchnology, the doctrine of the viscera, 
angeiology, the doctrine of the vessels; 
adenology, the doctrine of the glands; 
neurology, tire doctrine of the nerves, 
Anatomy, taken absolutely, applies only to 
the dissection of human subjects; the dis¬ 
section and examination of brutes is called 
Comparative Anatomy. 

ANATOMY, History ok. The science 
of anatomy was doubtless coeval with that 
of medicine, for the connexion between 
the two studies would naturally suggest t«* 
the inquirer into the diseases of the human 
body the necessity of becoming acquainted 
with its component parts. In Egypt, the 
practice of embalming rendering it neces¬ 
sary to open the body, led them first to 
make observations on the structure of the 
human frame, which was afterwards en¬ 
couraged by their kings, who ordered dead 
bodies to be regularly dissected for the 
perfection of the art; but, judging from 
some specimens which have been preserved 
of their anatomical observations, the sci¬ 
ence did not make any considerable progress 
among them. There is, however, no doubt, 
but they laid tbe foundation,and the Greeks, 
who derived their earliest information from 
them, enlarged the boundaries of the sci¬ 
ence by their researches. Hippocrates, who 
lived about *100 years before Christ, is the 
first who expressly wrote on this subject; 
and the first anatomical dissection recorded 
was made by his friend Democritus, of 
Abdera. In Aristotle’s works there are 
many minute particulars on this subject, 
which show that he had made the animal 
body his particular study. From the Greeks 
this science, after an interval of several 
centuries, passed again into Egypt, where, 
by the fostering care of the Ptolemies, it 
was revived and made great advances. 
Erastratus, the pupil and friend of Theo¬ 
phrastus and Herophilus, laid the founda¬ 
tion of the famous school of anatomy at 
Alexandria, which was for many centuries 
in such high repute tiiat no one was sujr 
posed qualified for the medical art, who 
had not studied at Alexandria. Herophi¬ 
lus is said to have dissected not less than 
700 bodies, and among the rest some living 
subjects, but probably, as such a monstrous 
piece of cruelty must have defeated its own 
purpose, this latter part of the story is only 
an exaggeration. The Romans leani^d’froa 
the Greeks the science of anauuwy m tfaey 























ANATOMY. 


did moat other arte and sciences ; for the 
ftrst rudiment* were taught to tliem by 
Archagathus, a Greek physician, who first 
established himself at Rome,and afterward* 
by Asclepiades, who flourished in the time 
jf Pompey, and gained such repute that 
ne was looked upon as a second Hippo¬ 
crates. He was succeeded by Cassius, who 
was supposed to be the disciple of Ascle- 
piadea, CelBUS, Rufus, Pliny, Coelius Aure- 
• ianus, and ArsOseu*, whose works abound 
.v ; th anatomical observations, and prove 
!!;at, although their researches were not 
deep, their attention was drawn towards 
'.he subject. This is also still more evident 
from the works of Galen, who, in point 
of accuracy and minuteness of detail, sur¬ 
passed all that went before him, and also 
all that followed him until within the last 
three centuries The Arabians and Sara¬ 
cens, on the decline of the empire, took 
the place of the Greeks and Romans in the 
cultivation of the sciences, but as by the 
tenets of their religion they were prohibited 
from touching dead bodies, and conse¬ 
quently could not practice dissection, they 
were obliged to content themselves with 
commenting upon Galen. To effect this 
object, we find that Abdollatiph, a teacher 
of anatomy in the thirteenth century, ex¬ 
amined and demonstrated the structure of 
the bones by going to the burying grounds ; 
and by that means he detected some errors 
in Galen. Although the Europeans were not 
under the same restrictions, yet during the 
middle ages it is certain that the science of 
anatomy made no advances. The best trea¬ 
tise then extant, which gained the author 
great repute, and was the standard book 
in the schools, wasthatof Alundinus, which 
appeared in 1315, yet this was nothing but 
an abstract of Galen. On the expulsion 
of the Moors, the prejudice against dissec¬ 
tion abated, and copies of the Greek authors 
having found their way into Europe after 
the sacking of Constantinople, the study of 
anatomy revived considerably in the fif¬ 
teenth century. Among the Italians, Achil- 
linus Benedictus, Berengarius, and Massa 
added to the stock of anatomical knowledge 
t>y discoveriesoftheir own from dissections. 
But the most distinguished names among 
the anatomists of that period are those who 
fli-m rished in the following century, namely, 
\>«alius, a native of Brussels, Sylvius in 
rmnce, Columbus, Fallopius, and Eusta¬ 
thius in Italy, who, contrary to the prac¬ 
tice of Galen, drew their observations from 
the human body, rather than from that of 
the brute*. Vesalius gave the names to the 
muscles, most of which are retained to this 
Gabriel Fallopius, In his treatise en¬ 


titled Observations* Anatomic®, publisher 
in 1561, improved upon the descriptions of 
Vesalius • The Opuscula AnatomicaofBai 
tholomaeus Eustachius, published in 1563, 
have ever been admired for the correctnesi 
and exactness of their descriptions. Hi* 
plates, which were intended for a large 
and complete work on the subject, were 
not published until 150 years after, when, 
being found in an old cabinet, they were 
edited by Lancisi, the pope’s physician,whe 
added a short explanatory' text, because 
that of Eustachius could not be found. The 
next in the list erf distinguished anato 
mists must be reckoned Harvey, who, after 
having studied in Italy under Fabricius ab 
Aquapendente, was led by the writings i f 
his master to consider the manner in which 
the blood was circulated over the whole 
body, and the offices of the several vessels. 
Fabricius published an account ofthevalves 
which he discovered in the veins. This 
discovery affected the established doctrine 
of all ages, that the veins carried the blood 
from the liver to all parts of the body for 
nourishment; and Harvey was led by this 
to consider more narrowly the functions 
of the heart and the vascular system. The 
result of his investigation was, that the 
heart is the grand reservoir of the blood, 
that the arteries, which had hitherto been 
considered as air vessels, were the channel* 
by which it was conveyed to all parts of 
the body, and tiie veins were the channels 
by which it was carried back to the heart 
His doctrine at first met with considerable 
opposition, but farther researches put it at 
length beyond all question, and led to other 
discoveriesof considerable importance. The 
lacteals, or vessels which carry the chyle 
to the intestines, were discovered by As- 
celius, an Italian ; the thoracic duct by 
Pecquet, in 1651; the lymphatics by Tho¬ 
mas Bartholine, a Danish anatomist; be¬ 
sides numerous other discoveries which 
were made by the help of magnifying glas¬ 
ses. These were first brought into use by 
Malpighi, after by Laurentius Bellinus, a 
distinguished anatomist of Italy, Swam¬ 
merdam, Van Horn, De Graaf, and either 
Dutch anatomists, particularly Antoniu* 
Liewenhoeck, of Delft, who improved on 
Malpighi’s use of microscopes, and succeed¬ 
ed in discovering globules in the blood, 
animalcula) in tlie semen, and many other 
particulars w'hich had hitherto escaped no¬ 
tice. From this time the science of anato¬ 
my made prodigious advances towards ac 
curacy, so that each particular part has fur 
nished matter for the labours of celebrated 
anatomists. The figures of the bones have 
been gives in four large folio volumes, by 




AND 


ANG 


21 


Albinus, Cheselden, Trews, &c.; those of 
the muscles are given in two large folios, 
s^Cowper and Albinus, the latter of which 
are particularly admired for their correct¬ 
ness. Haller has published a folio on the 
blood vessels, Dr. Munro, junior, on the 
nerves, Albinus, Roederer, and Hunter on 
the gravid uterus, Weibrecht and others 
on the joints and fresh bones, Soemmering 
on the brain, Zinn on the eye, Cotunnius 
Mickel, junior, and others on the ear, 
Walter on the nerves of the thorax and 
abdomen, Munro on the burs© mucosse, 
besides the several systems of anatomy 
from the pens of Albinus, Keil,Cheselder., 
Hunter, Munro, Douglas, Fife, Winslow, 
Bischoff, Graj*. Bowman, Virchow. <fcc. 

ANCESTRY. The line of ancestors or 
forefathers from which any person is de¬ 
scended. 

ANCHOR. An instrument for holding 
a ship in the place where she should ride. 



ANCHORAGE. The ground that is fit 
for holding the anchor; also the duty taken 
®f ships for the use of the haven where 
they cast anchor. 

ANCHORET. A hermit, or one who 
retired from the world, and lived in per¬ 
fect solitude. 

ANCHOVY. A small seafish much used 
m sauce; it is so like the common sprat, 
hat the latter is often pickled and sold 
inder its name. 



ANDANTE (in Music). Italian for ex¬ 
act and just time in playing, so as to keep 
the notes distinct from each other. 

ANDROIDES (in Mechanics). A term 
naea to denote an automaton in the figure 
of a man, which, by means of certain 
springs and other mechanical contrivances, 
is enabled to walk, and perform other 
actions of a man. The most celebrated of 
these automatons which have been exhib¬ 
ited in modern times are the flute-player of 


M. Vancanscn, exhibited at Paris, the chess¬ 
player of M. de Kemplin of Presburg, and 
the chess-player who lately performed won 
ders in that game in London The con¬ 
struction of these automatons is at present 
a secret. 

ANDROMEDA. A small northern con¬ 
stellation consisting of sixty-three stars 

ANEMOMETER. An instrument used 
for measuring the force and velocity of the 
wind 

ANEMONE. A beautiful flower origi¬ 
nally brought from the east, but now much 
cultivated in our gardens. The word sig- , 
nifies properly wind-flower, because it was 
supposed that it opened only when the 
wind blew 

ANEMOSCOPE. A machine showing 
from what point of the compass the wind 
blows. 

ANDESITE. A mineral found in the 
Andes containing ' the fel-spar called 
Andesine. 

ANEMOMETER. An instrument for 
determining the course, the force and 
velocity of winds. 

ANGELINA. A planet first observe 1 
by Tempel, in 1861. 

ANGLES. A German tribe on the Elbe, 
of the race of the Suevi, who after¬ 
wards passed over with the Saxons into 
Britain, and gave their name to that 
country. 

ANGIOSPERMIA. A term in the Lin- 
naean system for such plants of the clas* 
Didynarnia as have their seeds enclosed in 
a capsule or seed-vessel. 

ANGLE. The inclination of two lines 
meeting one another in a point, which 
lines are called the legs ; when the lines 
meet perpendicularly it is a right angle, as 
A, B, C ; when they meet so as to make 



the angle ess than a right angle, it is called 
acute, as A, B, D ; and when they make 
the angle greater, it is called an obtuse an 
gle, as A, B, E 

ANGLER. A singular fish, also known 
at present by the name of the fishing frog, 
from the resemblance which it bears tc 
that animal in the state of a tadpole. 

ANGLICAN CHURCH. That form of 
doctrine and discipline which is esta blishe* 
in England, and serves for the govensmen! 
















A Nil 


ANT 


22 

of the whole Christian church in that coun¬ 
try. Its doctrines are comprehended within 
thirty-nine articles, and its government, 
which is episcopal, consists of two arch¬ 
bishops and twenty-four bishops, together 
with the different orders of inferior clergy. 
The same Church is established in Ameri¬ 
ca, out is independent of that of England. 
The members of this church are called 
Episcopalians. 

ANGLICISM. An idiom or manner of 
speech peculiar to the English, and their 
iescendants. 

ANGLING. The art of fishing with a 
Kid, to which are attached a line, hook, 
and bait. Anglers look for breams in the 
deepest water, for eels under banks, for 
chub in deep shaded holes, for perch and 
roach in ponds, and for trout in quick 
streams. The best months for angling are 
from April to October; the time of the day 
early in the morning, or in the evening of 
hot days. Fish bite freely in cloudy warm 
weather, but not at all when it is cold and 
stormy. Fish ought to be fed on corn boil¬ 
ed soft, garbage, worms chopped to pieces, 
or grains steeped in blood. If you fish in 
a stream, it is best to cast in the grains 
above the hook. 

ANIMAL. A living body endued with 
sensation and spontaneous motion ; in its 
limited sense, any irrational creature, as 
distinguished from man. 

ANIMALCULES. Animals so minute 
as not to be the immediate object of our 
senses. They are seen only by the help of 
the microscope. 

ANIMAL KINGDOM. One of the tiiree 
principal divisions into which all organized 
bodies are divided by Linnaeus. It com¬ 
prehends six classes of animals; namely, 
Mammalia, or such as suckle their young, 
mostly quadrupeds ; Aves, birds, which are 
oviparous; Amphibia, amphibious ani¬ 
mals ; Pisces, fishes, such as live only in 
water, and are covered with scales ; Insec- 
ta, insects, which have few or no organs 
yf sense, and a bony coat of mail; Vermes, 
worms, which have mostly no feet. 

ANIME, or GUM ANIME. A resinous 
substance imported from New Spain and 
the Brazils. 

ANNALS. Aspecies of history, in which 
events are related in the exact order of 
chronology 

ANNEALING. The process of heating 
steel and other metal bodies, and then 
suffering them to cool again gradually 

ANNOTTO. A kind of red dye brought 
from the West Indies. It is procured from 
Ihe pulp of the seed capsules 

ANNUAL. An epithet for whatever 


hapnens every year, or lasts a year. A* 
annual, m Botany, is a plant which die' 
within the year. 

ANNUITY. The periodical payment of 
money, either yearly, half yearly, or quar¬ 
terly ; fora determinate period, as ten, 
fifty, or a hundred years ; or for an inde¬ 
terminate period, dependant on a certain 
contingency, as the death of a person ; or 
for an indefinite term, in which latter case 
they are called perpetual annuities 

ANNULET A small square member in 
the Doric capital. 

ANNUNCIATION. The delivery of a 
message, particularly the angel’s message 
to the Virgin Mary, concerning the birth 
of our Saviour. The festival in commem¬ 
oration of that event is called Lady Day 

ANODYNES. Medicines so called be¬ 
cause they ease pain and procure sleep, 
such ;is the medicinal preparations of the 
poppy. 

ANOMALISTICAL YEAR (in Astro¬ 
nomy). The time that the earth takes to 
pass through her orbit 

ANOMALOUS VERBS (in Grammar). 
Verbs which are not conjugated regularly. 

ANOMALY. In a general sense, irregu¬ 
larity ; in Astronomy, the irregularity in 
the motion of a planet. 

ANSER. A star of the fifth magnitude 
in the milky way. 

ANSERES. The third order of birds in 
the Linnaean system, including such as 
have the bill somewhat obtuse, covered 
with a skin, and gibbous at the base, as 
the goose, duck, swan, Sc c. 



ANT. A gregarious and proverbially 
industrious tribe of insects, which are di¬ 
vided into males, females, and neutrals 
Their houses are curiously constructed 
and divided into chambers, magazines, Sec. 

ANTARCTIC (in Astronomy). The 
name of a circle of .he sphere, \ hich it 
opposite to the arctic or northern pole. It 
is nearly 23 and a half degrees distant from 







ANT 


AOR S3 


,ne south pole, which ia also imied the an¬ 
tarctic pole. 

ANT-EATER. An animal of South 
America, that has a large slender tongue, 
which it allows to get covered with ants, 
and then quickly draws it in. 

ANTECEDENT. The word in grammar 
to which the relative refers; as God, whom 
we adore, the word God is the ante¬ 
cedent 

ANTEDATE. A date that precedes the 
real one; as the antedate of a bill, that 
which is earlier than the time when it is 

drawn. 

ANTEDILUVIANS. Persons living be¬ 
fore the deluge. 

ANTELOPE. A beautiful quadruped, 
of which there are many varieties. Ante¬ 
lopes are singularly swift in their motion, 
and in general natives of hot climates, 
particularly in Africa and Asia. Europe 
has but two species, and America but one ; 

is called the Prong-horned Antelops. 


the metal called antimony «/,aablnft, Ut 
sulphur. 

ANTINOMIANS. An ancient sect, who 
maintained that faith, without good works, 
was sufficient for salvation. This sect has 
been revived since the Reformation 

ANTIPODES. Persons so named in 
geography, who live diametrically opposite 
to one another, as it were feet to feet. 
They have equal latitudes, the one north 
and the other south; but opposite longi¬ 
tudes, consequently when it is day to thf 
one it is night to the other, and when 
summer to the one winter to the other 

ANTIQUARY. One who searches aftei 
the remains of antiquity. The monks who 
were employed in making new copies ol 
old books were formerly called antiquarii. 

ANTISCII (in Geography). People who 
five on different sides of the equator, and 
have their shadows at noon fall directly 
opposite ways. 

ANTISEPTICS. Substances which re 
sist putrefaction. 



ANTENNAE. The horns or feelers of 
insects which project from their heads, 
and serve them in the sense of feeling and 
seeing. 

ANTHEM A sacred composition used 
as a part of Christian worship. 

ANTHER A part of the stamen of a 
flower which is at the top of the filament, 
’it contains the pollen or farina, which it 
emits or explodes when ripe. 

ANTHOLOGY. A collection of choice 
poom£, particularly a collection of Greek 
epigrams so called. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI. Another name 
for cannibals, or men eaters. 

ANTIDOTE. A counterpoison, or any 
medicine generally that counteracts the 
effects of what has been swallowed. 

ANTIMONY. A metallic, solid, heavy, 
Brittle substance, which is very seldom 
tound pure, but mostly mixed with other 
metals. In its pure state it is called the 
regulus of antimony. Crude antimony, in 
commerce, ia a metallic ore, consisting of 


ANTITHESIS. A figure of speech, in 
which contraries are put in contrast with 
each other, as, He gained by losing, and by 
falling rose. 

ANTOECI (in Geography). People who 
live under the same meridian, east or west, 
but under opposite parallels of latitude ; 
they have their noon or midnight at the 
same hour, but thoir seasons contrary. 

ANTONOMASLA. A form of speech, in 
which the name of some dignity, office, 
profession, science, or trade, is used in¬ 
stead of the true name of a person ; or, 
in which a proper name is put in place 
of an appellative : thus, we say the 
President, the Englishman, the Printer, 
a Cato, a Solomon. 

ANTOSIANDRIAN. Ono of a sect of 
rigid Lutherans, so denominated from 
their opposing the doctrines of Osian- 
dcr, the German reformer. 

ANTRUSTION. In history, the An- 
trustions were a class of people among 
the Pranks, who were the personal vas¬ 
sals of the kings and counts. 

ANUBIS. An Egyptian deity, repre¬ 
sented by a human figure, with the 
head of a dog or a fox. He was the son 
of Osiris, and was regarded as the con¬ 
ductor and guardian of departed souls. 

AONIAN. Pertaining to the Muses, or 
to Aonia, their residence, in Bceotia. 

AORIST. The name of certain tenses 
in the Greek language, which express 
limp, indeterminate, that is, either past, 
present, or futui’e. 

AOUTA. A tree of Otaheite, from the 
bark of which the natives make cloth. 

AORTA. In anatomy, the great 
artery, or main trunk of the arte¬ 
rial "system, proceeding immediately 
from the left ventricle of the 
heart. It i* distinguished into 







24 


API 


APO 


Ihe descending or ascending, according to 
the manner in which it runs. 

APATITE. Phosphate of lime; a mine¬ 
ral which occurs in tin veins, and is found 
in Cornwall and Germany. 

APE. The name of a tribe of animals 
of the monkey kind which are without 
tails, imitative, chattering, full of gesticu¬ 
lations, thievish, and mischievous. 



APERIENTS. Opening medicines. 

APETALOUS (in Botany). A term for 
plants whose flowers have no flower leaves 
or corolla; as the hippuris, or fox tail 

grass. 

APEX. A little woollen tuft on the cap 
of the flamen, or high priest, among the 
ancients. 

APEX (in Mathematics). The angular 
point of a cone or conic section. 

A. P. G. An abbreviation for Professor 
of Astronomy in Gresham College, Eng¬ 
land. 

APHiERESIS (in Grammar) The 
taking away a letter or syllable from a 
word. 

APHELION. That point at which the 
earth, or any planet, is at the greatest dis¬ 
tance from the sun. 

APHIS. The plant louse ; an extensive 
genus of the hemiptera order. 

APHORISM. A brief sentence in 
science, comprehending some experimen 
tal truth, as the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, 
fee. 

APIARY. A place where bees are kept, 
which should be selected with great care, 
observing that it face the south, be defen¬ 
ded from high winds, and not within the 
sphere of offensive smells, or liable to the 
attacks of hornets or any other hostile 
term in 

APIS The bee ; a genus of insects of 
the order hymeneptera. 

APIS. An Egyptian deity, worshiped 

wider the form of an or. 


APOCOPE (in Grammar). The «Miia| 
off the last letter or syllable of a Word. 

APODAL. The first order of Sshes in 
the Limuean system, having iw ventral 
fins, as the eel, the wolf tiu.a, the sword 
fish, the lance, &c. 



APOGEE That point of the orbit at 
which the sun, moon, or any planet it 
most distant from the earth. This term, 
as well as the perigee, was most in use 
among the ancients ; modern astronomers 
making the sun the centre of the universe 
mostly use the terms aphelion ana p^rihe 
lion. 

APOLLO. The god of medicine, music 
poetry, and the fine arts. He was the sot? 
of Jupiter and Latona, born in the islar»u 
of Delos, and is commonly represented 
naked, with his lyre or bow 



APOLOGUE. An instructive fable, <* 
a feigned relation, intended to teach some 
moral truth ; as the Fables of Esop. 

APOPHTHEGM. A brief and pithy 
saying, particularly of some distinguished 
person. 

APOPLEXY. A disorder which sud¬ 
denly surprises the brain, and takes away 
all sense and motion. 

APOSTATE. One wno has foraakf' 
nis religion ; particularly one who has as¬ 
serted the Christian profession. 

A POSTERIORI. A team employee ta 












APP 


APP 


I«aon«trating a truth ; as when a cause is 
proved from an effect. 

APOSTLES Property messengers or 
ambassadors, a term applied now particu¬ 
larly to the twelve disciples commis¬ 
sioned by our Saviour to preach the gospel 
to all nations. 

APOSTROPHE. A figure of speech, 
by which the orator turns from his subject 
to address a person either absent or dead, 
as if he were present. 

APOSTROPHE (in Grammar). A mark 
of contraction in a word; thus, lov’d for 
loved. 

APOTHECARY. Properly the keeper 
of a medicine shop; but more generally 
one who practises the art of pharmacy, or 
of compounding medicines- In London, 
apothecaries are one of the. city companies, 
and are exempted, by stat. 9 Geo. I. from 
serving upon juries or in parish offices. 
They are obliged to make up their medi¬ 
cines according to the formulas prescribed 
in the college dispensatory, and are liable 
to have their shops visited by the censors 
of the college, who are empowered to des¬ 
troy such medicines as they do net think 
good. 

APOTHEOSIS. Deification, or the cer¬ 
emony of placing among the gods, which 
was frequent among the ancients. This 
honour was conferred on several of the 
Roman emperors at their decease. 

APPANNAGE, or APPENNAGE. 
Lands set apart as a portion for the king’s 
younger children in France. 

APPARATUS. A set of instruments or 
utensils necessary for practising any art, 
as a surgeon’s apparatus, a chemist’s appa¬ 
ratus. 

APPARENT (among Mathematicians). 
A term applied to things as they appear to 
us, in distinction from what they are in 
reality ; as the apparent distance, magni¬ 
tude, place, figure, &c. of any heavenly 
body, as distinguished from the real or true 
distance, <fcc. 

APPARITION (in Astronomy). The 
becomin g visible. The circle of apparition 
is an imaginary line, within which the 
stars are always visible in any given 
latitude. 

APPEAL (in Law) The removal of a 
cause from an inferior to a superior court. 

APPEARANCE (in Law). The defend¬ 
ants appearing before the court to plead in 
any prosecution; there are four ways for 
defendants to appear to actions; in person, 
or by attorney, for persons of full age ; by 
guardians, or next friends, for infants. 

APPEARANCE (in Perspective). The 
projection of a figure or body on the per¬ 


spective plane ; in Astronomy, the same m 
phenomenon, or phasis. 

APPELLANT, or APPELLOR. One 
who makes or brings an appeal; it was 
formerly much used for one wno brought 
an appeal in a criminal prosecution. 

APPELLATIVE (in Grammar). A 
noun or name applicable to a whole spe¬ 
cies or kind, as, a man, a horse. 

APPENDANT (in Law). Any thing 
inheritable that belongs to a more worthy 
inheritance, as an advowson, or common, 
which may be appendant to a manor; or 
land to an office: but land cannot be ap¬ 
pendant to land, both being corporeal, and 
one thing corporeal may not be appendant 
to another. 

APPLE. A well known fruit, from 
which cider is made. 

APPLICATION. The bringing one 
thing nearer to another for the purpose of 
measuring it; thus a longer space is meas¬ 
ured by the application of a less, as a yard 
by a foot or an inch. 

APPOSITION (in Grammar). The 
placing two or more substantives together 
without any copulative between them, as 
Cicero the orator. 

APPRAISING. The valuing or setting 
a price on goods An appraiser is one 
sworn to value goods fairly. 

APPREHENSION. The first power of 
the mind, by which it simply contemplates 
things, without pronouncing any thing up 
on them. 

APPRENTICE. A young person bound 
by indentures or articles of agreement to a 
tradesman, or artificer, to learn his trade 
or mystery. By the stat. 5 Eliz. no per¬ 
son can exercise any trade in any part ol 
England, without having served a regular 
apprenticeship of at least seven years. No 
trades, however, are held to be within the 
statute but such as were in being at the 
making of the same in the reign of Eliza¬ 
beth. No such law exists in the United 
States 

APPROACHES (in Fortification). Tbe 
works thrown up by the besiegers, in order 
to get nearer a fortress without being ex¬ 
posed to the enemy’s cannon. 

APPROPRIATION. The annexing a 
benefice to the proper and perpetual use of 
a religious house, bishopric, college, <Stc 
so that the body or house are both patro* 
and person, and some one of the number 
was appointed to officiate. At the dissolu¬ 
tion of the monasteries, the appropriations, 
being more than one third of all the parishes 
in England, were given to laymen, whenie 
sprung most of the lay impropriation* ex¬ 
isting at present; for what is called an ap> 




m 


ARC 


AQU 

propriatton in the hands of religious per¬ 
sons, is usually called an impropriation m 
the hands of laity. It is computed that 
there are in England three thousand eight 
hundred and forty-five impropriations. 

APPROVER (in Law). One who, being 
Indicted of treason or felony, confesses him¬ 
self guilty, and accuses others to save him¬ 
self: this is vulgarly called turning king’s 
evidence. 

APPROXIMATION. In general a get¬ 
ting near t<r an object; in mathematics, a 
continual approach to a root or quantity 
sought, but not expected to be found. 

APPLLSE (in Astronomy). The ap¬ 
proach of a planet towards a conjunction 
with the sun or any of the fixed stars. 

APPURTENANCES (in Law). Things 
corporeal and incorporeal that appertain to 
another thing as principal; as hamlets to 
a chief manor. Outhouses, yards, orch¬ 
ards, gardens, tec. are appurtenant to a 
messuage. 

APRICOT. A fine sort of wall fruit, 
which requires much sun to ripen it. 

APRIL. The second month of Romulus’ 
year, and the fourth ofNuma’syear, which 
began as it does now, in January. 

A PRIORI. A mode of reasoning by 
proving the effect from the cause. 

APROPOS. Just in time. 

APSIDES. The two points in the orbit 
of a planet, at the greatest and least dis¬ 
tance from the sun. 

APTERA. The seventh order ofinsects, 
having no wings, including spiders, fleas, 
earwigs, &c.; also lobsters, crabs, prawns, 
and shrimps. 



AQUAFORTIS. A weak and impure 
aitric acid, commonly used in the arts. It 
V* made of a mixture of purified nitre, or 
saltpetre, vitriol, and potter’s earth, in 
equal parts, and is distinguished into sin¬ 
gle and double, the former of which is on¬ 
ly half the strength of the latter. 

AQUA REGIA. Nitro-muriatic acid; 
composed of a mixture of the nitric and 
muriatic adds, which dissolves gold. 

AQUARIUS. The water-bearer, a con¬ 
stellation, and the eleventh sign in the zo¬ 
diac commonly marked thus t~r). 


AQUATICS. Trees or plants whleH 
grow on the banks of rivers and marshes 
and watery places. 

AQUA-TINTE. A method of etching, 
which is made to resemble a fine drawing 
in water colours 

AQUEDUCT. A conduit for water by 
pipes. In the time of the emperor Nervr 
there were nine, which emptied themselvs 
through 13,594 pipes of an inch diametei 
That constructed by Louis XIV. for carry¬ 
ing the Bucq to Versailles, is 7000 fathoms 
long, with 2560 fathoms of elevation, and 
contains 242 arcades. 

AQUEOUS HUMOUR. The watery 
humour of the eye, the first and outermost, 
which is less dense than the crystalline. 

ARABIC, or GUM ARABIC. A trails 
parent kind of gum brought from Arabia, 
which distils from a plant of the acacia 
species. It is used for painting in water 
colours, and also by calico printers and 
other manufacturers, but it is difficult to 
procure it genuine. That which is in small 
pieces, and of a perfectly white colour, is 
reckoned the best 

ARABIC FIGURES, or CHARAC¬ 
TERS. The numeral characters now used 
in our arithmetic, which were introduced 
into England about the eleventh century 

ARBITER (in Civil Law). A judge 
appointed by the magistrate, or chosen by 
the parties to decide any point of differ¬ 
ence. An arbiter must judge according to 
the usages of law ; but an arbitrator, who 
is a private extraordinary judge, chosen by 
the mutual consent of parties, is allowed a 
certain discretionary power. 

ARBITRATION. A mode of deciding 
controversies by means of arbiters or arbi¬ 
trators. (See Arbiter). 

ARBOR VITAS. An evergreen shrub 

ARBUTUS. The strawberry-tree. A 
beautiful shrub, bearing a red roundish 
berry. 

ARC. Any part of a curve line, as of a 
circle, ellipse, tec. 

ARC, or ARCH WURNAL (in Astro¬ 
nomy). That part of a circle described by 
a heavenly body, between its rising and 
setting. The nocturnal arch is that which 
is described between its setting and rising. 

ARCH (in Architecture). That part of a 
building which derives its name from its 
curved form. Some arches are semicircu¬ 
lar, which are called Saxon arches ; others 
pointed, which are called Gothic 

ARCH OF EOU1 LIBRIUM (in Bridge 
building). That which is in equilibrium in 
all its parts, and therefore equally strong 
throughout, having no tendency to kmk 
in one part mows than another 




ARC 


ARC 


SI 


ARCHBISHOP. The chief prelate, 
living authority over other bishops. There 
are two archbishops in England ; namely, 
diat of Canterbury, who has twenty-one 
Dishops under him ; and that of York, who 
has four. 

ARCHDEACON. An officer in the 
church of England, who acts for the bishop, 
having a superintendant power over the 
clergy within his district. 

ARCHDUKE. One having a preemi 
nence over other dukes. 

ARCHERY. The art of shooting with a 
bow ; formerly a favourite diversion among 
the English, who were also much skilled 
in it as a military exercise. The practice 
of archery was much encouraged by the 
kings. It was followed both as a recreation 
and a service, and Edward III. prohibited 
all useless games that interfered with the 
practice of it on holydays and other inter¬ 
vals of leisure. By an act of Edward IV. 
every man was to have a bow of his own 
height, to be made of yew, hazel, or ash, 
&c.; and mounds of earth were to be made 
in every township, for the use of the in¬ 
habitants. There were two kinds of bows 
in use among the English; namely, the 
long bow and the crossbow, those who used 
the long bow were called archers in dis¬ 
tinction from the crossbowmen. 

ARCHIL, a sort of lichen ; the name 
of a violet-red paste, used as a dye stuff. 

ARCHIMEDEAN SCREW. A spiral ma¬ 
chine for raising water, consisting of a 
tube rolled in a spiral form round a 
cylinder, a modification of which has 
been introduced for propelling steam- 
vessels. * 

ARCHITECT. One who is skilled in 
architecture. The architect forms plans and 
designs for edifices, conducts the work, and 
directs the artificers employed in it. 

ARCHITECTURE. The art of building, 
or the science which teaches the method 
of constructing any edifice for use or orna¬ 
ment. It is divided into civil, military, and 
navai architecture, according as the erec¬ 
tions are for civil, military, or naval pur¬ 
poses. The two last kinds are otherwise 
called Fortification,andNaval Architecture 
or Shipbuilding. (See Fortification and 
Naval Architecture.) 

ARCHITECTURE, History of. The 
origin of civil architecture, or architecture 
properly so called, is commonly derived 
from the building of huts in a conical form, 
spreading wide at the bottom, and joining 
in a point at the top, the whole being 
covered with reeds, leaves, &c. But what¬ 
ever may have been the form of the first 
buildings, there is no doubt that the making 
•fregular habitations was one of the first 


things which necessity suggested to the 
reason of man ; for we find that Cain, the 
son of Adam, built a city. Tents, or tem¬ 
porary residences, which were only suited 
to such as lead a wandering life, were not 
invented before the time of Jubal, the son 
of Tubal Cain ; since that time the Tartars 
have followed the practice, and the original 
inhabitants of America did the same. Every 
nation, in proportion to the degree of civili¬ 
sation which it has attained, has shown a 
disposition to exercise their ingenuity in 
the construction oftheir residences. Among 
the Egyptians this art was carried to an 
extraordinary degree of perfection. Their 
pyramids, labyrinths, and some ruins of 
their palaces and other edifices are still to 
be seen and admired as stupendous monu¬ 
ments of their industry, perseverance, and 
skill. Near Andera, in Upper Egypt, are 
the ruins of a palace of gray granite, the 
ceilings of which are supported by columns 
of such thickness, that four men can scarce¬ 
ly span them. The grand hall is 112 feet 
long, 60 high, and 58 broad. The roof of the 
whole edifice is a terrace, on which once 
stood an Arabian village. The Babylonians 
and Persians vied with the Egyptians, both 
in the grandeur and spiendour of theii 
buildings, as may be judged from the ruinr 
still remaining. A staircase was to be seen 
some time ago, having 95 steps ot white 
marble still standing, so broad and flat, that 
12 horses might conveniently go abreast. 

As these vast structures were not fitted 
for the general convenience of mankind 
we must look to the Greeks for the art of 
architecture as it has since been exercised. 
From the simple construction of wooden 
huts, Vitruvius supposes the orders of archi¬ 
tecture took their rise. When buildings of 
wood were superseded by solid and stately 
edifices of stone, they imitated the part* 
which necessity had introduced into the 
primitive huts ; so that the upright trees, 
with the stones at each extremity of them, 
were the origin of columns, bases, and 
capitals; and the beams, joists, rafters, and 
the materials which formed the covering, 
gave birth to architraves, frizes, triglyphs, 
cornices, with the corona, mutules, mo- 
dilions, and dentiles. To bring all these 
several parts to the state of perfection at 
which they arrived was the work of long 
experience and much reasoning, aided by 
the invention of many tools. The Greeks 
improved upon the works off he Egyptians, 
so as to render them, if not so durable, a 
least more ornamental, and perhaps mor* 
really serviceable. The construction of 
arches was unknown to the ancieKt Assy¬ 
rians and Babylonians, The roofs of theft 



ARCHITECTURE. 


halls were fiat,and covered with prodigious¬ 
ly large stones, some of them large enough 
to cover the whole room. They had columns, 
out they were ill proportioned, and the cap¬ 
itals were badly executed. The art of pro¬ 
portioning the various parts of a building 
belongs,in a peculiar manner, to the Greeks, 
from whom we derive the three principal 
orders: at the same time it must not be 
denied, that the Jewish nation had earlier 
examples of such proportion; and that, in 
all probability, the Greeks took their idea 
*f a regular order in architecture from the 
temple of Solomon. 

In the Doric Order, which is so called 
from Dorus, the son of Helenus, and grand¬ 
son of Deucalion, the column approaches 
very nearly to the proportions of those to 
be found in Solomon’s temple. This order 
was first employed by Dorus in the build¬ 
ing of atemple at Argos, in honour of Juno, 
and was formed according to the propor¬ 
tions between the foot of a man and the 
rest of his body, reckoning the foot to be 
the sixth part of a man’s height: they gave 
to a Doric column, taking in its chapiter, 
six of its diameters ; that is to say, they 
made it six times as high as it was thick, 
but they afterwards added a seventh di¬ 
ameter. 

The Ionic Order, which takes its name 
from the Ionians, in Upper Asia, was 
formed according to the proportions of a 
woman ; making the height of the column 
to be eight times greater than the diameter. 
They also made channeling in the trunk, 
»o imitate the folds in the dress of a woman, 
and by the volutes in the chapiter they re¬ 
presented that part of the hair which hung 
in curls on each side of the face ; besides 
the Ionians added a base to their column, 
which the Dorians originally had not. 

The Corinthian Order, which was poste¬ 
rior to the other two, took its rise from an 
accident related by Vitruvius. A basket, 
with a tile over it, had been placed on the 
tomb of a young Corinthian maid, near 
which grew the herb acanthus, or bear’s 
breech. The leaves of this plant rising up 
to the tile,then curled themselves down into 
a sort of volute, which being observed by 
Callimachus, the sculptor, he took the idea 
of representing such a circle of leaves in 
the capital of a column, that has since been 
characteristic ofthe Corinthian Order. Sca- 
mozzi calls this the virginal order, because 
it bears all the delicacy in its dress peculiar 
to young virgins. 

The Tuscan, or Etruscan Order, derives 
tfl name from the Etruscans, or Pelasgians, 
who first inhabited Etruria, in Italy ; this 
Is therefore looked upon as a Roman Order. | 


It lias tiie proportions of the Doric Order 
but as it is one ofthe plainest and s;mpleat 
orders, it is in all probability *»oe of the 
most ancient. Vitruvius speaks ofthe pro¬ 
portions of this order, but there are n« 
certain remains of it, unless we except the 
Trajan and Antonine pillars at Rome. 

The Composite or Roman Order, is so 
called because it combines the proportions 
and decorations of the Corinthian Order 
with the angular volute and dentils of the 
Ionian, thus forming a new order, which 
was adopted by the Romans. 

Both the Greeks and Romans v'ere in 
the practice of using the figures of men and 
women instead of regular columns, whence 
arose the Persian or Persic Order, in which 
the statues of men, and the Caryatic Order, 
in which the statues of women, served to 
support the entablatures, in the place of 
columns. The Romans had also their Ter¬ 
mini for the support of entablatures, the 
upper part of which represented the head 
and breast of a human body, and the lower 
the inverted frustrum of a square pyramid. 
Persian figures are generally charged with 
a Doric entablature ; the Caryatides with 
an Ionic or Corinthian architrave and cor¬ 
nice ; and the Termini with an entablature 
of any of the three Grecian orders. 

In their private buildings the Roman 
architects followed the Greeks ; but in theii 
public edifices they far surpassed them in 
grandeur. Architecture was carried to its 
highest pitch of perfection in the reign of 
Augustus. The Pantheon, one ofthe finest 
monuments of antiquity, was built by 
Agripjta, the son in law of Augustus. Some 
of his successors, particularly Trajan and 
Antoninus, were no less favourable to the 
exercise of this art; but on the decline of 
the empire, architecture shared the fate of 
other arts, and declined also, but did not 
altogether drop. New modes of building 
were introduced, which acquired the name 
of styles ; as the Gothic, Saxon, and Nor¬ 
man styles. 

The Gothic style was so called because 
it was first used by the Vis:goMis. The 
Saxon and Norman styles wero so called 
because they were respectively used by tne 
Saxons before the Conquest, and by the 
Normans after, in the building of church¬ 
es. The Saxon style was distinguished 
by the semicircular arch, which they seem 
to have taken partly from the Romans, and 
partly from their ancestors on the conti¬ 
nent. 

The Norman style was distinguished by 
the following particulars: the walls were 
very thick, generally without buttresses,- 
the arches, both within and with ’t semi, 



ARC 


A R I 


26 


circular, and supported by very plain and 
solid columns; of which examples are to 
be seen in the chancel at Orford, in Suf¬ 
folk, and at Christ Church, Canterbury. 
Sometimes, however, the columns were 
decorated with carvings of foliage or ani¬ 
mals, and sometimes with spirals, lozenge, 
or network. 

These two styles continued to be the pre¬ 
vailing modes of building in England until 
the reign of Henry FI., when a new mode 
was introduced, which was called modern 
Gothic. Whether this was purely a devia¬ 
tion from the other two modes, or whether 
it was derived from any foreign source, is 
not known. It is, however, supposed to 
be of Saracenic extraction, and to have 
been introduced by the crusaders. This 
supposition is strengthened by the fact, that 
the mosques and palaces of Fez, and also 
some of the cathedrals in Spain built by 
the Moors, are in this style ; which ought 
therefore to be called Arabic, Saracenic, 
or Moresque. This style is distinguished 
by its numerous buttresses, lofty spires, and 
pinnacles, large and ramified windows, 
with a profusion of ornaments throughout. 
It came into general use in the reign of 
Henry III.; when the circular gave way to 
the pointed arch, and the massive column 
to the slender pillar, of which the present 
cathedral church of Salisbury, begun at that 
period, affords the best specimen. From 
that time to the reign of Henry VIII. the 
pillars in churches were of Purbeck marble, 
very slender and round, encompassed with 
marble shafts a little detached, having each 
a capital adorned with foliage, which join- 
ingformedone elegant capital for the whole 
pillar. The windows were long and nar¬ 
row, with pointed arches and painted glass; 
and the lofty steeples were furnished with 
spires and pinnacles. In the reign of Hen¬ 
ry VIII. a new kind oflow pointed arch was 
introduced, which was described from four 
centres, was very round at the haunches, 
and the angle at the top was very obtuse, 
as may be seen in Cardinal Wolsey’s build¬ 
ings. In the fifteenth and sixteenth cen¬ 
turies the taste for Greek and Roman archi¬ 
tecture revived, and brought the five orders 
again into use, although for sacred edifices 
the Saxon and Gothic styles still maintain 
the preeminence. The Italians were fora 
long time reckoned the greatest architects, 
but England may also boast of an Inigo 
Jones and a Sir Christopher Wren, who 
hold a very high rank in the art Inigo 
Jones has left the banqueting house at 
Whitehall, Queen Catherine’s Chapel at 
(it. James’s, the Piazza at Covent Garden, 
uid other buildings, as proofs of his skill 


and taste. The works of Sir Christopher 
Wren even surpass those ofhis predecessor, 
both in number and magnitude. Among 
these stand foremost the Cathedral of St. 
Paul’s, Greenwich Hospital, the Monu¬ 
ment, Chelsea Hospital, the Theatre at 
Oxford, Trinity College Library, and Em¬ 
manuel College, Cambridge ; besides up 
wards of fifty-two churches and innumei 
able other public buildings. 

ARCHITECTURE (in Perspective). A 
sort of building, the members of which 
are of different measures and modules, and 
diminish in proportion to their distance, to 
make the building appear longer and large! 
to the view than it really is. 

ARCHITRAVE. That part of a column 
or series of columns that is above or lies 
immediately upon the capital. It is the 
lowest member of the frieze, and is sup¬ 
posed to represent the principal beam in 
limber buildings. It is sometimes called 
the reason piece, as in porticoes, cloisters 
&c.; and the masterpiece in chimneys. 

ARCHI VAULT. The inner contour of 
an arch, or a frame setoff with mouldings, 
running over the faces of the arch stones 
and bearing upon the imposts. 

ARCHIVES. The place where the re¬ 
cords, &c. belonging to the crown and 
kingdom are kept. 

ARCTIC. An epithet for what lies to the 
north, as the Arctic Circle, the Arctic Pole 

AREA. The site or space of ground on 
which any building is erected. 

AREA (in Geometry). The superficial 
contents of any figure, as a triangle, qua¬ 
drangle, &c. 

ARENA. That part of an amphitheatre 
where the gladiators contended, so called 
from the sand with which it was strewed 

ARGENT (in Heraldry). The white co 
lour in the coats of arms of baronets 
knights, and gentlemen. 

ARGO NAVIS. A constellation called 
after the ship of Jason and his compan¬ 
ions. 

ARGUMENT. Whatever is offered or 
offers itself to the mind, so as to create be¬ 
lief in regard to any subject or matter laid 
down. 

ARGUMENT (in Astronomy). An arc, 
whereby another arc is to be sought bear¬ 
ing a certain proportion to the first arc. 

ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM (In 
Logic). A mode of reasoning, in which an 
argument is drawn from the professed prin¬ 
ciples or practice of the ad /ersary. 

ARIES. The Ram, a constellation or 
fixed stars, and the first ofthe twelve sign* 
of the zodiac, marked (°K°). 

ARISTOCRACY A form of govern 




AR1 


30 ARI 

noent 1* which the power it Tested in the 
■obillty. 

ARITHMETIC. The art of numbering 
<»r computing by certain rules, of which the 
four first and simplest are addition, sub¬ 
traction, multiplication, and division. 
Vulgar Arithmetic is the computation of 
■umbers in the ordinary concerns of life. 
Integral Arithmetic treats of whole num¬ 
bers ; Fractional Arithmetic, of fractional 
numbers; Decimal Arithmetic, of decimal 
numbers. Universal Arithmetic is the 
name given to Algebra by Sir Isaac New¬ 
man. 

ARITHMETIC, History of. Of Arith¬ 
metic as a science, we know but very lit¬ 
tle as to its state and progress among the 
ancients. It is evident, from the bare con¬ 
sideration of our wants, and earliest im¬ 
pressions, that some knowledge of numbers 
or some mode of computation, however im¬ 
perfect, was coeval with society; and as the 
transactions of men became more compli¬ 
cated, it is reasonable to infer that they 
would hit on devices for facilitating and 
simplifying their calculations. Josephus 
asserts that Abraham, having retired from 
Chaldea into Egypt, during the time of a 
famine, was the first who taught the inha¬ 
bitants of that country a knowledge both 
of arithmetic and astronomy, of which they 
were both before ignorant; a circumstance 
the more probable, as it is well known that 
the science of astronomy was first cultiva¬ 
ted among the Chaldeans, and such advan¬ 
ces made in that science as could not have 
been effected without the aid of arithmeti¬ 
cal calculations. 

The Greeks imagined that the science of 
arithmetic, as well as that of geometry, 
originated with the Egyptians $ but this 
notion, as far as respects priority of dis¬ 
covery, was evidently erroneous, and no 
doubt arose from the circumstance of their 
having derived all their first ideas of the 
arts *..<t fences, as well as many of their 
life'** & »m the Egyptians. Thus, as the 
believed that they were taught 
•*«l_Wrs by their god Tlieut or Thot, who 
t-’«^ded over commerce, the Greeks as¬ 
signed a similar office to their god Mer¬ 
cury. As the Phoenicians were the first 
trading people, they naturally addicted 
themselves to the science and practice of 
arithmetic, which led Strabo to observe 
that the invention of the art belonged to 
them ; but, as the Chaldeans were a more 
ancient people, this supposition is no less 
erroneous than the former. What advan¬ 
ces were made by these people in the sci¬ 
ence we have no means of ascertaining, for 
nothing remains of the early writings on 


this subject except what may be gathered 
from the commentary of Prodius on the 
First Book of Euclid’s Elements It ap¬ 
pears that almost all nations were led to fix 
upon the same numeral scale, or the com¬ 
mon method of notation, by dividing num¬ 
bers into tens, hundreds, and thousands; 
a practice doubtless derived from the cus¬ 
tom, so universally adopted in childhood, 
of counting by the fingers j which, being 
first reckoned singly from one to ten, and 
then successively over again, would natu¬ 
rally lead to the decimal scale or the de¬ 
cuple division of numbers. But they rep¬ 
resented their numbers by means of the 
letters of the alphabet in the place of the 
modern numerals. Thus the Jews divided 
their alphabet into nine units, nine tens, 
and nine hundreds, including the final let¬ 
ters, as M Aleph, 1, 3 Beth, 2, &.c. to 1 Yod, 
10 ; then S Caph, 20, Lamed, 30, &c. t'' 
p Kopb, 100, Resh, 200, &c. to y Tsad; 
final, 900. Thousands were sometimes 
expressed by the units annexed to hund¬ 
red, as 1434 ; sometimes by the word 
tfr*, 1000 , 2000 , and with the 

other numerals prefixed, to signify the num¬ 
ber of thousands To avoid using the di¬ 
vine name of rp, Jehovah, in notation, 
they substituted p for fifteen. To the al¬ 
phabet of the Greeks were assigned two 
numerical powers, namely, a power to each 
letter in order, as a, Alpha, 1, &c. to 
to Omega, 24, and a power similar to that 
adopted by the Jews, as a Alpha, 1, &x 
to x Kappa, 10, &c.; to to Omega, 800 
then 900 was expressed by the character 
and the thousands were denoted by a poim 
under the letters after this manner, a , 1000 , 

(i 2000 , &c.; the number of 10,000 was 

sometimes expressed by a small dash over 
the iota thus», but mathematicians employ¬ 
ed the letter M, which, by placing under the 
small letters, indicated the nuinberofthou 
sands, as a for 10 , 000 , p for 20 , 000 , &c 

M M 

Diophantus and Pappus made Mu to re¬ 
present 10 , 000 , and then by the addition 
of the letters, as |$Mv, for 20,000, &,c. 
Apollonius divided numbers into periods 
of four characters, to which he gave a local 
value very similar to the modern mode of 
notation. The Greeks, however, were en¬ 
abled, by means of their letters, to perform 
the common rules of addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, and division, from which 
no doubt, the idea Was taken of working 
with betters in our Algebra; for it u worthy 
of observation that in their multiplicatioa 
they proceeded from left to rigkt as In the 





A RI 


ARM 


3 £ 


multiplication of algebra at present. The 
ftreeks had likewise another kind of nota¬ 
tion by means of capitals, more properly 
Initials of the names of numbers, and were 
used in inscriptions, as l for ra, or pta, 1, 

II for ns'i'Ts, 5, Z\ for dexce, 10 , &c. The 
Roman notation, which is still used in 
marking dates, and numbering chapters, 
&c consists of five of their capital letters, 
namely, 1 one, V five, X ten, L fifty, 
C one hundred, which are increased in 
this manner: the repetition of the I’s in¬ 
creases numbers by units, as II for two, 

III for three, &c.; that of X’s increases 
numbers by tens, as XX for twenty, XXX 
for thirty, &c.; and that of C’s increases 
numbers by hundreds, as CC for two hun¬ 
dred, CCC for three hundred, &.C.; also a 
less character before a greater diminishes 
the value of the number, as I before V, 
•ijius, IV, makes it four, I before X, thus, 
IX, makes it nine: on the other hand, a 
less character after a greater increases the 
value of the number, as I after V, thus, VI, 
makes it six, and I after X, thus, XI, makes 
it eleven. In what manner the Romans 
performed their arithmetical operations is 
not known ; but it is most probable that, 
as they were not a commercial nation, they 
followed the simplest forms of calculation : 
Ve must therefore look for further informa¬ 
tion on this subject to the period when the 
Arabs or Saracens introduced into Europe 
their mode of notation, which is not only 
distinguished from the others by the pecu¬ 
liarity of the characters, but also by their 
value and disposition. Although this nota¬ 
tion consists of only nine digits, with the 
cipher 0, yet, by giving a local power to 
these figures, namely, that of units, tens, 
hundreds,thousands, &c. they may be made 
»o express numbers to an indefinite extent. 
Besides, this mode also presents many ad¬ 
vantages by the additional facility with 
which all arithmetical operations are thus 
performed. By what nation this improve¬ 
ment was first made is not known. The 
Greeks, as before observed, were making 
advances towards it by giving a local value 
to certain periods of four numbers each, 
but it doe3 not appear that they proceeded 
any further. The Arabs introduced it into 
Europe about eight hundred years back, 
whence it soon circulated among the dif¬ 
ferent European nations ; but although the 
first use of this scale is commonly ascribed 
to them, yet they acknowledge themselves 
indebted to the Indians for it; and as this 
latter people v» ire in many respects very 
ingenious, it is not at all improbable that 
they were the authors of the invention. 
The cultivation of arithmetij in Europe 


may be dated from the thirteenth century 
when Jordanus of Namur, the first write* 
on the subject that we know of, flourished 
His arithmetic was published with illustra- 
tions, by Joannes Faber Stapulensis, in the 
fifteenth century, but was less perfect than 
the treatises of Lucas de Burgo and Nicholas 
de Tartaglia in that and the subsequent cen¬ 
turies. In France, the subject of arithmetic 
was handled about the same time by Cla- 
vius and Ramus; m Germany, Dy Sturmius, 
Stifelius, and Henischius; and in England 
by Recorde, Diggs,- and Buckley. After 
that period the writers on arithmetic be¬ 
came too numerous to be particularly spe¬ 
cified, but the names of Briggs, Emerson, 
Napier, Maclaurin, Hutton, and Bonny- 
castle, are entitled to notice for having 
systematized, enlarged, and in many par¬ 
ticulars simplified the science. 

ARK. The floating vessel in which Noah 
and his family were saved from the flood 
It was 500 feet long, 90 broad, and 50 high 

ARK OF THE COVENANT, or Mo¬ 
ses’ Ark. The chest in which the stone 
tables of the ten commandments, written 
by the hand of God, were laid up. 

ARMADILLA. A quadruped, a native 
of Brazil and the West Indies, with the 
snout of a pig, the tail of a jzard, and the 
feet of a hedgehog. He is armed with a 
coat of impenetrable scales, under which 
he retires like a tortoise. 


W 

15 ? 

r C< 



ARMILLARY SPHERE (in Astro 
nomy). An artificial sphere, composed xf 
a number of circles, of metal, wood. «v 
paper, representing the several circles ot 
the sphere of the world pat together in 
their natural order. The armillary sphere 
revolves upon an axis within a silvered 
horizon, which is divided into degrees, an.i 
moveable every way upon a brass supporter 
In Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, there is an 
armillary sphere constructed by Dr. Long, 
which is eighteen feet in diameter, and will 
contain more than thirty persons sitting 
within it, to view, as from a centre, the 
representation of the celestial spheres. That 
part of the sphere which is not visibls in 
England is cut off; and the whole is so 
contrived, that, by being turned round, it 








ART 


«2 ARR 


exhibits all the phenomena of the heavenly 
>odies. 



ARMORY. A branch of the science of 
heraldry, consisting in the knowledge of 
armorial bearings or coats of arms, which 
serve to distinguish the quality of the 
bearer. 

ARMOUR. All such habiliments as serve 
to defend the body from wounds inflicted 
by darts, swords, lances, &c. 

ARMY. A body of soldiers consisting of 
horse and foot, under the command of a 
general and subordinate officers, and com¬ 
pletely equipped and disciplined for service. 
An army is generally divided into a certain 
number ofcorps,each consistingofbrigades, 
regiments, battalions, and squadrons; when 
in the field, it is formed into lines ; the first 
line is called the vanguard, the second the 
main body, the third the rearguard, or body 
of reserve. The middle of each line is oc¬ 
cupied by the foot, the cavalry forms the 
right and left wing of each line, and some¬ 
times squadrons of horse are placed in the 
intervals between the battalions 

AROMA. A general name for all sweet 
spices, but particularly myrrh; also the 
odoriferous principle which produces the 
fragrance peculiar to some plants. 

ARRAC. A spirituous liquor distilled in 
India from the cocoa tree, rice, or sugar 
Ft is very strong, and intoxicates more than 
rum or brandy. 

ARRAIGNMENT (in Law). The bring¬ 
ing a prisoner forth, reading the indictment 
to him, and putting the question of guilty 
or not guilty. 

ARRAY. The drawing up of soldiers in 
order of battle. 

ARREARS. Money unpaid at the due 
time, as rent, moneys in hand, &c. 

ARREST (in Law). The apprehending 
and restraining a man’s person in order to 


compel him to be obedient to the law 
This, in all cases except treason, felony 
or breach of the peace, must be done h> 
the lawful warrant of some court of record 
or officer of justice. Arrest of judgment is 
the staying of judgment, or not proceeding 
to judgment. 

ARROW. A missile weapon, which i? 
commonly discharged from a bow When 
this weapon is borne in coats of arms it 
is said to be barbed and feathered. 

ARROW-ROOT. An Indian root, of 
which starch is made It is also used 
medicinally 

ARSENAL. A public storehouse for 
arms zjid all sorts of ammunition. 

ARSENIATE. A sort of salts formed 
by the combination of arsenic acid with 
different bases, as the arseniate of ammo¬ 
nia, &c 

ARSENIC. A ponderous mineral body 
It is yellow, white, and red. Yellow arsenic 
is the native arsenic dug out of the mines, 
otherwise called Arsenic Ore. White 
arsenic is drawn from the yellow by sub¬ 
limating ; and is reduced to powder by the 
mixture of oxygen, or exposure to the air 
This is sometimes used in medicine in 
small quantities, but is otherwise a deadly 
poison. Red arsenic is the yellow' arsenic 
rubified by fire, w'hen it is called realgal. 

ARSENLTE. A sort of salts formed by 
the combination of arsenious acid with 
different bases. 

ARSIS (in Grammar). The elevation of 
the voice, in distinction from thesis or the 
depression of the voice. Arsis and thesis 
in Ancient Music, is applied to the raising 
and falling of the hand in beating of time. 

ARTERY. A hollow, fistulous, conica 
canal, which serves to receive the blood 
from the ventricles of the heart, and tc 
distribute it to all parts of the body. 



ART. The contrivance and use of things 
by the help of thought and experience 









ART 


ASP 


U 


nod according to prescribed rules, so as to 
make them serve the purposes for which 
they were designed. Liberal or fine arts 
are those which are noble and worthy to 
Be cultivated without regard to lucre, as 
painting, poetry, music, &c. Mechanic arts 
are those wherein the hand and body are 
more concerned than the mind. Terms 
of art are such words as are used in re¬ 
gard to any particular art, profession or 
science. 

ARTICHOKE A plant very like the 
thistle, with scaly heads similar to the cone 
of the pine tree. Ai the bottom of each 
scale, as also at the bottom of each floret," 
is the well known fleshy edible substance. 
The Jerusalem Artich_Ke is a plant, the 
root of which resembles a potatoe, having 
the taste of the artichoke 

ARTICLE (in Law). The clause or con¬ 
dition in a covenant 

ARTICLE (in Grammar) A particle, 
which in most languages serves to denote 
the gender and case of nouns ; and in lan¬ 
guages which have not different termina¬ 
tions it serves to particularize the object 
referred to. 

ARTICULATION (in Anatomy). The 
junction of two bones intended for motion. 
There are two kinds; the diarthrosis, 
which has a manifest motion, and synar¬ 
throsis, which has only an obscure motion. 

ARTICULATION. The articulate or 
distinct utterance of every letter, syllable, 
or word, so as to make oneself intelligible. 

ARTIFICERS. Persons employed in 
•he performance of mechanical arts. 

ARTILLERY. A collective name de¬ 
noting all engines of war, but particularly 
cannon, mortars, and other large pieces, 
for the discharge of shot and shells. It is 
also employed to denote the science which 
teaches all things relating to the artillery, 
as the construction of all engines of war, 
the arrangement, movement, and manage¬ 
ment of cannon and all sorts of ordnance, 
used either in the field, or the camp, or at 
sieges, <fcc. 

ARTIODACTYLA. A division of the 
hoofed quarrupeds, in which each foot 
has an even number of toes, as two or 

four. 

ARTOCARPUS. The bread fruit tree 
of the South-Sea Islands. 

ARTISTE. A term of extensive use 
among the French, to denote one who 
is particularly dextrous in the art which 
he practises, of whatever nature it may 
be, as an opera-dancer, a hair-dresser, 
cook, etc. 

ARTOTYRITE. One of a sect of her¬ 
etics, in the primitive church, who cele¬ 
brated the eucharist with bread ana 
cheese. 


ARTIST A proficient in t x fine arts. 

ARUNDELIAN MARBLES. Ancient 
marbles illustrative of the history and my 
thology of the ancients, so called from the 
Earl of Arundel, by whom they were trans¬ 
ported from the island of Paros into Eng¬ 
land. They contain a chronicle of the city 
of Athens, supposed to have been inscribed 
thereon 2<>4 years before Christ. 

ASA-FCETIDA. A gum resin of a very 
fetid smeh, obtained from the ferula asa 
fcotida, a perennial plant, which isa native 
of Persia. It comes into this country in 
small grains of different colours, hard and 
brittle. 

ASBESTOS. A mineral substance, of 
which Amianthus is one of its principal 
species. This consists of elastic fibres, 
somewhat unctuous to the touch, and 
slightly translucent. The ancients manu¬ 
factured cloth from the fibres of the asbes¬ 
tos for the purpose, as is said, of wrapping 
up the bodies of the dead when exposed on 
the funeral pile ; it being incombustible in 
its nature. It is found in many places in 
Asia and Europe. 

ASCARIDES. Worms that infest the 
intestinum rectum, and cause a violent 
itching; also a kind of worms which infest 
the intestines of all animals. 

ASCENSION (in Astronomy). That de¬ 
gree of the equator reckoned from the fire* 
of Aries eastward, which rises with the sun 
or a star. This is either right or oblique 
according as it rises in a right or an ob¬ 
lique sphere. 

ASCENSIONAL DIFFERENCE The 
difference between the right and the ob¬ 
lique ascension in any point of the heav¬ 
ens. 

ASCENT. The rising of fluids in a glass 
tube or any vessel above the surface of their 
own level. 

ASH. A well known tree, the timber ‘>1 
which is next to the oak in value, beinj 
used in every sort of handicraft. 

ASHES. The earthy substances remain 
mg after combustion, which contain an 
alkaline salt; also the skimmings of mttai 
among the letter-founders. 

ASH-WEDNESDAY. The first day in 
Lent, so called from the custom of fasting 
in sackcloth and ashes 

ASP. A very small kind of serpent, pe 
culiar to Egy pt and Libya, the bite of which 
is deadly. Its poison is so quick in its op 
erations, that it kills without a possibility 
of applying any remedy. Those that ar« 
bitten by it are said to die within thre* 
hours, by means of sleep and iettes gy 





14 


ASS 


ASS 


without any pain; wherefore Cleopatra 
chose it as the easiest way of dispatching 
herself. 

ASPARAGUS. A valuable esculent 
plant, which requires three years at least to 
bring it to maturity from the time of sow¬ 
ing the seed, and will not yield vigorously 
without a continual supply of manure. 

ASPEN-TREE. A kind of white poplar, 
the leaves of which are small, and always 
trembling. 

ASPHALTUM, or Jews’Pitch. A solid, 
brittle, ponderous substance, which breaks 
with a polish, aud melts easily. It is found 
in a soft or liquid state on the surface of 
the Dead Sea, a lake in Judea, and by 
time grows dry and hard. The Egyptians 
used asphaltum in embalming, which they 
called numia mineralis 

ASS. A well known useful quadruped, 
remarkable for its patience, hardiness, and 
long life. The milk of the female is highly 
esteemed for its light and nutritious quality, 
and for that reason recommended for con¬ 
sumptive persons. 

ASPERGILLUS. The brush used in 
the Roman Catholic church to sprinkle 
holy water on the people. In Botany 
a genus of fungi. 

ASPHODEL. A name of the day-lily, 
king’s spear, and other elegant plants 
of the genus asphodelus. 

ASPHURELATA, or ASPHURELATES. 
A series of semi-metallic fossils, includ¬ 
ing bismuth, antimony, cobalt, zinc, 
and quicksilver ; thus called because in 
their purest state they are not malle¬ 
able. 

ASS. A well-known quadruped of the 
equine genus ; figuratively, a dull, 
stupid fellow ; a dolt, 

Assagay. A tall tree of South Africa, 
of which the natives make javelins or 
spears ; a spear made of this wood. 

ASSASSINS. A tribe or clan called Is- 
maelians, who settled on the moun¬ 
tains of Lebanon, about 1090, and be¬ 
came remarkable for their assassina¬ 
tions. 

ASSETS. The stock in trade and en¬ 
tire property of a merchant or of a trad¬ 
ing association ; goods or estate of a 
deceased person subject to the pay¬ 
ment of his debts ; the property of an 
insolvent debtor. 

ASSIDEANS. A name given in the first 
book of Maccabees, ii. 42, to a sect of 
Jews, who armed themselves under 
Mattathias to resist the introduction of 
the Grecian manners and idolatries in¬ 
to Judea. 

ASSIENTO. A contract formerly en¬ 
tered into between the kings of Spain 
and foreign merchants, relative to the 
importation of negro slaves into the 
Spanish dominions in South America. 

ASSAM TEA. In botany, a valuable 
kind of tea, raised and manufactured in 
the upper district of India. 


ASPHYXIA, or ASPHYXY. In patholo* 
gy, the state of the body in which the 
pulse is so low as not to be felt: but 
now applied by the faculty to the 
symptoms of suffocation produced by 
an accumulation of carbonic acid in the 
blood; the vital phenomena being sus¬ 
pended, but life not extinct. 

ASSAYING. The particular mode of 
trying ores or mixed metals by means o* 
proper fluxes, in order to discover the pr» 
portion of metal, as also of the other ingre 
dients, as alum, sulphur, vitriol, and the 
like, which are contained in them. Gold 
is obtained pure by dissolving it in nitre- 
muriatic acid, when the metal may be pre¬ 
cipitated by dropping in a diluted solution 
of sulphate of iron j the precipitate which 
is In the form of a powder is pure gold. 
Silver is obtained pure by dissolving it in 
nitric acid, and precipitating it with a di¬ 
luted solution of sulphate of iron. 

ASSIDENT. In pathology, an epithet 
applied to symptoms that accompany 
disease. Assident signs are those par¬ 
ticular indications which attend disease. 

ASSIGNATS. Paper mon^y issued by 
the French Government during the 
first Revolution. 

ASSIGN (in Law). One to whom any 
thing is assigned or made over, as an exe¬ 
cutor, &c.; also an assignee or assign to a 
bankrupt’s estate. 

ASSIGNMENT. A transfer or making 
over to another the right one has in any 
estate, usually applied to an estate for life 
or years. It differs from a lease in this, 
that by an assignment one parts with the 
whole interest one has in the thing, but by 
a lease he reserves himself a reversion. 

ASSIMILATION (in Physics). The pro 
cess in the animal economy by which the 
food is converted into nourishment for the 
body. 

ASSIZE (in Law). An assembly of 
knights and other substantial men, who, 
with the justices, met at a certain time 
and in a certain place for the due admi¬ 
nistration of justice. In the modern appli¬ 
cation it signifies a sitting of the judges by 
virtue of a commission, to hear and de 
termine causes. The assizes are geneia/ 
when the justices go their circuits, with 
commission to take all assizes, that is, 
hear all causes; they are special when 
special commissions are granted to iiea* 
particular causes. 

ASSOCIATION. The connexion of ideas 
in the human mind which for the most part 
immediately follow one another, whether 
there is any natura' relation bet ween then 
or not. 





AST 


AST 


ASSUMPSIT (in Law). A voluntary 
promise by which a man binds himself to 
pay any thing to another, or to do any 
work. 

ASSURANCE, or INSURANCE. An 
engagement by which a person becomes 
bound for a specified sum, and for a limited 
period, to indemnify another for any losses 
which hi3 property may sustain from fire 
or shipwreck, &c. 

ASTERISK. A star (*) used in printing 
as a mark of reference. 

ASTEROID. A name given to four plan 
ets between the orbits of Mars and Jupi¬ 
ter, viz., Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta. 

ASTHMA. A painful, difficult, and la¬ 
borious respiration, with a sense of stricture 
across the breast,that sometimes approaches 
to suffocation. 

ASTRAGAL (in Anatomy). The ankle 
bone; in Architecture, a small round mould¬ 
ing serving as an ornament to the tops and 
bottoms of columns 

' i 

ASTRAGAL (in Gunnery). A small 
moulding encompassing a cannon. 

ASTROLABE. An instrument for taking 
the altitude of the sun or stars at sea. 

ASTROLOGY. An art formerly much 
cultivated, but now exploded, of judging 
or predicting human events from the situ¬ 
ation and different aspects of the heavenly 
todies. 

ASTRONOMY. The science which treats 
c the sun, moon, earth, planets, and other 
heavenly bodies .showing their magnitudes, 
order, and distances from each other, mea¬ 
suring and marking their risings, settings, 
motions, appearances, the times and quan¬ 
tities of their eclipses, &c. It comprehends 
what was anciently called the doctrine of 
(he sphere, and is a mixed mathematical 
science. 

ASTRONOMY, History of. Of all the 
sciences which have engaged the attention 
of mankind, none appears to have been 
cultivated so early as that of astronomy, 
which treats of the noblest and most inter¬ 
esting objects of contemplation. Josephus 
informs us that Seih, the son of Adam, is 
said to have laid the foundations of this 
science, and that his posterity, understand¬ 
ing fiom a prediction of Adam that there 
would be a general destruction of all things, 
once by the rage of fire and once by the 
violence and multitude of waters, made two 
pillars, one of brick and the other of stone, 
and engraved the 'r inventions on each, that 
if the pillar of ouck happened to be over¬ 
thrown by the flood, that of stone might 


86 

remain ; which latter pillar, Josephus adds, 
was to be seen in his day. He also ascribes 
to the antediluvians a knowledge of the 
astronomical cycle of 600 years, but upon 
what authority we are not informed. 

The account is, however, not improbable; 
for historians generally agree in assigning 
the origin of astronomy to the Chaldeans 
soon after the deluge, when, for the purpose 
of making their astrological predictions, to 
which they were much addicted, as also 
for that of advancing the science of astro¬ 
nomy, they devoted themselves to the study 
of the heavenly bodies. The Chaldeans 
were in fact a tribe of Babylonians, who 
constituted the priests, philosophers, astro¬ 
nomers, astrologers, and soothsayers of this 
people, whence a Chaldean and a sooth¬ 
sayer became synonymous terms. These 
Chaldeans discovered the motions of the 
heavenly bodies ; and, from their supposed 
influences on human affairs, pretended to 
predict what was to come. The planets 
they called their interpreters, ascribing to 
Saturn the highest rank; the next in emi¬ 
nence was Sol, the sun; then Mars, Venus, 
Mercury, and Jupiter. By the motions and 
aspects of all these they foretold storms of 
wind and of rain, or excessive droughts, as 
also the appearance of comets, eclipses of 
the sun and moon, and other phenomena 
They also marked out thirty-six constella 
tions, twelve of which they placed in the 
zodiac, assigning to each a month in the 
year, and thus dividing the zodiac into 
twelve signs, through which they taught 
that the several planets performed their 
revolutions. They appear not to have had 
much idea of the immense distance of some 
of the planets from the sun, but accounted 
for the time they took in performing their 
revolutionsbytheslownessoftheir motions 
They, however, held that the moon com¬ 
pleted her course the soonest of any, not 
because of her extraordinary velocity, but 
because her orbit, as it would now be called, 
was less than that of any of the heavenly 
bodies. They taught that she shone with a 
light not her own, and that when eclipsed 
she was immersed in the shadow of the 
earth. Of the eclipses of the sun they ap¬ 
pear to have had no just idea, nor could 
they fix the time when they should happen 
Their ideas of the earth as a celestial body 
were also crude and imperfect. 

Astronomy was cultivated in Egypt nearly 
about the same time as among the Clial 
deans ; and, according to the opinions oi 
some, the honour of the invention is due 
to them : but the most probable conclusion 
is, that as these two nations were coeval, 
and H oth addicted to the arts and sciences 







88 


ASTRONOMY. 


they cultivated astronomy at the same time. 
The Egyptians had at a very early period 
their college of priests, who were all accu¬ 
rate observers of the stars, and kept, as 
Diodorus observes, registers of their obser¬ 
vations for an incredible number of years. 
It is said, that in the monument of Osy- 
mandyas there was a golden circle of 365 
cubits in circumference and one cubitthick, 
divided into 365 parts, answering to the 
days of the year, &c. The Egyptians dis¬ 
covered that th? stars had an annual motion 
of 50" ,9"' ,45"" in the year; and Macrobius 
asserts that they made the planets revolve 
about the sun in the same order as we do. 
From Chaldea and Egypt astronomy passed 
into Phoenicia, where it was applied by that 
trading people to the purposes of navigation. 
The Arabians also, one of the most ancient 
nations in the world, cultivated astronomy 
as far as was needful to answer the ends of 
their pastoral life, by observing the stars, 
their position,and influence on the weather. 
In travelling through the desert, we are 
informed that, at a very early period, they 
used to direct their course by the Great 
and Little Bear, as is done at sea to this 
day. They also gave names to the stars, 
mostly in allusion to their flocks and herds; 
and they were so nice in this matter that 
no language abounds with so many names 
of sthrs and asterisms as the Arabic. 

As to the Indians and Chinese there is 
no doubt but that they cultivated astronomy 
at a very early period, and that the Brah¬ 
mins of the former people, being altogether 
devoted to speculative sciences, made ad¬ 
vances in that of astronomy equal to any 
of the nations of antiquity. M. Bailly in¬ 
forms us, in his history, that he examined 
and compared foqf different sets of astro¬ 
nomical tables of the Indian philosophers, 
namely, that of the Siamese explained by 
M. Cassini in 1689; that brought from India 
by M. leGentil,ofthe Academy of Sciences, 
and two other manuscript tables, found 
among the papers of the late M. de Lisle; 
all of which he found to accord with one 
another, referring to the meridian of Be¬ 
nares. It appears that the Indians date their 
astronomy from a remarkable conjunction 
of the sun and moon which took place at 
the distance of 302 years before Christ; 
and M. Bouilly concludes that, from our 
most accurate astronomical tables, such a 
conjunction did take place. The Indians 
calculate eclipses by the mean motions of 
the sun and moon, commencing at a period 
five thousand years distant; but, without 
giving them credit for an antiquity which 
ia at variance with all historical documents, 
•acred and profane, it suffices here to ob- 


I serve that they have adopted the cycle « 
nineteen years, and that their astronomy 
agrees with modern discoveries in many 
particulars,as to the obliquity of the ecliptic, 
and an acceleration of the motion of the 
equinoctial points. They also assign ine¬ 
qualities to the motions of the planets, an 
swering very well to the annual parallax, 
and the equation of the centre. 

The Greeks, without doubt, derived their 
astronomical knowledge from the Egyptian* 
and Phoenicians by means of several of their 
countrymen, particularly Thales the Mile 
sian, who, about 640 years before Christ 
travelled into Egypt, and brought from 
thence the chief principles of the science 
He was the first among the Greeks who 
observed the stars, the solstices, the eclipses 
of the sun and moon, and proceeded so far 
as to predict an eclipse of the sun. It 
appears, however, that, before his time, 
many of the constellations were known, 
for we find mention of them in Hesiod and 
Homer, two of their earliest writers. After 
Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anas 
agoras, but above all, Pythagoras, distil* 
guished themselves among the number of 
those who cultivated astronomy. The latter, 
after having resided a long time in Egypt 
and other foreign parts, established a sect 
of philosophers in his own country, known 
by the name of Pythagoreans. He taught, 
among other things, that the sun was in 
the centre of the universe and immovable; 
that the earth was round, and the inhabit¬ 
ants were antipodes to each other; that the 
moon reflected the rays of the sun, and was 
inhabited like the earth ; that comets were 
wandering stars; that the milky way was 
an assemblage of stars, which derived its 
white colour from the brightness of their 
light; besides a number of other particulars, 
some of which are admitted in the present 
day. Philolaus, a Pythagorean, maintain 
ed the doctrine of the earth’s motion round 
the sun, 450 years before Christ, and Hice 
tus, a Syracusan, taught, a hundred years 
after, the diurnal motion of the earth on its 
own axis ; also Meton, the inventor of th*- 
Metonic cycle, and Euctemon, observed the 
summer solstice 432 years before Christ, be 
sides the risings and settings of the stai-s, 
and what seasons they answered to Th* 
same subject was treated of at large by 
Aratus in his poem entitled Phenomena 
Eratosthenes, a Cyrenian, who was born 
in 271 b. c. measured the circumference of 
the earth ; and, being invited to the court of 
Ptolemy Evergetes at Alexandria, he was 
made keeper of the royal library, and set 
up there the armillary spheres which Hip¬ 
parchus and Ptolemy afterwards used w 




ASTRONOMY 


87 


effectually. He also determined the dis¬ 
tance between the tropics to be 11-83 of the 
whole meridian circle, which makes the 
obliquity of the ecliptic in his time to be 23 
degrees, 51 minutes and one-third. Ar¬ 
chimedes is said to have constructed a 
planetarium to represent the phenomena 
and motions of the heavenly bodies; and 
many others added to the stock of astro¬ 
nomical knowledge, but none so much as 
Hipparchus, who flourished about 140 years 
b. c. and surpassed all that had gone be¬ 
fore him in the extent of his researches. 
He showed that the orbits of the planets 
were eccentric, and that the moon moved 
slower in her apogee than in her perigee. 
He constructed tables of the motions of 
the sun and moon; collected accounts of 
eclipses that had been computed by the 
Chaldeans and Egyptians; and calculated 
such as would happen for six hundred 
years to come; besides correcting the er¬ 
rors of Eratosthenes in his measurement 
of the earth’s circumference, and compu¬ 
ting the sun’s distance more accurately. 
He is, however, most distinguished by his 
catalogue of the fixed stars to the number 
of a thousand and twenty-two, with their 
latitudes and longitudes, and apparent 
magnitudes. These and most other of his 
observations are preserved by his illustri¬ 
ous successor Ptolemy. 

From the time of Hipparchus to that of 
Ptolemy, an interval of upwards of two 
centuries, few or no advances were made 
in astronomy. ' Claudius Ptolemy, who 
was born at Pelusium in Egypt, in the first 
century of the Christian era, is well known 
as the author of a great work on astronomy, 
entitled his Almagest, which contains a 
complete system of astronomy drawn from 
the observations of all preceding astrono¬ 
mers in union with his own. He maintain¬ 
ed the generally received opinion of the 
sun’s motion, which continued to be uni¬ 
versally held until the time of Copernicus. 
The work of Ptolemy being preserved from 
the grevious conflagration that consumed 
the Alexandrian library during the ravages 
of the Saracens, was translated out of the 
Greek into the Arabic, a. d 827 and, bv 
the help of this translation, the Arabians, 
who now addicted themselves to the study 
of astronomy, cultivated it with great ad¬ 
vantage under the patronage of the caliphs, 
particularly A1 Mamon, who was himself 
an astronomer, and made jnany accurate 
observations by the help of instruments, 
which he himself constructed. He deter¬ 
mined the obliquity of the ecliptic in his 
time to be 23 degrees, 35 minutes. Among 
the Arabian authors of this period was Al- 

4 


fragan, who wrote his Elements of Astro¬ 
nomy, and Albetegnius, who flourished 
about 880. This latter compared his own 
observations with those of Ptolemy, and 
computed the motion of the sun’s apogee 
from Ptolemy’s time to his own. He also 
composed tables for the meridian of Arabia, 
which were much esteemed by his country¬ 
men. After this, Ebn Younis, astronomer 
to the caliph of Egypt, observed some 
eclipses, by means of which the quantity 
of the moon’s acceleration since that tiaa 
has been determined; also Arzechel, a 
Moor of Spain, observed the obliquity of the 
ecliptic; and Alhazen his contemporary, 
wrote on the twilight, the height of the 
clouds, and the phenomena of the horizon¬ 
tal moon. He likewise first employed the 
optical science in astronomical observa¬ 
tions, and showed the importance of the 
theory of refraction in astronomy. 

In the thirteenth century, astronomy, as 
well as other arts and sciences, began to 
revive in Europe, particularly under the 
auspices of the emperor Frederick II. ■ 
who, besides restoring some decayed uni¬ 
versities, founded a new one, and in 1230 
caused the works of Aristotle, and the Al¬ 
magest of Ptolemy to be translated into 
Latin. Two years after this, John de Sacro 
Bosco, or John of Halifax, published his 
work De Sphcera, a compendium of astro¬ 
nomy drawn from the works of Ptolemy, 
Alfragan, Albetegnius, and others. This 
was held in high estimation for some cen¬ 
turies, and was honoured with a commen¬ 
tary from the pen of Clavius and other 
learned men. In 1240, Alphonsus king of 
Castile, a great astronomer himself, and an 
encourager of astronomers, corrected with 
their assistance the tables of Ptolemy, 
which, from him, were called the Alphon- 
sine tables. About the same time Rogei 
Bacon published his tracts on astronomy 
and shortly after Vitellio, a Polander, in 
his treatise on optics, showed, in accord¬ 
ance with Alhazen, the use of refraction 
in astronomy. Nearly two centuries elap¬ 
sed from this period before any farther 
progress was made in the science, when 
Purbach composed new tables of sines for 
every ten minutes, constructed spheres 
and globes, wrote commentaries on Ptole¬ 
my’s Almagest, corrected the tables of trie 
planets and the Alphonsine tattles, utter 
mined the obliquity of the ecliptic at & 
degrees, 33 minutes and a half, and begun, 
at his death, a new series of tables for com¬ 
puting eclipses. He was succeeded by 
John Muller, commonly called Regio¬ 
montanus, Bernard Walther, John Werner, 
and others John Werner showed that the 





ASTRONOMY 


K 

motion of the fixed stars, since called the 
precession of the equinoxes, was about 1 
degree, 10 minutes, in a hundred years. 
The celebrated Copernicus came next in 
order, who distinguished himself by calling 
In question the Ptolemaic system of the 
aniyerse, and reviving that of Pythagoras. 
After making a series of observations, and 
forming new tables, he completed in 1530 
his work, first published under the title of 
De Revolutionibus Cieiestium Orbium, and 
afterwards under that of Astronomia In- 
siaurata, in which he set forth the system 
since known by the name of the solar sys¬ 
tem, in which all the planets are consider¬ 
ed as revolving round the sun as their 
immovable centre 

The science of astronomy henceforth 
continued to receive regular accessions and 
improvements by a series of writers, as 
Schoner, Nonnius, Appian, Gemma Frisi- 
us, Byrgius, &c. Besides, William IV., 
landgrave of Hesse Cassel, applying him¬ 
self to the study, formed, by the help of the 
best instruments then to be procured, a 
catalogue of four hundred stars, with their 
latitudes and longitudes adapted to the be¬ 
ginning of the year 1593. About this time 
the Copernican system found a strenuous 
though unsuccessful opponent in Tycho 
Braise, a Danish nobleman, who, to obviate 
the objections against the Ptolemaic sys¬ 
tem, advanced an hypothesis of his owa, 
which added less to his reputation than 
the accurate observations which he made 
by the help of improved instruments in a 
new observatory built for him by order oif 
the king of Denmark. His friend Kepler, 
who enjoyed the title of mathematician t » 
the empeior, finished his tables after lit > 
death, and published them under the titli 
of Rhodolphine tables. This latter astron¬ 
omer discovered that all the planets revol v j 
round the sun, not in circular but in ellip¬ 
tical orbits; that their motions are not equa¬ 
ble, but quicker and slower as they ar* 
nearer to the sun or farther from him; be> 
sides a number of other observations on th« 
motions and distances of the planets. Be 
also concluded, from his observations on 
the comets, that they are freely carried 
about among the orbits of the planets in 
paths that are nearly rectilinear. To the 
astronomers of this age may be adaed Bay¬ 
er, who, in his Uranometria, has given a 
representation of all the fconsiasHations, 
with the stars marked on them, and accom¬ 
panied with the Greek letters for the con¬ 
venience of reference 

The seventt eaih ter.tvry added rnt.ny 
great names to the an of astronomers, a» 
ttelileo hevelius, New¬ 


ton, and Flamsteai, &c. As the Copers. - 
can system had met with an opponent is 
one that ranked high in the science, it 
found a defender in Galileo, an Italian no¬ 
bleman, who in his Dialogi, in 1632, drew 
a comparison between the Ptolemaic and 
Copernican system, much to the advan¬ 
tage of the latter, for which he incurred the 
censures of the church, as the doctrine of 
the sun’s immobility was looked upon as 
directly opposed to the express language oi 
Scripture. Although Galileo professed to 
recant in order to obtain his liberation from 
prison, yet the system daily gained ground, 
and became at length established Galileo 
besides made many accurate observations 
in astronomy, and was one of the first who, 
by improving the new invention of the 
telescope, was enabled to employ them in 
advancing his favourite science. By this 
means he is said to have discovered inequa¬ 
lities in the moon’s surface, Jupiter’s satel¬ 
lites, and the ring of Saturn ; so likewise 
spots in the surface of the sun, by which 
he found out the revolution of that luminary 
on its own axis. He also ascertained whtt 
Pythagoras had conjectured, that the milky 
way and the nebulae consisted of innumer¬ 
able small stars. Harriot made similat dis¬ 
coveries in England at the same time, if no 
earlier. Hevelius, by means of his obses - 
vations, formed a catalogue of fixed stsxs 
much more complete than that of Tycho’s. 
Huygens and Cassini discovered the satel¬ 
lites of Saturn, and Sir Isaac Newton de- 
monstiated, from physical considerations, 
the laws which regulated the motions of 
the heavenly bodies, and set bounds to the 
planetary orbs,determining their excursions 
from the sun, and their nearest approaches 
to him; he also explained the principle 
which occasioned that constant and regular 
proportion, observed both by the primary 
and secondary planets in their revolutions 
round their central bodies, and their dis¬ 
tances compared with their periods. His 
theory of the moon, grounded on the laws 
of gravity and mechanics, has also been 
found to account for all her irregularities 
Mr Flamstead filled the office of Astrono¬ 
mer Royal at Greenwich from 1675 until 
his death in 1729, during which time he 
was constantly employed in making obser 
vations on the phenomena of the heavens 
As the result of his labours he published a 
catalogue ofthree thousand stars, with ii-ieir 
places to the year 1689; also new solar 
tables, and a theory of the moon according 
to Horrox. On his tables was constructed 
Newton’s theory of the moon, as also the 
tables of 4 "T. Halley, who succeeded him 
.tn his in 1729 Besides compocmj 



ASTRONOM i 


89 


tables tf the sun, moon, and planets, Dr. 
Halley added to the list of astronomical 
discoveries, being the first who discovered 
the acceleration ofthe moon’s mean motion. 
He also contrived a method for finding her 
parallax by three observed places of a solar 
eclipse, and showed the use that might be 
made of the approaching transit of Venus 
m 1761, in determining the distance of the 
sun from the earth, and recommended the 
method of determining the longitude by the 
moon’s distance from the sun and certain 
fixed stars, which was aftei wards success¬ 
fully adopted by Dr. Maskelrne, Astrono¬ 
mer Royal. 

It was about this period that the question 
respecting the figure of the earth appears 
to have been satisfactorily decided, and in 
favour of Newton’s theory. M. Cassini 
concluded, from the measurement of M. 
Picard, that it was an oblong spheroid, 
but Sir Isaac Newton, from a considera¬ 
tion of the laws of gravity, and the diurnal 
motion of the earth, had determined its 
figure to be that of an oblate spheroid flat¬ 
tened at the poles, and protuberant at the 
equator. To determine this point Louis XV. 
ordered two degrees of the meridian to be 
measured, one under or near the equator, 
the other as near as possible to the poles; 
the expedition to the north being intrusted 
to Messrs. Maupertuis and Clairaut, that to 
the south to Messrs. Condamine, Bouguer, 
and Don Ulloa. Among the many obser¬ 
vations made by those who went on this 
expedition, it was found by those who 
went to the south that the attraction ofthe 
mountain of Peru had a sensible effect on 
the plumb lines of their large instruments, 
which is supposed to afford an experimental 
proof of the Newtonian doctrine of gravita¬ 
tion. A similar observation has since been 
made by Dr. Maskelyne on the mountain 
Schehallien in Scotland. 

The eighteenth century was marked by 
the discoveries of Dr. Bradley, the successor 
to Dr. Halley as Astronomer Royal, and 
Dr. Herschel, who also filled the same post 
so honourably to himself. Dr. Bradley dis¬ 
covered the aberration of light, and the 
mutation ofthe earth’s axis, besides having 
formed new and accurate tables of the mo¬ 
tions of Jupiter’s satellites, and the most 
correct table of refractions that is extant: 
also with a large transit instrument, and a 
new mural quadrant of eight feet radius, 
he made observations for determining the 
places of all the stars in the British cata¬ 
logue, and likewise nearly a hundred and 
fifty places ofthe moon. Dr. Herschel, by 
augmenting the powers of the telescope 
fc^vond any filing existing before or even 


thought i, succeeded in discovering a new 
planet,which henamed theGeorgiumSidus: 
he also discovered two additional satellites 
to Saturn, besides those of his own planet 
Among those who cultivated the higher 
branches of the science, and distinguished 
themselves by their researches, Dr. Maske¬ 
lyne,the predecessor of Dr. Herschel, ranks 
the foremost, having been the originator of 
the Nautical Almanac, and brought into us® 
the lunar method of determining the longi- 
f de, &c. besides making the requisite ta- 
»les The theoretical part of the science 
was indebted to Clairaut, Euler, Simpson, 
de la Caille, Kiel, Gregory, Leadbetter, for 
many correct observations and elucida¬ 
tions. The practical part acquired a system¬ 
atic form and many improvements from the 
pens of Lalande, Fergus®n, Emerson, Bon- 
nycastle, Vince, &c. The historians of the 
science are Weilder, in his History of 
Astronomy; Bailiie, in his History of An¬ 
cient and Modern Astronomy; Montuccla, 
in his Histoire des Mathematiques; and 
Lalande, in the first volume of his Astro¬ 
nomy 

The Ninteenth Century has been char 
acterised by great advances in the 
science. Early in the Century, Ceres, 
Pallas, Juno and Vesta were discovered, 
revolving in the space between Mars 
and Jupiter, and numbers of others 
have been added since. During the 
year 1878, eleven were discovered, ma¬ 
king altogether 191 Asteroids or minor 
planets. The discovery or practical ap¬ 
plication of spectrum analysis by 
Bunsen and Kirchhoffin 1859, has pro¬ 
duced marvelous results. The inner¬ 
most secrets of the solar composition 
have been laid bare, whilst the great 
scientists Lockyer, Crova, Crookes, 
Huggins, Draper and Young ai’e still 
busily at work in investigating and ex¬ 
pounding solar phenomenon. 

ASTROSCOPE. An astronomical in¬ 
strument for making observations of 
the stars, and ascertaining their po¬ 
sition in the heavens.—Astroscopy is 
the art of examining the stars by the 
agency of telescopes. 

ASTROTHEMATIC. The places of the 
stars in an astrological scheme of the 
heavens. 

ASTROTHEOLOGY. Theology found¬ 
ed on observation of the heavenly 
bodies, presenting proofs of the exist¬ 
ence and omniscience of a Deity. 

ASYMPTOTE. In mathematics, aright 
line which continually approaches 
nearer and nearer to a curve, without 
e v or meeting it. 

ATACAMITE. A native ore of copper, 
called also copper-sand, found in the 
desert of Atacama between Chili and 

Peru. 



40 


ATO 


ATE 


ATOMIC THEORY. In chemistry, the 
doctrine which teaches that the atoms 
of elementary substances become com¬ 
bined in certain definite proportions ; 
and that all bodies are composed of 
ultimate atoms, their weight differing 
in different bodies. The relation in 
weight among the molecules of bodies 
constitutes the basis of the atomic 
theory, which establishes the important 
fact that bodies do not combine at ran¬ 
dom, but in definite proportions by 
weight. Thus, admitting the principle 
that all atomic weights are multiples by 
whole numbers of the atomic weight 
of hydrogen, it follows that all atomic 
weights whatever will be expressed 
in whole numbers ; the number for 
hydrogen being 1. Professor Graham, 
in his “ Elements of Chemisti’y,” pre¬ 
sents a tabular view of the different 
elementary bodies, with the symbols 
by which they are indicated. In this 
table the Chemical Symbols and Equiva¬ 
lents are modes of expi’essing by letters 
and figures the definite proportions in 
which the substances chemically com¬ 
bine with one another, as elucidated in 
the annexed table. Tlxus hydrogen is 
repi-esented by H 1; Oxygen by O 8 ; 
and water by H O. Iodine being denoted 
by I, and Fluorine by F, the symbols H 
I and H F denote hydriodie and lxydro- 
fiuoi’ic acid respectively. It happens, 
however, that many of the elementai-y 
bodies have names beginning with the 
same letter. In sixch cases the single 
letter is usually appropriated to one of 
them, and the others are denoted by 
that letter joined with some other letter 
of their names. Thus carbon is denoted 
by C. calcium by Ca, cobalt by Co, and 
chlorine by Cl. The names of the ele¬ 
ments in the different languages of 
Europe not always beginning with the 
same letter, it has beexx agreed to form 
them from the Latin names of the ele¬ 
ments ; thxxs copper (cuprxxm) is repre¬ 
sented by Cu, iron (ferrxxm) by Fe, tin 
(stannum) by Sn, &c. The great advan¬ 
tage of these symbols is, that they en¬ 
able us to represent chemical decompo¬ 
sitions in the form of equations. Thus, 
for the action of zinc on hydroclxloi’ic 
acid, we have— 

H Cl + Zn = Zn Cl + H, 
which means that hydrochloric acid 
and zinc, when placed in contact, pro¬ 
duce chloride of zinc and free hydrogen. 
The left-hand side of the equation re¬ 
presents the state of things before the 
action, and the right-hand side shows 
the change prodxxced The annexed 
table contains an alphabetical list of the 
elementary bodies at present known, 
together with their symbols and their 
equivalents: hydrogen being taken as 
xxnity. The words in parentheses are 
the Latin names of certain elements, as 
previously explained :— 

ELEMENTS. SYMBOLS. EQUIV. 

AlxxnxiP < Mm...A1.13-70 


< Antimony (Stibixun) 


..Sb.. 

_64-60 

J Arsenic... 




j Barium. 



.. ..68-70 

Bismuth. 


. Bi.. 

_71-00 

Boron. 


. .B... 

.. ..10-90 

Bromine. 


..Bin. 

....78-40 

Cadmium. 


..Cd.. 

....55-80 

Calcium. 


.Ca.. 

_20-50 

Carbon. 


.C... 

.... 6-12 

Cerium. 


..Ce.. 

_46-00 

Chloi-ine. 


.Cl.. 

... 35-42 

Chromium.. 


..Cr.. 

_28-00 

Cobalt. 


..Co.. 

....29-50 

Colxxmbixim [Tantalum) 

..Ta.. 

...185-00 

Copper (Cuprum)... 


.Cu.. 

.. ..31-60 

Fluoi-ine. 


..F... 

_18-68 

Glucinium. 



_26-50 

Gold (Aurum). 



...199-20 

Hydrogen. 


.11... 

.. 1-00 

Iodine. 



..126-30 

Iridium. 


.Ir... 

....98-80 

Iron (Ferruxn). 


.Fe.. 

_28-00 

Lead (Plumbum). 


.Pb.. 

...103-60 

Lithium. 


.L... 

... 6-00 

Magnesium. 


• Mg.. 

....12-70 

Manganese. 


.Mil.. 

_27-70 

Mercxxry (Hydrargyrum) .Hg.. 

...202-00 

Molybdenum. 


.Mo.. 

.. ..47-70 

Nickel. 


.Ni... 

. ..29-50 

Nitrogen. 


.N.... 

_14-15 

Osmixxm. 


.Os... 

....99-70 

Oxygen. 


. 0 .... 

_8-00 

Palladium. 


.Pd .. 

_53-30 

Phosphorxxs. 



.. ..15-70 

Platinum. 


.PL.. 

. ...98-80 

Potassixxm (Kalixinx). 


.K... 

....39-15 

Rhodixxm. 


..R... 


Selenium. 


.Se... 

.. ..39-60 

Silicium. 


.Si... 

....22-50 

Silver (Argentixm)... 

• • • • 

• Ag.. 

...108-00 

Sodixim (Natrium).... 


.Na... 

...23-30 

Strontixxm. 


..Sr.. 

. ..43-80 

Sulphur. 




Tellixrium. 


.Te... 

...64-20 

1 hoi-rum. 


.Th.. 

. ..59-60 

Tin (Stannixm). 


.Sn... 

...57-90 

Titanium. 


.11... 

...24-30 

Tungsten (Wolfram).. 


W.... 

...99-70 

Vanadium. . 




Uranium. 




Yttrium. 




Zinc. 


.Zu... 

.. .32-30 

Zirconium. 


.Zr... 

...33-70 

Any of the symbols in the table express 

one atom ; when two 

or 

more 

are ex- 

pressed, it is 2B or 

B2, 

that 

is, two 

atoms of boron. Fe 

+ 

0, or 

FeO, is 


one eqxxivalent of iron united to one of 
oxygen ; and 2Fe + 30, or Fe203, the 
combinations of two atoms of iron and 
three of oxygen. 

ATONIC. In pathology, wanting en¬ 
ergy. 

ATRABILARIAN. In pathology, a 
term applied to hypochondriasis, or 
melancholy, arising from superabund¬ 
ance of bile. 

ATROPHY. A wasting away. 

ATROPIA. A poisonous vegetable 
alkali obtained from the Atropa bella¬ 
donna, or deadly nightshade. 


























































































AT T 


ATHENJEUM or ATHENEUM. In an¬ 
tiquity, a public building erected for 
rehearsals and lectures, the chief of 
which was at Athens ; a gymnasium. 
In present use, a public establishment 
for the encouragement of literature and 
the sciences ; in London, a famous-club 
house, the members of which are all 
more or less literary or scientific men. 

ATHLETiE. The wrestlers, boxers, 
&c., who contended for the prizes at the 
Olympic, Pythian, and other games of 
ancient Greece and Rome. 

ATLAS. A collection of maps in a vol¬ 
ume ; a kind of large-sized paper ; a 
rich kind of silk, satin, or stuff, manu¬ 
factured in the East. In anatomy, the 
first vertebra of the neck. In mythol¬ 
ogy, one of the Titans, king of Maurit¬ 
ania, and father of the Hesperides or 
Atlantides. Having assisted the giants 
in their war against the gods, he was 
condemned by Jupiter to bear the vault 
of heaven. In geography, a High moun¬ 
tain of Africa. In archaeology, a column, 
or half figure of a man, supporting an 
entablature. 

ATMOLOGY. The doctrine of the 
relations of heat and moisture. 

ATMOMETER. An instrument to 
measure the quantity of exhalation 
from a humid surface in a given time. 

ATMOSPHERE. The sphere or mass 
of air surrounding the earth, from 40 
to 50 miles high. 

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. The 
weight of the atmosphere on a surface ; 
the mean being 14-7 lbs. to the square 
inch. 

ATMOSPHERIC TIDES. Certain 
changes which take place in the atmos¬ 
phere, caused by the attraction of the 
sun or moon, when in opposition or 
conjunction. 

ATOM. In natural philosophy, a par¬ 
ticle of matter which can no longer be 
diminished in aize ; the smallest par¬ 
ticle of which we can conceive any nat¬ 
ural substance composed. 

AUGEAN STABLE. In Grecian myth¬ 
ology, a stable belonging to Augeus, 
king of Ellis, in which he kept a great 
number of oxen; having never been 
cleaned, it was regarded as almost an 
impossibility to clean it, till it was as¬ 
signed to Hercules as one of his labors: 
hence what is impracticable or what 
would be very difficult to clean. 

AUGITE. A mineral of a brown or 
dark-green color, a constituent of 
volcanic rocks. It consists of silica, 
protoxide of iron and manganese, lime, 
magnesia, and alumina. 

ATTRACTION. In a general sense, the 
power or principle by which bodies mutu¬ 
ally tend towards each other, which varies 
according to the nature of the bodies at¬ 
tracted, and the circumstances under which 
this attraction takes place ; whence attrac¬ 
tion is distinguished into the Attraction of 
Cohesion, Attraction of Gravitation, Attrac- 


A TT 41 

tion of Electricity, Attraction of Magnetism, 
and Chymical Attraction. 

The Attraction of Cohesion Is that by 
which the minute particles of bodies are 
held together. 

Attraction of Gravitation is the prin 
ciple by which bodies at a distance tenr 
to each other; on this principle it is „hp 
two leaden balls, having each a smooth 
surface, if compressed strongly together 
will cohere almost as strongly as if united 
by fusion ; and even two plates of glass if 
the surfaces are dry and even, will cohere 
so as to require a certain force to separate 
them; which is supposed to be a universa 
principle in nature. By gravitation a stone 
and all heavy bodies, if let fall from a height, 
are supposed to drop to the earth. All ce¬ 
lestial bodies are supposed to have not only 
an attraction or gravitation towards theii 
proper centres, but that they mutually at¬ 
tract each other within their sphere. The 
planets tend towards the sun and towards 
each other, as the sun does towards them. 
The satellites of Jupiter tend towards Jupi 
ter, as Jupiter does towards his satellites 
and the same with the satellites of Saturn 
and of Uranus. The earth and moon tend 
likewise reciprocally towards each. By 
this same principle of gravity heavenly 
bodies are kept in their orbits, and terres¬ 
trial bodies tend,as is supposed, towards the 
centre of the earth. From this attraction 
all the motion, and consequently all the 
changes in the universe, are supposed to 
arise, the rains fall, rivers glide, ocean 
swells, projectiles are directed, and the air 
presses upon different bodies. 

Attraction of Magnetism is the parti¬ 
cular tendency of certain bodies to each 
other, as that of the magnet, which attracts 
iron to itself. This is only a sort of attrac¬ 
tion of gravitation, acting on particular 
subi’ances 

* Attraction of Electricity istheprin¬ 
ciple by which bodies, when excited by 
friction, tend towards each other. This 
species of attraction agrees with that of 
gravitation in the property of acting upon 
bodies at a distance; but it differs from it 
inasmuch as these bodies require to be in a 
particular state in order to be acted upon 

Chemical Attraction is that disposition 
which some bodies in solution indicate to 
unite with some substances in preference 
to others. This is otherwise called affinity, 
and is considered as a sort of attraction ot 
cohesion, acting in an unresisting medium, 
as it applies peculiarly to such bodies as, in 
solution, indicate a disposition to unite with 
some substances in preference to others 

ATTRIBUTES. Those properties or per 


v 



41 


AVE 


AUR 


'•ctioas which are attributed to the Divine 
Being only, as his self-existence, immuta¬ 
bility, eternity, &c 

ATTRIBUTES (in Logic). The predi¬ 
cates of any subject, or that which may be 
affirmed or denied of a thing, as ‘man is 
an animal,’ : man is not a brute.’ 

ATTRIBUTES (in Painting and Sculp- 
ure) Symbols added to certain figures, to 
denote their office or character, as the eagle 
added to the figure of Jupiter, to denote 
his power $ a club to Hercules, to denote 
hig prowess, &c. 

AVALANCHES. A name given in Savoy 
and Switzerland to the masses of snow, 
which break off from the mountains with 
a noise like thunder, and sometimes over¬ 
whelm whole villages. 

AVAST. A term of command at sea, 
signifying, hold, stop, stay. 

AUCTION. A public sale of goods by 
persons called auctioneers, who are licensed 
to dispose of goods to the highest bidder 
on certain conditions, called the conditions 
of sale. A mock auction is that which is 
conducted by unlicensed persons for fraud¬ 
ulent purposes. 

AUDIENCE. The ceremony of admit¬ 
ting ambassadors and public ministers to 
a hearing at court. 

AUDIENCE COURT (in Law) An ec¬ 
clesiastical court appertaining to the arch- 
Dishop of Canterbury. 

AUDIT. A regular examination of ac¬ 
counts by persons duly appointed. 

AURA. A vapor of exhalation, defined 
by the early chemists as a pure 
essence exuding from animals and 
plants, and perceptible only by its 
odor.—Aura electrica i3 a term used 
in electricity, and applied to the 
sensation experienced, as if a cold wind 
were blowing on the part exposed to 
electricity when received from a sharp 
point. In pathology, aura epileptica is 
the peculiar sensation felt immediate¬ 
ly before an attack of epilepsy. 

AVERAGE (in Commerce). The damage 
which a vessel, with the goods or loading, 
sustains from the time of its departure to 
its return ; also the charges or contribution 
towards defraying such damages, and the 
quota or proportion which each merchant 
or proprietor is adjudged, upon a reason¬ 
able estimate, to contribute to a common 
average. 

AVES. Birds; the second class of ani¬ 
mals in the Linnaean system. This class of 
animals is distinguished from all others by 
several peculiarities in their form, having 
fe&thj jrs for their covering, two feet, and 
two wings formed for flight. They have, 
for the most part, the mandible protracted 
nd naked, feat are without external ears. 


lips, teeth, scrotum, womb, urinary vessel 
or bladder, epiglotis, corpus callosum, ot 
its fornix and diaphragm. They are divided 
in the Linnxan system into six orders: 
namely, Accipitres, or the falcon and eagle 
kind ; Pica), the pies; Anseres, the gorse 
and duck kind; Grallae, the crane kind; 
Gallin®, the poultry or domestic fow' ; and 
Passeres, tiie sparrow and finch kind, w'Ui 
all the smaller birds. 

AUGER. A wimble, or tool for boring. 

AUGMENT (in Grammar). A letter or 
syllable added or changed in Greek verb*. 

AUGMENTATION (in Heraldry). A 
particular mark of honour borne in art 
escutcheon, as the hand in the arms of 
baronets. 

AUGURY. The practice of divining by 
the flight of birds or from inspecting their 
entrails. The augurs were a principal 
order of priest* vnong the Romans. 

AUGUST. The eighth month of the year, 
called after the emperor Augustus Ctesar, 
who entered his second consulship in that 
month, after the Actian victory. 

AUGUSTAN CONFESSION. A con 
fession or declaration of Christian faith 
made by the Protestants at Augusta c« 
Augsburg in Germany, a. d. 1550. 

AUGUSTINES, or Austin Friahs. A 
religious order, so called from St. Augustin 
their founder. They were very numerous 
in England before the Reformation. 

AVIARY. A place set apart for feeding 
and propagating birds. 

AUK. A bird, otherwise called Penguin 
or Razorbill, an inhabitant of the arctic o> 
northern Beas. 



AURELIA. In entomology, the first 
metamorphosis of the maggot of an in¬ 
sect, or that state in which it is trans¬ 
formed from the catei'pillar to the per¬ 
fect winged fly; a chrysalis. 

AURICLE. That part of the ear which 
is prominent from the head. The auricle* 
of the heart are appendages at the base of 
the heart, which are distinguished into 
right and left, the former of which is pia 









A U1 


AX, 


43 


eed Ld the anterior, the latter in the hinder 
part. These are muscular bags, which 
move regularly with the heart, but in an 
inverted order. 

AURICULAR CONFESSION. A inode 
of confession among Roman Catholics, by 
whispering in the ears of their fathers, 
confessors, or priests. 

AURORA BOREALIS, i. e. the North¬ 
ern Twilight. An extraordinary meteor 
or luminous appearance visible in the night 
time in the northern parts of the heavens. 
The aurora borealis appears frequently in 
tiie form of an arch, chiefly in the spring 
and autumn, after a dry year. This kind 
of meteor is more rarely to be seen, the 
nearer we approach the equator, but in 
the polar regions it is very constant and 
brilliant. In the Shetland Isles these lights 
are called 4 the merry dancers.’ 

AUIIUM MUSICUM, or Mosaicum. A 
combination of tin and sulphur, used by 
statuaries and painters, for giving a gold 
colour to their figures. 

AUSPICES. A kind of soothsaying 
among the Romans, by the flight or sing¬ 
ing of birds. 

AUTO DA FE, or An Act of Faith. 
The solemn act of punishing heretics, for¬ 
merly in use among the Spaniards. Upon 
a Sunday or festival, the offender being 
brought from prison to church, dressed in 
a frightful manner, attended divine service, 
after which he was delivered over to the 
civil power to be burnt. 

AUTOGRAPH. An epithet applied to 
whatever is written in a person’s own hand 
writing, as an autograph letter, a letter of 
one’s own writing. 

AUTOMATON. A self-moving engine, 
more particularly the figure of any animal 
having the principle of motion within itself 
by means of wheels, springs, and weights; 
•hose in the figure of a man are called 
androides, as the mechanical chess-player, 
&c. (See Androisxs); those of animals are 
properly called automata. It is said that 
Archytas of Tarentum, 400 years before 
Christ, made a wooden pigeon that could 
fly; and that Archimedes made similar 
automata. Regiomontanus made a wooden 
eagle, that flew forth from the city, met the 
emperor, saluted him, and returned ; also 
an iron fly, which flew out of his hand at 
a feast,and returned again,after flyingabout 
the room. Dr. Hooke made the model of 
a flying chariot, capable of supporting itself 
in the air. M. Vaucanson made a figure 
that played on the flute; also a duck capable 
af eating, drinking, and imitating exactly 
the voice of a natural one; and, what is 


still more surprising, tk>9 food it swallowed 
was evacuated in a digested state ; also the 
wings, viscera, and bones were formed so 
as strongly to resemble those of a living 
duck. M. le Droz, of la Chaux de Fonds, 
presented a clock to the king of Spain, 
which had, among other curiosities, a sheep 
that made a bleating noise, and a dog 
watching a basket, that snarled and barked 
when any one offered to take it away. 

One of the most celebrated automata 
ever invented, was that of the Chess Player, 
constructed in Germany by Baron Kemp- 
lin, and since exhibited in various parts of 
Europe and America, by Mr. Maelzel. 
It represented the figure of a Turk, who 
made the moves on the chess-board with 
its hand, and played the game with so 
much skill that it was long thought never 
to have been beaten. It was however fre¬ 
quently beaten in America, and is now gen¬ 
erally supposed to have concealed a person 
of small size within the engine, which 
directed the moves. The ingenuity of 
this contrivance, therefore, lay rather in 
the mode of concealing the real player, than 
in the mechanism 

AUTUMN. The third season in the year 
which begins, in the northern hemisphere 
on the day when the sun enters Libra, that 
is, on the 22d of September. It termi 
nates about the same day in December 
when the winter commences. 

AUTUMNAL SIGNS. The three signs 
Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius, through 
which the sun passes during the autumn 
season. 

AUXILIARY VERBS (in Grammar). 
Such verbs as help to form or conjugate 
others, as, in English, the verbs 4 to have 
and 4 to be.’ 

AWL. A shoemaker’s tool, with which 
holes are bored in the leather, for the ad¬ 
mission of the thread in stitching and sew 
ing. The blade of the awl is mostly a little 
flattened and bent 



AWNING. A piece of tarpaulin or sail, 
&c. hung about the decks or any other part 
of a vessel, to screen persons from the sun 
and rain. 

ATI It ANTI ACE/E. A natural order of 
thalamiflorous exogens, consisting of 
trees and shrubs of great utility and 
beauty. The flowers are fragrant, and 
the fruit juicy. The order compre¬ 
hends the orange, lemon, shaddock, and 
lime, which have been divided into four¬ 
teen genera. 






44 


AX A 


AZ Y 


aXAYACATL. A Mexican fly whose 
eggs are used as a sort of caviare. 

AXESTONE. A light green mineral, 
also called jade, or nephrite, found 
chiefly in New Zealand and the South 
Sea Islands, where it is used by the rude 
natives for making axes and other in¬ 
struments. 

AXINITE. A mineral of a brown, grey, 
black, or blue color, with axe-shaped 
crystals, and consisting of silica, alum¬ 
ina, lime, oxide of iron, and oxide of 
manganese. 

AXIS. A straight line, either real or 
imaginary, passing through the centre 
of a body on which it may be supposed 
to revolve ; a pivot on which anything 
turns.-In the sciences and the me¬ 
chanical arts, the term is of very gen¬ 
eral application.—In astronomy, axis is 
an imaginary line - supposed to pass 
through the centre of the earth and the 
heavenly bodies, about which they per¬ 
form their diurnal revolutions. In ge¬ 
ometry, it is the straight line in a plane 
figure, about which it revolves to pro¬ 
duce or generate a solid. In mechanics, 
the axis of a balance is the line about 
which it moves, or rather turns about ; 
the axis of oscillation is a right line, 
parallel to the horizon, passing through 
the centre, about which a pendulum 
vibrates ; the wheel and axis is one of 
the mechanical powers, consisting of a 
wheel concentric with the base of a 
cylinder, and movable together with it 
about its axis. In architecture spiral 
axis is the axis of a twisted column 
dnawn spirally, in order to trace the cir¬ 
cumvolutions without; the axis of the 
Ionic capital is a line passing perpen¬ 
dicularly through the middle of the eye 
of the volute In optics, an axis is that 
particular ray of light, coming from any 
object, which falls perpendicularly on 
the eye. In anatomy, the axis is the 
second vertebra of the neck; it has a 
process, or tooth, which goes into the 
first vertebra, and this by some is cal¬ 
led the axis. In botany, the axis is a 
taper column, placed in the centre of 
some flowers or catkins, round which 
the other parts are disposed ; or it sig¬ 
nifies the stem round which the leaves, 
or modified leaves, are produced. Axal 
is an epithet relating to the axis ; thus 
axal section is a section through any 
body, whatever shape it may be. 

AXINOMANCY. In antiquity, a species 
of divination performed by means of an 
axe or hatchet which was fixed on a 
round stake, so as to be poised, and 
then the names of those suspected 
being repeated, he at whose name the 
axe fell was pronounced guilty. 

AXLE, or AXLE-TREE. A piece of 
timber, or bar of iron, which passes 
through the centre of a wheel, and on 
which it revolves. 


AXOLOTL. A water lizard found in 
Mexico. 

AXOTOMOUS. In mineralogy, having 
a cleavage with a single face, pei’pen- 
dicular to the axis. 

AXMINSTER CARPET. In the arts, 
a term applied to carpets manufactured 
in imitation of Turkey carpets, and 
noted for their thick and soft pile ; 
they are woven in one piece. 

AYAH. The name given in India to a 
native nurse or waiting maid. 

AYE-AYE. A nocturnal quadruped of 
Madagascar, about the size of a hare, 
and thus named from its peculiar cry. 
It is the Cheiromys of naturalists. 

AYMESTRY LIMESTONE. In geol¬ 
ogy, one of the calcareous beds of the 
Upper Silurian series, which has been 
produced by coral and shell accumula¬ 
tions amidst the masses of argillaceous 
sediments. It occurs near Ludlow, 
Malvern, and some localities in Wales. 

AZALEA. A genus of beautiful shrub¬ 
by plants, having richly-colored trum¬ 
pet or bell-shaped flowers, and, in some 
species, highly fragrant. 

AZETEC. One of the Azetecs, an early 
race of Mexico, inhabiting its great 
plateaux at the time of the Spanish in 
vasion, and far advanced in arts and 
civilization. 

AZIMUTH. In astronomy, an arch of 
the horizon intercepted between the 
meridian of the place and the azimuth, 

AZOIC. In natural philosophy, a term 
applied to objects entirely destitute of 
organic life. 

AZOTE. In chemistry, a kind of gas 
which is fatal to animal life; a. name 
for nitrogen gas. Though destructive 
to animal life it is one of the constitu¬ 
ents of the atmosphere, of blood, mus¬ 
cular fibre, and many minerals. The 
name, nitrogen, is given to it from its 
being the base of nitre. The following 
are some of its compounds : Azoben- 
zide, consisting of 12 equivalents of 
carbon, 5 of hydrogen, and 1 of nitro¬ 
gen ; Azobenzoide, 42 of carbon, 16}£ of 
hydrogen, and 2% of nitrogen; Azoben- 
zule, 42 of carbon, 15 of hydrogen, and 
2 of nitrogen. Azotite is a salt formed 
of nitrous oxide, &c. 

AZURITE, or AZURE STONE. In 
mineralogy, a fine azure blue, the lazu- 
lite or lapis lazuli of the lapidaries ; 
structure, finely granulated; sp. giv 
3-0; hardness, 5—<>, its constituent 
parts are phosphoric acid, alumina, 
magnesia, lime, oxide of iron, silica, and 
water. 

AZYGOS. In anatomy, a term ap¬ 
plied to various muscles, bones, and 
veins, which occur singly, and not in 
pairs. 

AZYMOUS. A term applied to un- 
I leavened or unfermented dough. 





BAC 


BA 1 


46 


B 


B, the second letter of the alphabet, is often 
tjsed as an abbreviation for Bachelor, as 
B. A. Bachelor cf Arts, B. D. Bachelor of 
Divinity &c. B as a numeral among the 
Romans stood for 300, and with a dash over 
it thus, g, for 3000. B, in chronology, 
sta ads for one of the Dominical letters, and 
in music for the seventh note in the gamut. 

BAAL. A god of the Pluenicians and 
Canaanites, which is supposed to represent 
the sun, and to be the same as the Bel or 
Belus of the Greeks. 

BABOON. A large kind of ape with a 
short tail, which forms one division of the 
genus Simia in the Linnmn system 



BACCHANALIANS. Those who per¬ 
formed the rites at the Bacchanals in hon¬ 
our of Bacchus. 

BACCHANALS. A festival at Rome in 
honour of Bacchus, which, for their licen¬ 
tiousness, were suppressed by a solemn 
decree of the senate. 

BACCHUS. The god of wine in the 
heathen mythology, was the son of Jupiter 
and Semele. He was the Osiris of the 
Egyptians, from whom the fables respecting 
him were taken by the Greeks. 

BACCIFERAS. Berry-bearing plants. 

BACHELOR. One of the first degrees 
.n the liberal arts conferred at the univer¬ 
sities of Oxford and Cambridge. 

BACKGAMMON. A particular game 
played by two persons with the help of 
dice, on a board or table divided into parts, 
whereon are twenty-four black and white 
spaces called points. 

BACKPAINTING. The method of 
painting mezzotinto prints pasted on glass, 
with oil colours. 

BACKSTAFF. An instrument formerly 
used in taking the sun’s altitude. It was 
so called because the back of the observer 
is turned toward* th*» he makes 


the obsen alien. This quadrant is now 
superseded by more accurate instruments. 

BADGE. An exterior ornament of a coat 
of arms, originally worn by the retainers or 
attendants of the nobility. ' It fell into dis¬ 
use in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 

BADGER. An animal ranked by Lin- 
nseus under the Bear tribe, which lives in 
holes by the sides of rivers, or in the clefts 
of rocks. It feeds on insects or berries 
burrows during winter, hunts by night, and 
lies concealed by day 



BAG (in Commerce). A determinate 
quantity of goods contained in a bag, vary¬ 
ing in size, according to the article or the 
place, from three to four hundred weight. 

BAGNIO. Italian for a bathing house, 
with conveniences for bathing, sweating, 
and otherwise cleansing the body. 

BAGPIPE. A favourite wind instrument 
among the Highlanders. It consists of two 
parts; namely, a leathern bag, and pipes 
for admitting and ejecting the air. One of 
the pipes called the drone, with which the 
base part is played, never varies its tone. 
The third pipe is played on by compressing 
the bag under the arm. 

BAIL (in Law). Sureties given for the 
appearance, when required, of a person in 
custody. Common Bail is in common con¬ 
cernment, where any sureties may be ta¬ 
ken j but Special Bail is in matters of greater 
importance, where special surety of two or 
more persons must be taken according to 
the value of the cause. 

BAILEE (in Law). The person to whom 
the goods of the one that is bailed are de¬ 
livered. 

BAILIFF. A subordinate magistrate oi 
officer appointed within a particular pro 
vince or district, as bailiffs of hundreds, 
liberties, courts baron, &c. Sheriffs’ bailiff* 
are officers appointed by the sheriff to ex¬ 
ecute writs. These, being bound in bond 
to the sheriff* for the due execution of their 










46 B A Lj 


BAL 


affiu, are called bound bailiffs, vulgarly 
bum r ailiffs. 

BAILIWICK. The hundred or any other 
n>strict wherein a bailiff has a jurisdiction. 

BAILMENT. The delivery of goods in 
crust upon a contract expressed or implied 

BALiENA. The whale ; a genus of the 
class Mammalia, and of the order Ceti. 

BALANCE. One of the simple powers 
in mechanics which serves to find out the 
equality or difference of weight in heavy 
bodies. It is a peculiar application of the 
lever to this particular purpose. The com¬ 
mon balance consists of a lever with equal 
arms, at the extremity of each of which is 
attached a scale. Before loading it with 
any weights, the whole ought to preserve 
a perfect equilibrium j and this equilibrium 
must arise from an exact distribution of the 
weight of each arm and scale of the balance, 
as well as from the equal length of the 
former; for on this depends the correctness 
of its action- The Assay-Balar.ce is a very 
delicate kind of balance, used for determin¬ 
ing the exact weight of minute bodies. It 
is so called because it is particularly used 
in the different processes of assaying ; it is 
also frequently used in chymical analysis. 
Balances also vary in their form,as the Bent- 
Lever Balance, the Compound Balance, 
consisting of a combination of balances 
used in weighing very heavy bodies ; also 
the Danish Balance, a kind of steel-yard. 

BALANCE OF TRADE. A term in 
commerce, denoting the equality between 
the value of the commodities bought of 
foreigners, and the value of the native pro¬ 
ductions transported into other countries. 
Balance in a merchant’s account is when 
the debtor and creditor account are made 
even 

BALE (in Commerce). A quantity of 
merchandise packed up in cloth. A bale 
of cotton yarn is from three to four hun¬ 
dred weight; of raw silk, from one to four 
hundred. 

BALISTER, or File-Fish. A fish so 
called from the resemblance of its back¬ 
bone to a file. It is remarkable for the 
brilliancy of its colours. 

BALL AND SOCKET. An instrument 
of brass with a perpetual screw, construc¬ 
ted to move in any direction It is used in 
the management of surveying, and astro¬ 
nomical instruments. 

B ALLA ST. Gravel, sand,or any weighty 
matter, put into a ship’s hold, to poise her 
and bring her sufficiently low in the water. 

BALLET. A theatrical representation, 
consisting of m wic and dancing, 

BALLET-MASTER. The artist who re¬ 


gulates tiie performance and rej resent* 
tion of the ballet. 

BALLISTA. A warlike engine used by 
the ancients in besieging cities, to throw 
large stones, darts, and javelins. 



BALLOON. A globe commonly made 
of lutestring, and covered with an elastic 
varnish, to render the substance impervious 
by the gas When filled with hydrogen gas 
from ten to thirteen times lighter than at¬ 
mospheric air, the balloon will ascend, and 
convey heavy bodies suspended to it. The 
weight which the balloon is capable of 
raising will be in proportion to the diameter 
of the sphere. From experiments it has been 
found that a cubic foot of hydrogen gas 
will raise about one ounce avoirdupois. 



BALLOT. A little ball; also the manner 
of giving votes at an ejection by putting 
little balls, black or white, into a box. 

BALLUSTRADE. A series or row of 
ballusters or small pillars, serving as a 
guard or fence to balconies or staircases. 

BALM, or BALSAM. A liquid resin of 
a whitish or yellow colour, a fragrant sme<i 
and a penetrating aromatic taste. It flows 
from the balsam tree, and is much used to* 
the females in Turkey as a cosmette. 
















BAN 


BAN 


4 


BALM, or BALM MINT. A perennial, 
so called from the fragrance of its smell, 
which resembles that of balsam. 

BALSAM TREE. A tree growing in 
Arabia and Egypt, the bark of which yields 
the balm or balsam abovementioned. 

BALSAMICS. Softening, healing, and 
cleansing medicines. 

BAMBOO, or BAMBU. An Indian reed 
with larger knots than the common reed. 
The poorer inhabitants of India make their 
dwellings of this reed : paper is also made 
of the same material, by bruising it and 
steeping it in water until it be reduced to 
a paste. 

BANANA. See Plantain Tree. 

BAND (in Architecture). Any fiat, low 
member or moulding, which is broad but 
not deep. 

BANDANA HANDKERCHIEFS. A 
kind of silk handkerchiefs manufactured, 
in India, of silk and cotton 

BANDEROLL A sea term for a little 
Hag in form of a gridiron, that used to be 
hung on the masts of vessels. 

BAND OF PENSIONERS. A parti¬ 
cular company of gentlemen bearing hal¬ 
berds, and attending upon the person of 
the king upon solemn occasions. 

BANDITTI. A band of outlawed rob¬ 
bers, most frequent in Italy 

BANDOLEER, or BANDOLIER. A 
huge leathern belt, formerly worn over the 
right shoulder, and hanging under the left 
arm, to carry some warlike weapon. 

BANDROL. A little flag or streamer. 

BANDS. Two pieces of iron nailed upon 
die bows of the saddle, to hold them tight. 

BANERET. A knight made in the field, 
whose standard was converted into a ban¬ 
ner which he could display in the king’s 
army as the barons did. 

BANIAN TREE See Indian Fiq 

BANISHMENT. A quitting the realm, 
either voluntarily, as by abjuration ; or 
compulsorily, as by transportation. 

BANK (in Commerce). An establishment 
for the receiving of moneys and letting 
them out on interest. Banks are general¬ 
ly formed by a number of moneyed per¬ 
sons, who, for carrying on the business of 
negotiating bills of exchange, and dealing 
in bullion, &c. advance a considerable sum 
as a joint capital. The first bank was es¬ 
tablished at Venice about 1157, and the 
name of Banco was given to it in Italian, 
from the bench which the money-changers 
or bankers used to sit upon in their courses 
or exchanges. The bank of Genoa was 
established in 1345; that of Amsterdam, in 
b09 ; that of Hambarg, in 1619 ; that of 
Rotterdam, in 1635 The Bank of Eng¬ 


land, one of the last, but at present t* 
greatest of its kind, was established b 3 
charter in the reign of William and Mary 
into a corporate body, by the title of the 
Governor and Company of the Bank of 
England. Its notes form the currency of 
tlie kingdom to a certain extent, and 
amount to between twenty and thirty mil¬ 
lions. The Bank of England is also the 
Government Bank, and pays the interest 
of the national debt. 

BANKER. A person who traffics in 
money, by receiving the current cash of 
individuals free of interest, and negotiat¬ 
ing with it, either in the discount of bills 
or the advance of money on sufficient se¬ 
curities. 

BANKING-HOUSE. Any mercantile 
house which carries on the business of a 
private banker, as distinguished from the 
Bank, by which is understood the Bank 
of England. 

BANKRUPT. A trader who fails or 
breaks, so as to be unable to carry on his 
business or pay his debts. In Law, a bank¬ 
rupt is one who has committed an act of 
bankruptcy, so as to bring him under the 
protection of the bankrupt laws, which is 
allowed to none but actual traders, or such 
as buy and sell, and gain a livelihood by 
so doing. It is derived from bancum, a 
bench, and rumpere, to break, because the 
bench of the Italian banker or money¬ 
changer is said to have been broken bv 
way of infamy when he failed. 

BANNER. A flag or standard at the 
end of a lance. 

BANNIANS. A religious sect among 
the Hindoos, who believe in the transmi¬ 
gration of souls, and therefore abstain from 
eating the flesh of animals, which they 
carefully preserve. They are so cautious 
of having communication with any but 
their own caste, that if any of another na¬ 
tion or tribe has drunk out of or touched 
their cup, they break it. 

BANNOCK. A sort of oaten cake in 
the north of England, baked in the embers 
or on a hot stone. 

BANNS OF MATRIMONY. The pub¬ 
lishing of marriage contracts in the church 
before the performance of the marriage 
ceremony. By the ordinances of the 
church, when persons are to be married, 
the banns of matrimony shall be published 
in the church where they dwell ?hree 
several Sundays or holydays in the time 
of Divine Service ; and if, at the day ap¬ 
pointed for their marriage, any man do 
allege any impediment or precontract, 
consanguinity or affinity, want of parent's 
consent, infancy, 4rc. why they should 



4S 


BAR 


BAR 


not be married (and become bound with 
sureties to prove this allegation), then the 
solennization must be deferred until the 
truth is tried. 

BANTAM The name of a domestic 
fowl of the hen tribe, having short legs, 
and the shanks well feathered 



bAPTISM. A sacrament of the Christian 
church, administered either by immersion, 
that is, dipping in water, or by sprinkling 
with water. 

BAPTISTS. A denomination of profess¬ 
ing Christians, who practice adult baptism 
instead of that of children, and by immer¬ 
sion rather than by sprinkling. 

BAR (in Courts of Law). The place 
parted off by a bar or railing, within which 
counsellors stand to plead; also the pro¬ 
fession of a barrister or pleader. 

BAR. A sea term for a rock lying before 
the harbour in such a manner that ships 
cannot sail over except upon the flood. 

BAR (in Music). A line which divides 
the notes into equal portions in respect to 
iheir duration. 

BAR (in Heraldry). One of the honour¬ 
able ordinaries, consisting of two horizon¬ 
tal lines drawn across the escutcheon. 



BARALIPTON. An arbitrary name 
among logicians for an indirect mode of 
the first figure of syllogisms. 

BARATRY (in Commerce). A term 
used when the master of a vessel or the 
mariners cheat the owners by embezzling 
their goods, or running away with the ship. 

BARB. The points hat stand back in 


the head of an arrow or fishing-hook, UJ 
prevent them from being drawn out easily j 
also the name of a horse of the Barbary 
breed, remarkable for its swiftness. 

BARBARA. An arbitrary name among 
logicians for the first mode of the first fig¬ 
ure of syllogisms, consisting of three uni¬ 
versal propositions: as, * all animals are 
endued with sense ■, all men are animals ■, 
ergo, all men are endued with sense.’ 

BARBARISM. A rude kind of language 
used only by the savage or unlettered per¬ 
son. 

BARBEL A fish of the carp kind, which 
lies in holes near the banks, ani feeds on 
testaceous animals, worms, &c. It has its 
name from the beards or wattles under its 
nose. 



BARBER One who follows the trace 
of shaving and dressing hair, and anciently 
also that of bleeding, whence barbers were 
calied Barber-Chirmgeons, and used a pole 
as a sign to represent the staff which per¬ 
sons used to hold when they were bled. 
The barbers were separated from the sur¬ 
geons by a statute in the reign of George 
the Second. 

BARBERRY. A tart berry, the fruit of 
the barberry tree ; a prickly shrub. 

BARBICAN. An outer defence or forti¬ 
fication to a city or castle, used as a fence, 
and also as a watchtower, to descrr the 
approach of an enemy 

BARD. A sort of poets among the Gauls, 
who used to set forth the deeds of heroes 
and great men. 

BARGAIN AND SALE (in Law) An 
instrument whereby the property of lands 
and tenements is, for valuable considera¬ 
tion, transferred from one person to anoth¬ 
er. It is called a real contract upon a val¬ 
uable consideration for passing of lands, 
tenements, and hereditaments, by deed 
indented and enrolled. 

BARGE. A very large boat used on riven 
either for pleasure and state, as the royal 
barge ; or for trade, as the coal barge, &c. 

BARILLA. A kind of Spanish alkaline 
salt used in the glass trade. 





























BAR 


BAR 


49 


BARITOS-'O. A low pitch of tae voice 
Detween bass and tenor. 

BARIUM. A metal so called by Sir II. 
Davy the discoverer, which is obtained by 
the chymical decomposition of barytes. 

BARK. The shin or covering of a ligne 
ous plant. Bark-binding is a disease in 
trees cured by slitting the bark. 

BARK (in Commerce). A stuff manu¬ 
factured in India of the bark of trees ; also 
the Peruvian or Jesuit’s bark, which is 
procured from the Cinchona tree growing 
in Quito. 

BARK. A sea term for a small vessel, 
oarticularly one carrying three masts. 

BARKING. The process of peeling the 
bark off the trees, which must be done in 
the month of May. 

BARLEY. A sort of corn or grain which 
is sown in March, April, or May, and suc- 
teeds best in lignt dry soils. From barley, 
when converted into malt, beer is made. 

BARLEY, or Pearl-Barlet. Barley 
stripped of its first coat, and used in mak¬ 
ing a diet drink. 

BARLEYCORN. The least of our long 
measures, being the third of an inch. 

BARLEY-MOW. The place where 
reaped barley is laid up. 

BARLEY WATER. A decoction of 
pearl-barley. 

BARM, or Yeast. The head or working 
out of beer, which is used as a ferment to 
lighten bread. 

BARN. A storehouse for grain, in which 
it is deposited and threshed. 

BARNACLE. A species of shell-fish 
which sticks to the bottom of ships, 
rocks, &c. 

BARNACLE-GOOSE. A large water- 
fowl, with a broad flat bill. 



BAROLITE. A stone of the ponderous 
order, called also the carbonite of barytes. 

BAROMETER. An instrument for mea¬ 
suring the weight of the atmosphere, in¬ 
vented by Torricelli. The common ba¬ 
rometer is a glass tube hermetically sealed 
at one end, and fi led w th mercury so as 
j 


to have no air over. Ihen the maker, put¬ 
ting his finger on the open end, immerse* 
it in a bason of quicksilver or water ; and 
on his removing his finger, the quicksilver 
in the tube endeavours, by its own weight, 
to descend into the bason, but by the pres¬ 
sure of the external air on the surface of 
the fluid in the bason, and no air being in 
the tube at the top, the quicksilver wi{’ 
rise from 28 to 31 inches in mercury, aurt 
from 30 to 33 inches in water. In dry 
weather, the air, being free from vapours, 
is consequently heavy, and presses up the 
quicksilver ; but in moist rainy weather, 
the atmosphere being charged with clouds 
and fogs, the air is lighter, and presses 
with less force on the quicksilver. In 
high winds the atmosphere is light, and 
the quicksilver low •, it also rises high* 
in cold weather than in warm. 



BARON. In England, a degree of nobill 
ty next to a viscount. All barons are 
lords of parliament and peers of the realm. 
Barons were originally so by tenure, that 
is, by virtue of the barony annexed tc 
their lands or office. 

BARON AND FEME. A term in Law 
for husband and wife, who are deemed but 
one person. 

BARON’S CORONET On a gold circle 



six pearls, which were assigned to barosa 
by King Charles II. after the Restoration 
BARONET The lowest degree of here 

























50 BAS 

litary honour created by letters patent. 
It watt founded by James 1. in 1604. 

BARONS OF THE EXCHEQUER. 
In England the four judges who officiate in 
the court of exchequer at Westminster. 

BARONY. In England, the honour and 
territory which gave title to a baron, in¬ 
cluding the fees and lands of lords, both 
temporal and spiritual. 

BARRACKS. Places erected for the 
accommodation of both men and horses in 
the army. 

BARRAS A substance consisting of re¬ 
am and oil, which exudes from the wounds 
of fir trees in winter. 

BARRATOR (in Law). A common 
mover of suite and quarrels,either in courts 
or elsewhere. 

BARREL. A cask or vessel for holding 
liquor, that is, thirty-one and a half gallons 
of wine, &c. and thirty-two gallons of beer. 

BARREL. The cylinder of a watch, 
abou*. which the spring is wrapped. 

BARRIER. A kind offence, composed 
of great stakes, and serving to defend the 
entrance of a passage. 

BARRISTER. In England a counsellor 
admitted to plead at th» bar. An inner 
Barrister is one who Isa serjeant, or king’s 
counsel, and is admitted to plead within 
the bar : but an outer barrister is one who 
pleads without the bar. 

BARROW (in Husbandry). An imple¬ 
ment of conveyance with a single wheel, 
and driven with the two hands, it is 
made of different forms, according to the 
purpose for which it is intended j the com¬ 
mon barrow, called the wheelbarrow, is 
represented underneath. 



BARROW. A large hillock or mound, 
of which many are to be met with in dif¬ 
ferent parts of England, and are supposed 
to be the tumuli or tombs of the Romans. 

BARTER. The exchanging one commo¬ 
dity for another-, also the rule in Arithme¬ 
tic by which the proportionate value of 
commodities is found. 

BARYTES. A sort of panderous earth, 
very brittle, and perfectly soluble in boil¬ 
ing sulphuric acid. It is compounded of 
oxygen and barium. 

BASALT. A sort of argillaceous earth, 
consisting of silica, with a certain portion 
if alumina and oxyde of iron, lime, and 


BAS 

magnesia. It is always found nea» 

canoes. 

BASE (in Architecture) The foot of a 
pillar, by which it is sustained ; in Geome¬ 
try, the base of a figure is the lowest plain 
side, or that on which it stands. 

BASE (in Chymistry). The inert sub¬ 
stance which combines with, and is acted 
upon, by the more volatile and active men¬ 
strua, as the alkalies, earths, and metallic 
oxydes, which are the principal ingredi 
ents in the formation of salts. 

BASE LINE (in Perspective). The 
common section of a picture, and the geo 
metrical plane. 

BASEMENT. A continued base ex 
tended along any building, as the base¬ 
ment or lower story of a house. 

BASE TENURE, or Base Estate (in 
Law). A holding by villanage, or other 
customary service. 

BASHAW, or Pacha. The title given 
to the grand officers of the court at Con¬ 
stantinople ; as the capudan bashaw, the 
admiral or commander at sea; bostangi 
bashaw, the chief officer of the garden,&c 
Their degrees of dignity were marked by 
their bearing one, two, or three horses tails. 
The ruler of Tripoli is called Bashaw. 

BASIL. The sloping edge of a chisel 
or of the iron of a plane. 

BASIL. A plant which has an aromatic 
smell. 

BASILICON. An ointment, consisting 
of resin, pitch, oil, wax, &.c. 

BASILISK. A serpent of the lizard 
tribe, with remarkably piercing eyes, and 
a white spot on its head, resembling a 
diamond. It was formerly called a cocka¬ 
trice, and fabled to be produced from the 
eggs of a cock. 

BASIN. Any hollow place capable of 
holding liquids. Basin of a dock, a place 
where the water is confined by double 
floodgates. The basin of a haven is that 
part which opens from a narrow passage 
into a spacious receptacle. The basin of a 
river, includes the whole valley which 
empties its waters into the river or its 
branches. 

BASKET. A vessel made either of rush¬ 
es, splinters, willows, osiers, or any other 
flexible material that can be interwoven. 
To render osiers fit for use, they must b« 
soaked for some time. Those that are in¬ 
tended for the finer kind of work, as wash¬ 
ing-baskets or market baskets, and the 
like, must be peeled while they are green, 
and then steeped. Hampers, and the 
coarser kind of work, do not require that 
preparation : basket making was one of 
the arts that was carried to a considerable 




BAT 

degree of perfection among the ancient 
Britons. 

BASKING SHARK. A species of the 
shark, which lies much on the surface of 
the water, basking in the sun. It grows to 
a prodigious size, but is not very lierce. 

BAS-RELIEF. See Basso Relievo. 

BASS. A sort of cushion made of rush 
or straw. 

BASS (in Music). The lowest or deepest 
part of any composition. This note is play¬ 
ed on the largest pipes or strings of instru¬ 
ments of the common size, as the organ, 
ute, <1or on the largest kind of instru¬ 
ments. The bass is the principal part of a 
musical composition, and the foundation 
of harmony, whence it is called the fun¬ 
damental bass. Thorough bass is that 
which includes the fundamental rules of 
composition. Ground bass is that which 
commences with some subject of its own, 
that is continually repeated throughout 
the movement, whilst the upper parts 
pursue a separate air. 

BASS CLJ FF, or F Cm ff The charac¬ 
ter marked thus, 


and placed at the beginning of a stave in 
which the bass or lower notes are placed. 

BASSO RELIEVO. In English, bass- 
relief, a sort of sculpture in which the 
figures are represented, as projecting not 
far above the plane on which they are 
formed. Figures cut, are said to be done 
in relief, and when the work is low or flat 
’t is called bass-relief, or basso relievo, in 
distinction from alto relievo, and mezzo 
relievo. 

BASSOON. A musical wind instrument 
blown with a reed, and has eleven holes. 
It serves to play the bass part in concerts. 

BASS VIOL. A stringed musical in¬ 
strument of the same shape as a violin, but 
much larger. 

BASS VOICE. The gravest and deepest 
of the male voices. 

BASTARD (in Law). One born out of 
wedlock, who cannot inherit. 

BASTILE. A fortress in Paris, which 
was used as a prison, and destroyed during 
the French revolution. 

BASTINADO. A mode of punishment 
usual among the Turks, of beating the 
offender on the soles of the feet. 

BASTION. A large mass of earth, stand¬ 
ing out from a rampart, of which i' forms 
the prin:ipa! part. 

BAT. An animal resembling both a bird 


B A T 51 

and a mouse. It has winga h >tof feathsrs, 
but of a skin distended, and flies only at 
night. It lays no eggs, but brings forth 
its young alive, and suckles them. 



BAT ABLE GROUND. Land formerly 
so called, which lay between England and 
Scotland, and was the subject of debate to 
whom it belonged. 

BATEMENT (in Carpentry). The wast¬ 
ing of stuff, in cutting it for the purpose 
designed. 

BAT-FOWLING. A mode of catching 
birds at night, when they are at roost. 

BATH. Any receptacle for water which 
is convenient for bathing ; also any artifi¬ 
cial contrivance which is to supply the 
place of a bath, as a shower bath, or an 
apparatus for applying water to the body 
in the form of a shower ; a vapour bath, 
or a mode o.f conveying moisture to the 
body by means of steam •, a medicinal 
bath is that in which certain chemical 
preparations are mingled. 

BATH (in Chemistry). A contrivance bj 
which heat is conveyed to any substance-, 
also in the refining of metals, the fusion of 
the metallic matter is called a bath. 

BATH, KNIGHTS OF THE. In Eng¬ 
land, a military order of knighthood, re¬ 
stored, if not instituted, by Henry IV 
These knights wear a red ribbon, and thee, 
motto is, Tria juncta in uno, alluding to the 
three cardinal virtues, faith, hope, and 
charity, which every knight ought to 
possess. 

BATON. The staff or truncheon, given 
as a symbol of authority, to generals in the 
French army. 

BATTA. Allowances made to tro,ps in 
India. Dry batta is money given in lieu of 
rations ; wet batta, what is given in kind 

BATTALION. A body of foot soldiers 

of from 600 to 800 men. 

BATRACHIA. An order of animals, 
including frogs, toads, salamanders, and 
other reptiles having a naked body with 
two or four feet. 

BATTEN. A scantling or piece of wood-s 
en stuff, from two to four inches broad, and 
one inch thick. 

BATTERING. A cannonade of heavy 
ordnance against any fortress or works. 

BATTERING-RAM A military ma¬ 
chine, with which the ancients effected 










52 


BAT 


BE A 


breaches in fortifications. These engines 
were variously constructed, md of different 
sizes. Plutarch informs us that Marc An¬ 
tony, in the Parthian war, used a ram of 
80 feet long ; and, according to Vitruvius, 
they were sometimes 106, and even 120 
feet long, and weighed 100,000 lbs. This 
engine was frequently used in the four¬ 
teenth century, and occasionally for other 
purposes besides that of war in later peri¬ 
ods. Sir Christopher Wren is said to have 
employed it m demolishing the walls of 
ifee old church of St. Paul, previously to 
his rebuilding it. 



BATTERY (in Law).The striking,beat¬ 
ing, or offering any violence to the person 
of another, as by spitting in his face, or 
any way touching him in anger, or vio¬ 
lently jostling against him. It is distin¬ 
guished from an assault, inasmuch as the 
latter does not necessarily imply a hitting, 
or blow. There may be an assault with¬ 
out battery, but there cannot be a battery 
without an assault. 

BATTERY (in Military Affairs). Any 
raised place on which cannon are placed. 
Batteries are of different kinds, as open 
batteries, which are exposed to view •, 
masked batteries, which are hidden by a 
br»astwork ; cross batteries, two batteries 
firing athwart each other on the same ob¬ 
ject, &.c. A floating battery is a battery 
erected on simple rafts, or the hulls of ships 
BATTERY (in Electricity). A combina¬ 
tion of coated surfaces of glass jars, so 
connected, that they may be charged at 
once, and discharged by a common con¬ 
ductor. A battery or pile, is also an appa¬ 
ratus employed for accumulating the elec¬ 
tricity of galvanism. 

BATTLEDORE. An instrument used 
either with a shuttlecock, or a tennis ball- 
BATTLEMENTS. Notches or inden¬ 
tures in the top of a wall or building like 
embrasures, to 'cok through. 


BATTLE AXE. An ancient sort of 
weapon, having an axe and a point at the 
end, for cutting or thrusting 



BATTON. A staff or truncheon, used 
by the English in coats of arms, to denote 
illegitimacy 



BAWLING The noise of dogs in sport¬ 
ing, who are too busy before they find the 
scent. 

BAY. Any inlet of the sea between two 
capes, or promontories, where ships may 
ride ; it is defined in geography, an arm 
of the sea stretching inland. 

BAY, or Bxv Tree. The female laurel 
tree, an evergreen, which grows wild in 
Italy and France. 

BAY. A colour in horses resembling the 
dried bay leaf. 

BAYONET. A short triangular dagger, 
made to fix on the muzzle of a firelock or 
musket. 

BAY-SALT. A salt which is made from 
seawater in France, by letting the water 
into pits or basins, wfliere, by the heat of 
the sun, it is evaporated, and the residue 
is converted into crystals of salt. 

BAZAAR. A place mostly covered, and 
fitted up with shops in Eastern countries . 

BAZA, or BAZAT. Jerusalem cotton, a 
line-spun cotton, grown in Palestine. 

BDELLIUM. The gum of an Arabian 
tree about the size of an olive tree. The 
gum resembles wax, and consists of resin, 
gum, cerasin, and volatile oil. 

BEACH. The seashore, or margin or the 
sea, which is washed by the tides. 

BEACON. A signal by fire, placed os 
some eminence, to prevent shipwrecks, or 
give some alarm. 

BEAD (in Architecture).A rr.und mould¬ 
ing, carved in short embossments, like the 
bead of a necklace. 

BEADLE, or BEDEL. In England an 
officer of a court, of the university, or of 





















BE 4 


BEA 


53 


any corporate body, who acts as a mes¬ 
senger and attends to keep order. 

BEAD PROOF. A method of deter¬ 
mining the strength of spirituous liquors, 
from the continuance of the bubbles or 
beads on the surface. 

BEAD TREE. A shrub, the fruit of 
which is a nut, that is bored through, and 
strung as beads by the Roman Catholics 
in Spain and Portugal. 

BEAGLE. A sort of hunting dog. 

BEAK, or Beak-head of a Ship. That 
part of it, which is without before the fore¬ 
castle, and serves by way of ornament. 
Among the ancients it was a piece of 
brass, like a bird’s beak. 

BEAM. The largest piece of wood in a 
building, which is its main support; in 
Naval Architecture, beams are the large 
main timbers that stretch across a ship to 
support a deck. 

BEAM-COMPASS. An instrument con¬ 
sisting of a square wooden or brass beam, 
having sliding sockets, used for describing 
large circles. 

BEAM-TREE. A tree which grows to 
the height of thirty or forty feet, so called, 
because it is particularly lilted for making 
axletrees and the like. 

BEAN. An edible pulse, of which there 
are several sorts, as the kidney or French 
bean, the broad Windsor bean, the horse 
bean, &.c. 

BEAR. A wild beast,, covered with 
shaggy hair, and having hooked claws for 
climbing trees. It feeds on honey, insects, 
and carcasses, and lies torpid during the 
winter. The black bear is a native of the 
north of Europe, Asia and America ; but 
the polar bear, which is white, lives with¬ 
in the arctic circle. The brown bear is 
found in Europe, but not in America. 
Asia has several varieties of the bear. 
The grisly bear figured below, is found 
only near the Rocky mountains in the 
United States. 



BEAR’S-BREECH An herb, from the 
smooth leaved sort of which, is extracted 
\ mucilage. 

BEARD (with Botanists). The under lip 
*1 a labiated flower, and in corn and grass, 
5* 


that hair or bristle which serves to defend 
the ear, as in barley, rye, wheat, and oats 

BEARD OF A COMET (in Astronomy). 
The rays which a comet emits towards 
that part of the heavens, to which its 
course seems to direct it. 

BEARD OF A HORSE (in Farriery). 
The chuck, or that part under the lower 
jaw, on the outside, and above the chin, 
which bears ine curb of the bridle. 

BEAR-GARDEN. A place formerly sei 
apart in England for the baiting of bears 

BEARER OF A BILL (in Commerce,'. 
The person in whose hands the bill is, and 
in favour of whom the last indorsement 
was made. 

BEARERS. Posts or brick walls, which 
are trimmed up between two ends of a 
piece of timber, to shorten its bearing, or to 
prevent its bearing with the whole weight 
at the ends only. 

BEARING (in Architecture). The dis¬ 
tance between the bearer, or support, and 
each end of the timber. 

BEARING. A sea term, to denote the 
situation of any distant object with regard 
to the ship’s position, whether ahead, 
astern, or abreast, &c. 

BEARING (in Heraldry). Whatever is 
borne in, or fills the escutcheon. 

BEAT. The walk or round, which a 
watchman has to take at stated intervals. 

BEATING TIME (in Music). That mo¬ 
tion of the hand or foot, by which some 
person marks and regulates the movements 
of the performers. 

BEATS (in a Clock or Watch). The 
strokes made by the pallets or fangs of the 
spindle. 

BEAVER. An amphibious four footed 
animal, that lives on the banks of rivers 
and unfrequented lakes, and is remarkable 


/ ~ 



for its ingenuity in building its habitation. 
It walks slowly, swims dexterously, eaU 
sitting on its haunches, and conveys it* 
food to its mouth with its fore paws. This 
animal is valued both for its fur and for 
the oil which it yields, called castor oil. 

















54 


BEL 


BEE 

BEAVER. That part of the helmet which 
defends the sight, and opens in front. 

BEAU MONDE. The gay fashionable 

world. 

BED (in Gunnery). A thick plank which 
lies under a piece of ordnance, on the car¬ 
riage. 

BED (in Masonry). A range or course 
of stones. 

BED (in Mineralogy). A stratum or 
layer of any earth or stone 

BED OF A RIVER. The bottom of a 
channel, in which the stream or current 
usually flows. 

BEE. An insect which carries on the 
operation of making honey and wax. Bees 
begin to swarm, that is to form new colo¬ 
nies, in May or June, according to the state 
of the weather. The swarm consists of a 
female, called the queen, who is distin¬ 
guished by her size ; the drones, who are 
supposed to be males, that do not work ; 
and the mules, or common bees, who are 
of neither sex, and do the work of the hive. 



BEEHIVE. A particular kind of box 
yr basket in which bees are kept. 



BF.ER. A drink made of malt and hops 
by the process of brewing ; it is of three 
kinds, namely, strong beer, ale, and table 
beer, or small beer. 

BEESTINGS. A term in Husbandry 
for the first milk taken from a cow after 
she calves. 

BEET. A garden herb and root, which 
is thick and fleshy. The leaves are used 
as potherbs, and the root is boiled for Vie 
table 


BEE'l'EE. The scarabajus of Linnteus 
well known insect, produced from the iar 
va; or grubs that live under ground. It 
has six feet, is hairy at one end, and 'yes 
in dry decayed wood, &c. 



BEETLE. A large wooden hammer foi 
driving palisadoes. 

BELFRY. That part of a church steeple 
in which the bells are hung. 

BELL. The well known metallic nia 
chine, which is ranked among musical 
instruments ; it consists of three parts, the 
body, or barrel, the clapper, and the ear, 
or cannon. The use of bells in churches 
was introduced into England, in swSth 
century. They were commonly toppdvsd 
before they were hung 



BELLES LETTRES. A French tern 
for polite literature. 

BELLIGERENT. An epithet appliei 
to states that are at war. 

BELL METAL. A metal employed ii 
the manufacture of bells, which usuallj 
consists of three parts of copper and one o? 
tin. 

B ELLON A. The goddess of war, an* 
sister of Mars. 

BELLOWS. A machine for blowing th« 
fire. This machine is so contrived as t. 
expire and respire the air alternately, by 
enlarging and contracting its capacity 
The air which enters the bellows is com 
pressed when they are closed, and flow* 
out of the pipe with a velocity proportion 
ed to the force by which it is compressed 
The bellows of smiths and founders ar« 
worked by a rocker. 















BEN 


BEIi 


BELLOWS OF AN ORGAN. The 
pneumatic part of the machine, by which 
It is supplied with wind. The bellows of 
a large organ are worked by a man called 
the blower ; those of smaller organs by the 
foot of the player. 

BELLUA3. The sixth order of animals 
in the Linnaean system, having their feet 
hoofed, as the equus, or horse j sus, the 
swine ; the hippopotamus, and the tapir. 

BELT. A girdle for hanging a sword or 
any other weapon in. 

BELT (in Heraldry). A badge of the 
knightly order, given to a person when he 
was raised to the knighthood. 

BELT (in Surgery). A bandage applied 
round the body. 

BELT (in Masonry). A range or course 
of bricks projecting from the rest. 

BELTEIN. An ancient festival in Ire¬ 
land, celebrated on tl^e 21st of June, the 
summer solstice, when fires were made on 
*he tops of the hills. 

BELTS, or Fascia. Two zones or 
girdles round the planet Jupiter, more 
lucid than the other parts of his body, and 
terminated by parallel straight lines, some¬ 
times broader and sometimes narrower, 
varying both in magnitude and position. 
These belts were first observed at Na¬ 
ples, by Zuppi and Bartoli, two Jesuits. 

BENCH. A seat of justices, or judges, 
as the King’s Bench, at Westminster, Eng. 

BENCHER. In England, a lawyer of 
the oldest standing in the inns of court 

BEND (in Heraldry). One of the ten 
honourable ordinaries, drawn from the 
dexter, or right corner, at the top of the 
escutcheon, to the sinister base, or left 
comer, at the bottom. It is supposed to 
represent a shoulder belt, or scarf, and to 
show the wearer to be valiant in war. It 
is sometimes called a bend dexter, to dis¬ 
tinguish it from the bend sinister, which is 
drawn from the left side of the shield to 
&e right. 



BEND. A sea term for the knot, by 
rhich one rope is fastened to another or 
^ an ancnor. 

BENDING- A sea term, for the tying 
wo cables or ropes together, or to anything 
slae 


55 

BENDING (in Physiology;. The reduc¬ 
ing a body to a curved or crooked form 
The bending of boards, planks, &c. is 
effected by means of heat, whether by boil 
ing or otherwise, by which the fibres be¬ 
come relaxed and flexible. 

BENDS IN A SHIP. The outermos' 
timbers of the side, to set the foot on in 
climbing up the side. They are reckoned 
from the water, first, second, and third 
bend, and are of great service in strength¬ 
ening the ship, as into them the beams, 
knees, and foothooks are bolted. 

BENEFICE. In England, any ecclesias¬ 
tical living, but particularly rectories and 
vicarages. 

BENEFIT OF CLERGY. In England, 
a privilege in law, at first peculiar to the 
clergy, but in after times made common to 
the laity. When any one was convicted 
of certain crimes, he had a book given him 
to read, and if the ordinary or his deputy 
pronounced these words, ‘ Legit ut cleri 
cus, he reads like a clergyman, or scho¬ 
lar,’ he was only burnt in the hand, ami 
set free for the first offence, otherwise lie 
v/as to suffer death. 

BENZOIN A dry solid resin, of a 
fragrant smell, produced by incision from 
the styrax, an Indian tree. It is brought 
to us from the East Indies, particular!} 
Siam and the islands of Java and Sumatra, 
in masses of various sizes, composed of 
small granules of a whitish or yellowish 
colour, with a purple cast on the surface. 
It is very inflammable, and diffuses a fra¬ 
grant smell while burning, and so in like 
manner when rubbed in the hand. When 
the benzoin tree is six years old, the na¬ 
tives cut it in several places, in an ob¬ 
lique direction, and the benzoin flows 
from the wounds. Benzoin is used by 
perfumers in making sweet bags, &c. and 
was formerly very much esteemed at 
expectorant. The tree was introducer, 
from Virginia into England. 

BEQUEST. A legacy; what is be 
queathed or left by will. 

BERENICE’S HAIR A constellation 
in the northern hemisphere. 

BERGAMOT. A fine sort of pear 
which is of two sorts, namely, the sum¬ 
mer bergamot and the autumn bergamot 

BERGAMOT (in Chemistry). A fragrant 
essence, extracted from a fruit which is 
produced by ingrafting a branch of a lemon 
tree, upon the stock of a bergamot pear 
This essence is got by cutting the external 
rind of the fruit into small pieces, and 
squeezing them into a glass vessel, in tire 
same manner as the juice of a lemon la 













BIB 


BIL 


squeezed out, by which means an ffitherial 
oil is procured of a very fragrant smell. 

BERRY. A round fruit, for the most 
part soft, and covered with a thin skin, 
containing seeds in a pulpy substance. 

BERYL. A precious stone, which, in 
its purity, is of a perfectly seagreen colour, 
and on that account called aqua marina. 
Beryl is also (in Painting) the seagreen 
colour, in imitation of this stone. 

BETA. The second letter in the Greek 
alphabet. 

BETEL. A sort of pepper plant, the 
leaf of which is universally chewed by the 
southern Asiatics, to sweeten the breath 
and strengthen the stomach. It is a slen¬ 
der-stemmed climbing plant. 

BEVEL. An instrument with a mov¬ 
able tongue, to strike angles of a greater 
or less magnitude. 



BEVELLING (in Carpentry). Hewing 
timber with a proper or regular curve. 

BEY. An officer of high rank among 
the TurKs, inferior to none but the pacha. 
The ruler of Tunis, has this title. 

BEZANTS. Round flat pieces of bul¬ 
lion witnout any impression, which are 
supposed to have been the current coin of 
Byzantium. This coin was probably in¬ 
troduced into coat armour by those who 
went to tne wars. 



BEZOAX. A medicinal stone, brought 
from the East and West Indies, which was 
formerly reckoned a sovereign antidote 
against poisons. It is found to be a morbid 
concretion in the intestines of some ani¬ 
mals. 

BIBLE. The collection of the books of 
the Old and New’ Testament. The Old 
Testament was first translated by the 72 
interpreters, and thence called theSeptua- 
gint: of the Latin versions, that of St. Je¬ 
rome wm confirmed by the council of 
Trent for vulgar use, and thence got the 


name of the Vulgate Hie Bible war 
translated into the Saxon tongue about the 
year 940 ; and into the English, by Wil¬ 
liam Tindal, in the twenty-first year of 
the reign of Ilenry the Eighth, when it 
was printed. The present authorized 
English version of the Holy Scriptures 
was completed in the reign of James the 
First, about the year 1611. 

BIBLIOGRAPHER. A person conver¬ 
sant with books. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The knowledge of 
books as to their several editions, tune, and 
form of being printed, type, and other par¬ 
ticulars connected with their publication. 

BIBLIOMANIA. A rage for scarce and 
old editions of books. 

BICE (in Painting). A blue colour pre¬ 
pared from the lapis armenus ; it bears the 
best body of all bright blues used in com¬ 
mon work 

BIENNIALS. Plants that flourish for 
two years, and seldom more. 

BIGAMY. Double marriage, or the mar¬ 
rying of two wives or two husbands while 
the first is alive, which is felony by statute. 
Bigamy, in the Civil Law, is the marrying 
a plurality of wives or husbands. 

BIGHT. The double part of a rope 
where it is folded, in distinction from the 
end. 

BILBOES. A term at sea, for the long 
bars of iron with which the feet of offen¬ 
ders are confined, the irons being more or 
less heavy, according to the nature of the 
offence. 

BILE. A bitter fluid secreted in the 
glandular substance of the liver, and pass¬ 
ing through the gall bladder and the porus 
biliarius,is discharged into the duodenum, 
where it converts the chyme into chyle 
and excrement. The constituent parts of 
bile are water, soda in a caustic state, 
phosphate of lime, and a resinous albu¬ 
minous principle. 

BILGE. A sea term, for the bottom ol 
the floor of a ship, the compass or breadth 
of its bottom. A vessel is said to bilge 
when she has struck off some of her tim 
ber against a rock. 

BILL. An edged tool, or hatchet, with 
a hooked point, for lopping of trees and 
making hedges : if it have a short handle 
it is a handbill; if a long handle, a hedg 
ingbill. 

BILL (in Law). A declaration in writ 
ing expressing any grievance or wrong 
which one person has suffered from an 
other •, also an instrument drawn up bj 
any member and presented to a legislator* 
for its approbation or rejection. 













BIP 


BIS 57 


BILL OF EXCHANGE (in Jommerce). 
A. note containing an order for the pay¬ 
ment of a sum of money, to a person call¬ 
ed the drawer, who when he has signed it 
with his name, and written the word ac¬ 
cepted, he is called the acceptor. The 
person in whose favour it is drawn, or to 
whom it is ordered to be paid, is called the 
drawee, or payee, who, when he has in¬ 
dorsed it, is called the indorser. He, who 
is in possession of the bill, is the holder. 

BILL OF FAKE. An account of such 
provisions as are in season, or are to be 
supplied for the table. 

BILL OF LADING, or Invoice. A 
deed signed by the master of a ship, by 
which he acknowledges the receipt of the 
merchant’s goods, and obliges himself to 
deliver them at the place to which they 
are consigned. 

BILL OF PARCELS. A tradesman’s 
account of goods sold and delivered. 

BILLET. A ticket for quartering sol¬ 
diers : also a small paper, or note, folded 
up as a billet doux, or love-letter 
BILLET. A small log of wood ; also in 
Heraldry, a bearing in the form of a square, 
supposed to represent cloth of gold and 
silver. 

BILLETL^^r (in Military Affairs). 
Ordering. Jrs to be quartered in par¬ 
ticular how^s by a billet or small ticket. 

BILLIARDS. A game played on an 
oblong table, exactly level, and covered 
with cloth, by the means of ivory balls, 
which are struck or driven with sticks, 
made bending, so as to drive the antago¬ 
nist’s ball into holes, called hazards or 
pockets, at the corners or by the sides of 
the table. The art of the game lies in 
pocketing your antagonist’s ball without 
putting in your own. 

BILLION The sum of a million mil¬ 
lions. 

BILLS OF MORTALITY. Annual re¬ 
nters of the deaths and burials, which 
ake place in the different parishes in and 
^ear London. The term is also applied to 
a register of deaths, in any town. 

BINDING OF BOOKS. The art of 
doing up books in leather or vellum, as 
distinguished from those done up in boards 
or only sewed. 

BINNACLE. A wooden case, contain¬ 
ing the compasses, log glasses, watch glas¬ 
ses, &c 

BINOMIAL. A term in algebra for any 
quantity consisting of two names, or terms, 
connected together by the sign -J-, or —, 

a a a b 

BIPED. An animal with only two legs, 
as men and birds 


BIQUADRATIC. The square squared, 
or the fourth power of any quantity. 

BIRCH TREE. A tree with leaves like 
the poplar, the fruit of which is a squamos* 
cone. The timber is used for hop-pole3. 

BIRD-BOLT. A small arrow with three 
heads, which was discharged at birds from 
a cross-bow. The bird-bolt is still used 
in England as a bearing in coat armour. 

BIRDCALL. A whistle or pipe to decoy 
birds. 

B1RDCATCIIING. The art of taking 
birds or wild fowl, by birdlime, nets, and 
decoys, which, as respects the more artful 
modes of catching birds, is called fowling. 
In the western islands of Scotland, where 
the birds live in rocks, a dangerous mode 
of bird catching is in use. 

BIRDLIME A glutinous substance, 
made of th* bark of holly, which is spread 
««i the twigs of trees to catch birds 

BIRD OF PARADISE. See Paradise, 
Bird of. 

BIRTH. A sea term for the station in 
which a ship rides at anchoring ground, as 
a good birth, for a good anchoring ground. 

BIRTHRIGHT (in Law). Honour or 
estate belonging to a person by right of 
his birth. 

BIRTHWORT. A herb having a peren 
nial root. 

BISCUIT (from biscoctus, twice baked). 
A sort of bread much dried in baking-, sea 
biscuit is dried harder than any other, that 
it may be better preserved. 

BISECTION. The cutting any quantity, 
as a line or angle, into two equal parts. 

BISON. A variety of the ox, which has 
its horns bent forwards, back gibbous, and 
mane long. It is very common in the 
western prairies. Herds of ten thousand 
are sometimes seen together. It is im¬ 
properly called Buffalo, in the United 
States. 



BISHOP. A dignitary in the Greek 
Romish and English churches. In the lai 
ter he presides over the clergy within i 
certain district, called his diocess Bi 









58 


BIT 


BLA 


shops in England are suffragans, or assist¬ 
ants, to the archbishop, who is the chief 
of the clergy in his province. The bishop 
is said to be installed, the archbishop to be 
enthroned. In America there is no arch¬ 
bishop. 

BISHOPRIC The diocess, or district, 
over which a bishop presides. 

BISMUTH. A metal of a yellowish or 
reddish white colour. It is rather harder 
than lead, and scarcely if at all malleable, 
being tery brittle •, it melts easily, and is 
soluble is acids 

BISSEXTILE, or Leap Year. A year 
consisting of 366 days, by the addition of 
a day in the month of February, when 
that year consists of 29 instead of 28 days. 
This happens every fourth year. The day 
thus added is also called Bissextile, and 
an this account, that Casar appointed it 
to be introduced by reckoning the twenty- 
fourth of February twice, and as that day 
»^as the same as the sixth of the calends 
of March, a day celebrated among the 
Romans on account of the expulsion of the 
Tarquins, it was called bis sextus calenda- 
rum Martii, and afterwards Bissextile. By 
the stat. 21 Hen. III. De Anno Bissextile, 
to prevent misunderstandings, the inter¬ 
calary day and that next before it, are to 
be accounted as one day. 

BISTER. A colour made of chimney 
soot boiled and diluted. 

BISTOURY. A small surgical knife of 
various forms, according to the purpose 
for which it is intended. 

BIT (in Carpentry). A boring instrument 
so constructed as to be taken out of the 
handle. 

BIT, or Bitt of a bridle. The iron 
attached to the bridle, which is put into 
the horse’s mouth. 

BITT. A sea term for the two pieces of 
timber to which the anchor cables are 
attached. 

BITTER. A sea term for the turn of th'*. 
cable round the bitts. 

BITTER. ALMOND. A sort of almond 
tree, the fruit of which is bitter. 

BITTER-APPLE. See CoLoqui ntida. 

BITTER PRINCIPLE. The bitter parts 
of vegetable substances, which may be ex¬ 
tracted by a chemical process. Artificial 
bitter is any bitter formed by the action 
of nitric acid on vegetable and other sub¬ 
stances. 

BITTER-SWEET. A so rl of solanum, 
a perennial. 

BITTERN, or BlvTOUR. A bird of the 
heron kind, of retired habits, that conceals 
itself in the reeds and marshes. It sends 
brth a croaking note when it is disturbed 


The American Bittern differs from that of 
Europe which is here figured 



BITUMEN. A sort of mineral substancr 
easily combustible with flame, greasy to 
the touch, and when ignited emits a strorij 
odour. Naphtha is a fluid bitumen, aspha! 
a hard species, and petrolium a visciu 
species of the bitumen. 

BIVALVES. One of the three genera, 
classes of shellfish, the shells of which are 
composed of two pieces, joined together by 
a hinge. 

BLACK. A colour which is supposed tc 
be produced by the peculiar texture of 
bodies, which deaden as it were the light 
falling upon them, and reflect none, or very 
little of it, outwards towards the eye. 

BLACK. A colour or dye, as lamp black, 
the smoke of resin, prepared by melting it 
in iron vessels ; ivory black, made of burnt 
ivory, and used in miniatures ; Spanish 
black, made of burnt cork, and first used 
by the Spaniards. 

BLACKBIRD. A well known bird of 
a beautiful black colour and an exquisite 
note. It sings in the spring, and makes 
its nest of moss and grass. We have no 
bird in America precisely similar to the 
European bird which is here described 



Our crow blackbird resembles it, but i» 
larger 










BLA 

BLACKBERRY. The ftuit of the bram¬ 
ble, or blackberry bush. 

BLACK BOOK (in England). A book 
kept in the Exchequer, which contains the 
orders of that court. 

BLACKCAP. A little bird with a fine 
black crown on its head. 

BLACK HOLE. A place of confinement 
for soldiers. 

BLACK LEAD. A mineral, the plum¬ 
bago or graohites of Linmeus. It is found 
in lead mines, and is fusible only by a 
violent heat. Lead pencils and crucibles 
are made of it. 

BLACK LETTER. A sort of old English 
alphabet. 

BLADDER. A thin membranous sub¬ 
stance, which serves as the receptacle of 
some fluid, as the urinary bladder, and 
the gall bladder. 

BLADDER-NUT. A tree, the fruit of 
which is contained in a membrane inflat¬ 
ed like a bladder. 

BLADDER SENNA. A shrub which 
yields a papilionaceous flower, that is suc¬ 
ceeded by pods resembling the inflated 
bladder of fishes. 

BLADE. The flat part of a sword or 
knife, resembling the blade or leaf of 
grass in shape. 

BLADEBONE. The shoulder bone. 

BLAIN (in Farriery). A distemper in¬ 
cident to animals, being a bladder at 
the root of the tongue, which stops the 
breath. 

BLANCH FARM (in English Law). A 
term for a farm where the rent is paid in 
silver, not in black cattle. 

BLANCHING. The art of making any 
thing white, as (in horticulture) the me¬ 
thod of whitening salads. Blanching mo¬ 
ney is the annealing, boiling, and cleans¬ 
ing it when it is coined. Blanching cop¬ 
per is done in various ways, so as to make 
it resemble silver. Blanching is also the 
operation of covering iron plates with a 
thin coat or crust of tin. Blanching al¬ 
monds is the skinning them by means of 
.iot water. 

BLANK. A void space in any writing 
or printing. 

BLANK VERSE. That which has no 
rhymes. 

BLANKETS (in Printing). Woollen 
cloths to lay between the tympans of a 
printing press, in order to produce a fair 
impression. 

BLANKETS. A sea term, for combus¬ 
tibles made of coarse brown paper steeped 
in nitre, dried, and then steeped again in 
tallow, resin, and sulphur ; they are used 
In fireships I 


BLO 

BLAST. A disease m grain and trees 
called also a blight. 

BLASTING (among Miners). The 
tearing up rocks by the force cf gun 
powder. 

BLASTING - BELLOWS. Bellows 
which are used to produce a more than or 
dinary degree of heat in furnaces 

BLAZONRY, or BLAZONING. Thai 
branch of the art of heraldry which con¬ 
sists in expressing in proper terms all that 
belongs to coats of arms. The word comes 
from the German blasen, to blow ; be¬ 
cause a trumpet used to be blown at justs, 
&c. previously to the herald’s recording 
the achievements of the knights. 

BLEACHING. The process of white¬ 
ning linen by exposure to the sun and 
air; or, as is now more commonly in use, 
by the application of chemical prepara 
tions. 

BLEMISH (in Farriery). Any imper 
fection in a horse which impedes a sound 
warrant, as broken knees, cracked heels, 
&c. 

BLENDE. The ore of zinc. 

BLIGHT. A disease incident to plants, 
which consists in a sort of fungus, that 
converts the affected part into a sooty 
mass. 

BLINDS. A contrivance to prevent any 
one seeing through a window ; in Military 
Affairs, bundles of osiers used at the heads 
of trenches, to protect the men. 

BLINDYVORM, or Slowworm. A 
worm so called from the smallness of its 
eyes and the slowness of its motion. 

BLISTER. A pustule in the skin, filled 
with serum ; in general, any swelling 
caused by the separation of the outer in¬ 
tegument of any substance from that 
which is underneath. 

BLISTER (in Medicine). The plas¬ 
ter or application that raises a blister, 
mostly made of the cantharides, or Span¬ 
ish flies. 

BLOCK. A sea term for a pulley, oi 
series of pulleys, mounted in a frame, ci 
shell, which serves to facilitate the pas¬ 
sage of the ropes. Blocks are single, dou 
ble, treble, &c. according to the numbe 
of shivers in them through which the run 
ning ropes run. 

SINGLE BLOCK. 







60 


BLO 

DOUBLE BLOCK. 


BOA 



TREBLE BLOCK. 



BLOCKADE. The blocking up the 
roads and avenues to a place, by means of 
soldiers, so as to prevent any ingress or 
egress. 

BLOOD. A warm red fluid, of a salt¬ 
ish taste and urinous smell, circulating 
through every part of the body by means 
of arteries and veins. The blood is found 
to contain an insipid water, which soon 
becomes putrid, an empyreumatic oil, an 
ammoniacal spirit, and the remainder car¬ 
bon. 

BLOOD (in Law). Is regarded in de¬ 
scent of lands, for a person must be next 
and most worthy of blood in order to in¬ 
herit his ancestor’s estate. 

BLOOD-IIORSE. A breed of horses 
originally from the Arabian stock, the ex¬ 
cellence of which consists in the compact¬ 
ness of his fibre, that adds to his strength 
without increasing his bulk. 

BLOODHOUND. A hunting dog, of 
such exquisite scent, that he will follow 
the track of men as well as of animals. 

BLOOD-RED-HOT. The last degree of 
heat given by smiths to their iron in the 
forge. 

BLOODSHOT. A distemper in the eyes, 
when the vessels are so distended as to 
make them appear red. 

BLOOD-STONE A stone which serves 
to stop bleeding. 

BLOODSUCKER. A leach which sucks 
the blood of any animal to which it is ap¬ 
plied. 

BLOWING GLASS. The process in 
glass houses of forming glass into various 
shapes, by means of blowing through a 
blow-pipe dipped into the melted glass. 

BLOW-PIPE. A wind instrument, 
which consists of a hollow tube, ending in 
a cavity as fin e as a wire, through which 
air may be directed with considerable force 
against a flame, so as to heat substances 


with great rapidity. It is used by ehy 
mists, enamellers, glassmakers, &c 



BLUBBER. The fat of the whale be 
fore it is boiled. Sea blt.br>er, the vulgai 
name of a shellfish. 

BLUE. One of the seven primitive 
colours into which they are divided when 
refracted through a glass prism. Blue, a* 
a colour in painting, is distinguished into 
ultramarine, from the azure stone ; blue 
ashes, used in limning, fresco, and minia¬ 
ture ; blue verditer, a blue somewhat in 
dining to a green ; Prussian blue, a colour 
next to ultramarine for beauty. 

BLUE BIRD. A beautiful North Ame 
rican bird, witli a soft warbling note, 
which is one of the first harbingers of 
spring. 

BLUEBOTTLE. An animal, having a 
bellshaped flower. The flower is borne in 
coats of arms. 

BLUEBOTTLE. A large kind of fly 
with a blue body. 

BLUEING. The process of heating iron 
and other metals in the fire, until they 
assume a blue colour, which is the practice 
of gilders before they apply the gold and 
silver leaf to them 

BLUFF. A see term for a high land 
projecting almost perpendicularly into the 
sea. 

BLUNDERBUSS. A short brass gun 
with a large bore. 

BOA CONSTRICTOR. A serpent of 
immense size and strength, a native of 
Africa and India, measuring sometime? 
ten yards in length. It will twist itself 
round the bodies of oxen and other ani¬ 
mals, and, breaking their bones, swallow 
them whole. 



BOAR The male of the swine. Thf 
boar’s head is often borne in coats of arm* 
BOARD. A sea term, for the space a 



























BOD 


BOM 


nip runs over between tack ani tack, as 
to make short hoards, that is, tc tack fre¬ 
quently •, also the ship itself, as to go 
aboard, that is, into the ship ; so board and 
board is said of two ships coming so near 
to each other as to touch by the board over 
the snip’s side. 

BOARD (in Carpentry). Any piece of 
timber sawed to a less thickness than 
about an inch ; all above this thickness 
are planks. 

BOARC, or Pasteboard Layers of 
paper so pasted together as to make a sub¬ 
stance as hard as a board. 

BOARDfNG. The fixing of boards for 
any purpose, as a floor ; (in Naval Tactics) 
the entering a ship in a forcible manner. 

BOARDS, or by way of contraction, 
Bds. The manner of doing books up in 
pasteboard covers, without leather. 

BOARD WAGES. Money given to ser¬ 
vants in lieu of diet. 

BOAT. A small open vessel worked on 
rivers or small waters by rowing or sailing. 



BOATBILL. A bird of South America, 
having a bill that resembles a boat in 
shape. It lives upon fish, and darts down 
upon them as they are swimming. 

BOATFLY. An insect with an inflected 
snout, that lives in stagnant waters. 

BOATSWAIN. A sea term, for the offi¬ 
cer who has the boats, anchors, &c. in his 
tharge. 

BOB. The metallic weight attached to 
a pendulum. 

BOBBIN. A sort of tape. 

BOBBINS. Little pins of wood with a 
notch, on ivrtich thread, &x. is wound. 

BODKIN. A long sort of pin, on which 
women used to roll their hair. 

BODY (in Geometry). Any solid having 
three dimensions, length, breadth, and 
thickness. Regular bodies, which have 
all their angles and sides similar and 
equal, are of five kinds, namely, tetrae- 
dron, a body contained under four equi¬ 
lateral triangles ; hexaedron, a body con¬ 
taining six squares; octaedron, a body hav¬ 
ing eight triangles ; dodecaedron, a body 
containing twelve pentagons ; icosaedron, 
a body ojntaining twenty triangles. Ir¬ 
regular bodies .are solids which are not 
bounded by equal, and like surfaces 
6 


BODY (in Physics) An extended solid 
substance, consisting of hard, impenetra¬ 
ble, moveable particles. It is a hard body 
when its parts do not easily yield to any 
stroke or percussion ; a soft body when it 
yields to every stroke, and thereby under¬ 
goes a change j an elastic body, that 
changes its form with every stroke, but re¬ 
covers it again when the impeL*xg force is 
removed. 

BODY. In the phrase ‘ to bear a body,’ 
a term applied by painters to any colour 
which is of a nature to be ground so free¬ 
ly, and to mix with oil so entirely, as to 
seem one thick oil of the same colour. 

BODY. Of a chemical vessel, th.it 
which holds the matter in distillation 
Body of a pump, the thickest part of the 
barrel or pipe. Body, in an army, any 
number of forces anited under one com 
mander. 

BOHEA TEA One of the superior 
kinds of tea that comes from China. 

BOILING POINT. The fixed point or 
degree of heat required to produce the 
ebullition or boiling of a fluid. Every li- 
quid has a fixed point at which boiling 
commences, and this is called the boiling 
point. Thus water begins to boil at the 
temperature of 21:2°. After a liquid has 
begun to boil, it will not become hotter, 
for although a stronger heat makes all li¬ 
quids boil more rapidly, yet it does not in¬ 
crease their temperature. 

BOLE. A friable earth of the argillace¬ 
ous kind, which unites with water so as to 
form a paste. The Armenian bole, or bole 
armeniac, is a bright red coloured earth, 
so called from Armenia, the country from 
which it is procured. 

BOLL. A measure of two bushels. 

BOLOGNA STONE. A phosphoric 
stone, first found'at Bologna in Italy. It 
is a gray soft sulphureous stone, about the 
size of a large walnut, which shines in 
the dark after calcination. This stone i>t 
the native sulphate of carytes. 

BOLSTER. A soft pillow for a broket 
limb ; in Farriery, it is the name of those 
parts of a saddle which are raised upon 
the bows to receive the rider’s thighs. 

BOLSTER. A sea term, for a piece of 
timber cut and placed for the easement of 
the cable. 

BOLT. An iron pin used forstrengt » 
ening timber. 

BOLUS An internal medicine, ot * 
consistency thicker than honey. 

BOMB A hollow ball of cast iron 
filled with combustibles, and discharges 
from a mortar into towns, when, by ourrt 
mg. it causes much mischief 

















BON 


BOO 


62 

BOMBARDMENT. The discharging of 
oombs into a besieged place. 

BOMBIC ACID. An acid liquor con¬ 
tained in a reservoir near the anus of the 
silkworm. 

BOMBKETCH. A small vessel built 
and strengthened with large beams, for 
he use of mortars at sea. 


\ 



BOMPERN1CKEL. A name given in 
derision to the German rye-bread, signify¬ 
ing, good for nothing. 

BONA FIDE. With good faith ; with¬ 
out fraud or subterfuge. 

BOND (in Law). An obligation or 
covenant in writing to pay any sum, or 
perform any contract. 

BOND (in Carpentry). The binding of 
any two pieces together by tenanting, mor¬ 
ticing, Sec. In Masonry, it is the disposi¬ 
tion of stones or bricks in a building, so 
that they most aptly fit together; stones 
having their length placed in the thick¬ 
ness of the wall are called headers, and 
those whose length extends along the face 
or exterior of the wall are called stretchers. 

BOND-TIMBERS. The horizontal tim¬ 
bers bedded in stone or brick walls, for 
strengthening the masonry. 

BONDSMAN. One bound or giving se¬ 
curity for another. 

BONE. A hard, dry, insensible part of 
the body, composed of a spongy reticular 
substance, and an oily matter called mar¬ 
row. There is also a considerable portion 
of phosphate of lime that enters into their 
oomposition. The bones of the human 
oody are in number about 250. 

BONE. A sea term, in the phrase ‘ To 
carry a bone in her mouth,’ applied to a 
ship when she makes the water foam be¬ 
fore her in sailing. 

BONE-LACE. Lace made of bobbins 
that are formed from bones. 

BONES. A sort of bobbins made of 
trotter-hones, for weaving bone lace. 

BONES. A name in Mathematics given 
to Lord Napier’s rods for facilitating arith- 
netical calculations. 

BONING A term among surveyors, to 


denote the laying poles up n the ground 
in such a manner that all may :e in a 
straight line. 

BONNET (in Heraldry,. A cap of vel 
vet worn without a coronet. 

BONNET. A sea term, for the addition 
of a small sail made to fasten witn latch¬ 
ings to the foot of the other sails. 

BONNET (in Fortification). A small 
work composed oftwo faces, usually raised 
before the saliant angle of the counter¬ 
scarp. 

BONZE. A priest in China, Japan, and 
Farther India who wears a chaplet of 
beads about his neck, and carries a staff, 
having a wooden bird at one end. 

BOOBY. A South American bird of the 
pelican tribe. 

BOOK. Any folded leaves which are 
or may be written upon ; also a genera 
name for any literary composition, bu. 
more particularly any composition large 
enough to be formed into a volume. Before 
the use of books or volumes things were 
committed to writin g on stone, wood, bark, 
&c. The Decalogue was written on tables 
of stone ; so likewise, as we learn from 
Josephus, the children of Seth wrote their 
inventions and astronomical observations 
on two columns, one of brick and the other 
of stone, the latter of which was standing 
in his day. Hesiod’s works were originally 
written upon tables of lead ; Solon’s laws 
upon wooden planks, &c. and the Parian 
Chronicle, or a chronicle of the affairs of 
Athens, on marbles, which are now known 
by the name of the Arundelian. The 
Scythians, Celts, and their several de¬ 
scendants, the Goths, Teutones, &c. also 
used to write on trees whatever they 
thought worthy to preserve in writing. 
Tables of wood, box, and ivory were also 
common among the ancients ; but we find 
that the Roman's were accustomed to write 
upon tables of wax, by means of a style 
or bodkin, so contrived that they could 
also erase what they pleased. The finest 
and thinnest parts of the bark of trees, as 
of the lime, the ash, the maple, and the 
elm, were also employed, whence the Lat¬ 
in name liber signifies both book and bark 
The English word book is derived imme 
diately from the Saxon boec, Low Ger 
man bok, High German buch; and is 
either from buch, which signifies a beech, 
because the bark of this kind of tree was 
used; or from hiegen, to bend, because 
the leaves were folded or bent into the 
form of a book. When books were rolled 
up, thej were on that account called 
volumen, a volume, a name afterwards 
given to paper and parchment folded toge- 








BOO 


BOO 


63 


ifcer. Sometimes the roll consisted of seve¬ 
ral sheets of bark fastened together and 
rolled upon a stick, called an umbilicus. 
Before the introduction of printing, books 
were become so scarce in the middle ages, 
that, in Spain, one and the same copy of 
the Bible, St. Jerome’s Epistles, and some 
few volumes of ecclesiastical offisas served 
several different monasteries. Since that 
eeriod the increase of books has been pro¬ 
digious ; and in consequence of the differ¬ 
ent editions, modes of printing, size, type, 
and other particulars connected either 
with the external form or internal con¬ 
tents, the knowledge of books has become 
a particular study and pursuit, under the 
name of bibliography. 

BOOKBINDING. The process of bind¬ 
ing books, or putting the sheets together 
into the form of books. The bookbinder 
receives the sheets which compose a book 
immediately from the printer, and after 
having folded them in the order of the sig¬ 
natures, or letters at the bottom of the page, 
they are first beaten with a hammer on a 
stone, to make them lie close and smooth , 
after which they are put into a press, and 
sewed with bands, or strips of leather fas¬ 
tened at certain distances, which, being all 
glued together very firmly, form the back 
of the book, to which the pasteboards are 
attached by means of the bands, so as to 
form the sides. In all this process of fix¬ 
ing on the sides, much art and nicety is 
required in rounding the back, and keeping 
the whole firmly fixed in the press. After 
this the book is put into the cutting-press 
between two boards, one lying even with 
the press for the knife to run upon, the 
other above, for the knife to run against. 
In this manner the leaves and boards are 
cut to form an even edge. The next ope¬ 
ration is thesprinkling ofthe leaves, which 
is done by means of a brush dipped in 
vermilion and sap green. The covers of 
leather, &c. being first moistened, are cut 
to the size ofthe book, smeared with paste, 
and then stretched successively over the 
back and the twosides, after having taken 
off the four angles, and indented and plat¬ 
ted the cover at the head band. When 
ihus far finished, the book is covered and 
bound between two bands and set to dry. 
It is afterwards washed with paste and 
water, and tnen sprinkled with a brush, 
unless it is to be marbled, which is done 
by making spots with vitriol. The book 
.« then glazed with the white of an egg, 
and, lastly, polished with a hort iron. 
The letters and ornaments are made with 
gilding tools, or brass cylinders, rolled 
along by a handle: to apply the gold, the 


leather is glazed with a liquor made of 
the white of eggs, diluted with water 
and when nearly dry the gold is laid on 
Such is the process when a book is fully 
bound ; but books may sometimes be only 
sewed and have a paper cover, when they 
are said to be sewed: sometimes the 
boards are covered with paper only, when 
they are said to be .'n boards ; and some¬ 
times they have a leather covering on the 
back, extending a small way over eaci: 
side, when they are said to be half bound. 

BOOK-KEEPING. The art of keeping 
accounts, or recording the mercantile trails 
actionsof aman, so thathe may thoroughly 
know the whole state of his affairs, or any 
part of them, with ease and despatch 
Accounts may De kept either by single or 
double entry ; the former of which may 
answer the purpose where the dealings are 
on a small scale, but merchants, whose con¬ 
cerns are extensive, keep their books accor¬ 
ding to the double entry, or Italian method 
In single entry two books only are wanted, 
namely, a journal, or day book, in which 
the transactions of the day, as they occur 
in the course of business, are entered; and 
the ledger, or post book, in which all the 
accounts drawn out of the journal are 
placed under the proper name, either on 
the debtor or creditor side. Those whj 
keep their accounts by double entry, have 
occasion for several books, the three prin¬ 
cipal of which are, the waste book, the 
journal, and the ledger. The waste b- ok 
is a book containing an inventory of a 
merchant’s effects anil debts, with a dis¬ 
tinct record of all his dealings. The act of 
placing any transaction under a given ac¬ 
count is called the entry ; if placed on the 
Dr. or debtor’s side, it is debiting the 
account: if placed on the Cr. or creditor’s 
side, it is crediting. The waste book opens 
with the inventory, which consists of two 
parts ; namely, in the first place, of a man’s 
effects, and what is due to him ; and in 
the next place, what is due by him. After 
the inventory follow the daily transactions 
as they occur in business. The accounts of 
persons are debited under their respective 
names when they become indebted to the 
merchant, and credited when the merchant 
becomes indebted to them. Accounts of 
property are debited when they come into 
his possession, and credited when they go 
out of it. In the same manner the accounts 
of profit and loss are kept, which are de 
bited on account of a loss, and credited on 
account of a gain. Those marked Dr. are 
placed on the left side, and those marked 
Cr. on the opposite side, marked Contra Cr 
This book should contain the names of per 



54 


BOO 


BOR 


•ons with whom the merchant deals, the 
eonditions of bargains, the terms of pay¬ 
ment, the quantity, quality, and prices of 
goods, with every other particular needful 
to be recorded. The journal, or day book, 
is intermediate between the waste book 
and the ledger, wherein the transactions 
recorded in the waste book are prepared 
to be carried to the ledger, by having the 
proper debtors arid creditors ascertained 
and placed in order. In the journal, per¬ 
sona and things are debtors toother persons 
and things as creditors, and in this it agrees 
with the ledger, but in other respects it 
agrees with the waste book. Every case 
or transaction entered into the journal is 
called a journal post, or entrance. The 
ledger is the principal book, in which all 
the several articles of each particular ac¬ 
count that lie scattered in other books, 
according to their several dates, are col¬ 
lected and placed together in such manner 
that the opposite parts of every account 
are directly set fronting one another, on 
opposite sides of the same folio ; that is to 
say, the debtor, or debtor part, is entered 
on the left or debtor side of its own account, 
where it is charged debtor to the creditor 
part; and the creditor, or creditor part, is 
posted to the right or creditor side of its 
account, and made creditor by the debtor 
part. Hence it is that the Italian method 
of book-keeping is said to be by double 
entry, because every single case of the 
waste book requires to be entered twice in 
the ledger, that is, once for the debtor and 
once for the creditor. In addition to the 
above three books, most merchants have 
several other books, as the cash book, 
which contains in debtor and creditor all 
the cash that comes in and goes out; the 
debt book, in which are entered all sums 
that, become due, either to be received or 
paid, by bills of exchange, notes of hand, 
&cc .; besides this, some merchants require 
a book of invoices, a book of commissions, 
a book of orders or advices, &x. according 
to the nature of their transactions. 

BOOKSELLER. One who deals or 
trades in books, particularly one who sells 
the books printed by others, as distin¬ 
guished from the publisher, who sells the 
books, that are printed on his own account. 
The bookselling business has always held a 
higher rank than any other common trade ; 
and on the continent, as at Tubingen, Salis- 
burg, and Paris, booksellers class with the 
members of the learned professions, and 
have the privileges of students at the uni¬ 
versity. Or the introduction of printing, 
the bookseller, printer, and scholar were 
oue and the same person. 


BOOKWORM A little insect vvhici 
breeds and eats holes in books, especially 
when damp. 

BOOM. A sea term, for a long pole to 
extend the bottoms of particular sails, as 
the jib boom, studding sail boom. Tht 
boom of a harbout, a strong iron chain 
thrown across a lfaroour, to prevent the 
entrance of an enemy. 

BOOR. Properly, a peasant, particu 
larly applied to the rude peasantry of 
Russia. 

BOOT OF A COACH The space an 
derneuth between the coachman and the 
body of the coach. 

BOOTES. A northern constellation, con¬ 
sisting of fifty-four stars, according to Mr 
Flamstead. 

BORAC1C ACID. An acid drawn from 
borax by combustion. 

BORAX. A substance dug out of wells 
in Thibet, and imported from India. It 
is sometimes in the form of solid grains, 
sometimes in large crystals, enclosed in a 
fatty matter. 

BORDER, or BORDU11E. An ordinary 
in Heraldry, so called because it borders 
round, and as it were hems in the field 
Borders are charged with things natural 
and artificial, in the same manner as the 
field 



BORDERERS. Those who lived on the 
borders of England and Scotland, and were 
formerly engaged in perpetual hostilities. 

BORE. The hollow of a piece of old 
nance. 

BORE-COLE, or Curled Colewort 
A hardy sort of kale, which is improved 
by the frost. 

BORER. A piercer, or instrument tt. 
bore holes with. 

BORING. The method of piercing th 
earth in search of minerals. 

BOROUGH. From the German burg 
it formerly signified a fenced town, but in 
England is now taken for any corporate 
town that is not a city, and that sends 
members to parliament: in Scotland then- 
are still royal burghs, or boroughs, that an 
held of the king. Rotten Boroughs, art 
ancient towns, with the privilege of send 
ing members to Parliament, which arc 
now reduced, and have but a few persons 
living in them 










BOT 


BOT 


BOROUGH-ENGLISH. A customary 
descent of land in some places to the 
younger sons. 

BOS. The generic name in the Linnaean 
system for all animals of the ox tribe, as 
the bison, buffaloe, common ox, musk ox, 

&c. 

BOTANY. The science which teaches 
the knowledge of plants, as to their dis¬ 
criminating characters, structure, growth, 
culture, diseases, and the like. Plants are 
distinguished into natural orders, as trees, 
the stems of which send forth branches 
from the middle and top : shrubs, the stems 
of which send forth branches from the 
bottom : undershrubs, when the stems of 
the shrubs perish: herbs,which bear flowers 
and seeds, and then die ; if they die at the 
end of one year they are called annuals, if 
at the end of two years biennials, if they 
last three or more years they are perennials: 
fungi are fleshy, coriaceous, or woody: 
alg®, or seaweeds, have neither stems nor 
leaves: mosses, which have only leaves 
and fruit: ferns, that never send forth more 
than one leaf on a footstalk : grasses, 
which are distinguished by their stem, 
which is a culm or straw : lilies, which 
have a tuberous or bulbous root: palms, 
which have an arboreous stem, from which 
the leaves grow, and not the branches. 

The parts of plants are distinguished 
generally into the root, the stem, the bud, 
the leaf, the inflorescence, and the fructifi¬ 
cation. The root is the part through which 
the plant derives nourishment from the 
earth ; a plant is either annual, biennial, or 
perennial, according to the time that the 
root lasts. Roots are sometimes called 
fleshy, when they consist of a fleshy pro¬ 
longation ; fibrous, when they consist of 
many fibrous prolongations; tuberous, 
when they consist of a thick fleshy sub¬ 
stance, as the potatoe ; bulbous , when they 
consist of a bulb or fleshy body, provided 
with several coats, as the onion or the lily ; 
granulated, when they have a cluster of 
little bulbs, as in the saxifrage ; creeping, 
when they have a horizontal prolongation 
of the root growing under the earth, and 
sending forth new plants of its kind, as 
couchgrass 

The stem is the prolongation of the plant 
above the soil, proceeding from the root. 
The woody stem of trees is the trunk ; that 
which is herbaceous is the stalk, and be¬ 
longs only to herbaceous plants ; but the 
stalk of grasses, rushes, and similar plants, 
is called the culm ; and when the stalk 
bears flowers and fruits immediately from 
.he root, and not leaves, it is a scape, as 
in primrose and cowslip : the sta! v 

_ * 


at 

which springs from the stem or branches, 
bearing the flower and fruit, is the pedun 
cle or flower stalk ; that which bears the 
leaf only is the petiole, or footstalk. 

The bud is that part of the plant which 
contains the embryo of the leaves, flowers, 
&c., and serves as their hybernacuJum, or 
winter receptacle. The bud is guarded by 
scales, and furnished with gum, or wool, 
as an additional defence. The moss bud 
is a roundish longish body, proceeding from 
the mother plant, and becoming itself a 
new one ; the gongylus is a knob belong 
ing to the seaweed, which falls off on the 
death of the mother plant, and becomes a 
new one. 

The leaf is the herbaceous production 
from the ascending stem-, when the stalk 
and leaf are so intimately connected that 
they cannot be distinguished, this is called 
a frond, as in the palms and the alg®. To 
the leaf belong several appendages, which 
serve either for ornament or some specific 
use, as the bracte®, or floral leaf, that 
stands near or between the flowers, form¬ 
ing a tuft, as in the pineapple; the stipula, 
a small leaf that appears on the stem, in 
the place of a footstalk; the sheath, a pro¬ 
longation of the leaf that rolls itself round 
the stem, as in grasses; the ascidium, or 
bottle, afoliaceous cylindrical hollow body, 
which is generally furnished with a cover, 
andcontains water; the ampulla,or bladder, 
a round hollow body at the roots of water 
plants; the gland, a round body situated 
on the leaves, which serves as an orga* f 
respiration; the spine, or thorn, that rises 
in the interior of the plant, as in the sloe.; 
the aculeus, or prickle, that issues from the 
bark; the cirous clasper, or tendril, a fiii- 
form body which serves to support weak 
plants, as in the vine, &.c.; the arista, or 
awn, a pointed beard in grasses; the pili, 
hairs, fine slender bodies, which include all 
kinds of pubescence, as bristles, wool, &c. 
some of which discharge a poison, as in the 
nettle. 

The inflorescence is the mode of flower¬ 
ing, which differs very much in differeni 
plants, and is distinguished into verticiilus, 
the whorl,whichconsistsofseveralflowers, 
standing at intervals,surrounding the stem, 
as in the mint; the racemus, the raceme, 
a peduncle with short lateral branches, a® 
in the currant and thevine,&c.; thecorym 
bus, or corymb, an erect raceme, the lower 
peduncles of which are so lengthened as to 
be of equal height with the upper; when 
the peduncles take their rise from the same 
centre, but the subdivisions are irregular, 
it is a cyme; when the peduncles rise 
frow» tj)#> same centre, but the whole is 




66 BOTANY. 


disposed in regular order, it is an umbel; 
the capitulum lias many flowers, standing 
thick, so as to form a head, as in the globe- 
amaranth ; the fasciculus,fascicle or bundle, 
a number of simple peduncles rising at the 
fr-ot of the stem from several points, as in 
the sweet william; the spica, or ear, as in 
wheat and barley; the panicula, or pani¬ 
cle, -in which the flowers or fruits are 
scattered on branches unequally divided, 
as in the oat grass; the spadix, so called 
from the spadix vagina, or sheath, which 
contains the flower stalks; the amentum, 
or catkin, a long stem thickly covered 
with scales, under which are the flowers 
or essential parts, as in the willow and 
hazel; the sorus, or mass, an inflorescence 
peculiar to the ferns, which have masses 
of seed capsules in their fronds. 

The fructification consists of the flower 
and the fruit. The principal parts of the 
flower are, 1. The calyx, or flowercap,or 
envelope of green leaves, which, when it 
immediately encloses the flower, is a peri¬ 
anth; when it contains many flowers in 
one is an anthodium; when it consists of 
many leaves surrounding the flower, as in 
umbelliferous plants, is an involuere. The 
calyx of grasses is called the glume; when 
it rolls itself round the stem, as in some 
grasses, it is called the vagina, or sheath; 
and in some aquatic plants the spatha, or 
spathe. 2. Tire corolla, or blossom, the 
envelope of small leaves of various colours 
which constitute the flower properly so 
called; the divisions of the corolla are 
called the petals; the parts of the corolla 
are the tubus, the tube, the hollow under¬ 
part of a corolla that has but one petal; 
limbus, the border or opening of the co¬ 
rolla; labia, the lips; barba, the beard; 
rictus, the gape between the extremities of 
the lips; faux, the throat or the opening of 
the tube; nectarium, the nectary, which 
commonly serves to secrete a sweet juice; 
this is sometimes in the shape of a hood, 
and is called the cucullus, or hood, as in 
the aconite or monkshood; sometimes in 
the shape of a spur, called calcar, as in the 
violet; also in that of an arch, a crown, 
&c. 3. The stamen is an essential part of 
the flower, which consists of the filament 
or thread that supports the anther; anthera, 
the anther, a hollow cellular body; and 
pollen, the powder or fine dust contained 
in the anther. 4. The pistil, the second 
essential pail of a flower, stands in the 
centre of the circle formed by the stamen, 
and consists )f the germen, the rudiments 
of the future fruit or seed; the stylus, style 
or shaft, a small stalk seated on the germen; 
nn<1 the stigma, the top of the style. 


The fruit proceeds from the germen, and 
consists of, 1, the pericarpium, pericarp 
or seed vessel, a hard hollow body, that it 
of different kinds, as capsula, a capsule, oi 
thin coat, divided into cells; a siliqua, ot 
pod, a dry elongated pericarp, consirting 
of halves or valves, as in the mustard; tke 
leguinen, the legume, as in the pea kind- 
nux, the nut, a pericarp covered with i 
hard shell; drupa, or drupe, a nut covered 
with a fleshy coat, as in the plum; bacca, 
the berry ,a succulent fruit containing man} 
seeds, as the gooseberry, the currant, &c 
2. The semen,orseed, thatpartof theplant 
destined for propagation, consists of dif¬ 
ferent parts, as the cotyledones, colyledons 
orseed leaves; corculum, the circle or little 
heart, the germ of the new plant; hylum, 
the eye, the deep scar in the seed which 
has been occupied by the circle; plumula, 
the plumule, or that part of the circle 
which ascends to form the leaves; rostel 
lum, the other part of the circle, which 
descends to form the root. Besides the 
seedis furnished with different appendages, 
as ar’.lus, the aril, a soft membrane ex¬ 
tended over the seed; pappus, the down; 
cauda, the tail; rostrum, the beak; ana 
various spines, or hooks, &.C. which serve 
to attach the seeds to different bodies, and 
promote their dispersion. 3. The basis, or 
base, is the receptacle or body on which 
the flower stands, the principal part of 
which is the thalamus, or fruit bed; when 
this is round or oblong it is called pelta, 
a target; when plateshaped, scutella, a 
shield; when convex, tuberculum, &.c. 

Besides the science of botany compre¬ 
hends also a knowledge of plants as to their 
vegetation, anatomy, chemical compose 
tion, and diseases, which are all include*, 
under the physiology of plants. The veg 
etation of plants may be distinguished into 
germi nation, when the seed begins to burst 
vernation, when the buds begin to burst- 
virginity, when the flowers or buds are not 
yet unfolded; defoliation, when the leaves 
in autumn begin to fall off; sleep, when 
during the night the leaves hang down; 
aestivation, when the flower is in perfec¬ 
tion; fructification, when the anthers 
communicate the fructifying dust to the 
neighbouring parts. 

The anatomical structure of plants com 
prebends the cuticle, the cortex or outer 
bark; the liber, or inner bark; the libur- 
num, or soft wood; lignum, the wood; 
medulla, the pith; the air vessels, which 
are the conductors of the air; the adducent 
or spiral vessels, which prc-ceed with oi 
are entwined round the air vessels; the 
reducent vessels, which are supposed t« 





BOTANY 


«rve the purpose of transpiratio n, the 
vinphatics, which are reticularly united; 
he cellular texture, a delicate membrane 
•grounding all the vessels, and containing 

resinous juice, as in the hr tribe, and a 
gummy juice in fruit trees; the glands, 
which serve as secretory vessels. 

The principal chymical (ernstituents of 
plants are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 
but chiefly the former, besides which azote, 
sulphur, and other simple substances, may 
be found in small quantities. The princi¬ 
pal compound substances which form the 
sensible ingiedients of plants are, the acids, 
mucilage, sugar, starch, albumen, gluten, 
fixed and volatile oil, wax, resin, camphor, 
&C. 

The principal diseases to which plants 
are incident are, fissures, or a separation 
of the solids into long clefts, arising from 
an extreme fulness of juice; premature 
defoliation, when the leaves fall off before 
the usual period; albigo mildew, a whitish 
mucilaginous coating of the leaves of 
plants, which causes their decay, rubigo, 
rust which appears on the leaves and stems 
of many plants; lepra, leprosy, which af¬ 
fects the trunk ; galhe, galls, occasioned 
by flying insects; verruca?, warts; besides 
haemorrage, canker, exulceration, &x. 

BOTANY, History of. As the practice 
of cultivating plants both for pleasure and 
utility was coeval with the first formation 
of man, it is natural to suppose that the 
science of botany was one of the earliest 
studies which engaged the attention of in¬ 
quirers. Aristotle, in his history of ani¬ 
mals, has many remarks on plants, draw¬ 
ing a comparison between their mode of 
growth and that of animals, and pointing 
out in what animal and vegetable life agree 
and in what they differ. His disciple, 
Theophrastus, has devoted a whole work 
fc> his favourite subject, and has not only 
marked the distinctions between trees, 
shrubs, herbs, and flowers, but treated of 
•he different parts of plants, as the root, 
stem, leaf, and fruit; showing their diver¬ 
sity in form, habit, colour, mode of growth, 
and other interesting particulars, which 
he has illustrated by giving the names of 
not less than five hundred different plants, 
by way of example. Except the descrip¬ 
tions or allusions of the poets to favourite 
plants, there is nothing further to be found 
on the subject of botany until the time of 
the Romans. Virgil ,in his Georgies,speaks 
of the uses and culture of several plants 
connected with husbandry. Pliny, in his 
Natural History, describes not less than one 
thousand species of plants, but without any 
other order than in connexion with the 


61 

places where they were indigenous. An 
tonius Musa desciibes the virtues of ih« 
plant betony. Columella treats of planUiiu 
an agricultural point of view. Dioscorides, 
Galen, Ombasiris, Paul us Algeneta, and 
Artius have described the medicinal vir¬ 
tues of plants much at large. After these 
writers the subject of botany appears to 
have been almost forgotten, otherwise 
than it was pursued by the Arabians in 
conjunction with the science of medicine 
In Europe, at least, we find that it was 
altogether neglected until the sixteenth 
century ,when a number of botanists sprung 
up in Germany, England, Holland, Italy, 
and France, who, as their works testify 
prosecuted the subject with great zeal 
Prosper Alpinus wrote several books on 
the plants of Egypt and other exotics. 
Clusius, a French botanist, wrote on the 
rarer kind of plants. Many other botanists 
in this and the following centuries wrote 
general histories of the plants which came 
within their observation, particularly Ca- 
salpinusin his work De Plantis, libri xvi., 
Belechamp, in his Historia Generalis Plan 
tarum; J. Bauhin, in his Historia Plan- 
tarum; C. Bauhin, in his Pliytopinax; 
Gerarde, in his Herbal; Parkinson, in his 
Theatrum Botanicum; Ray, in his Historia 
Plantarum; Commelinus, in his Hortus 
Malabaricus; Tournefort, in his Institu 
tiones Rei Herbaria; Boerhaave, in his 
Index alter Plantarum Horti Academiei 
Lugduni; Vaillant, in his Botanicon Par- 
isiense; besides Fuchsius, Matthiolus, Dod- 
onaus, Camerarius, Bregnius, Rheedius. 
Brunfel3, Plukenet, Plumier, &c. 

Casalpinus, in the sixteenth century, 
was the first who properly systematized 
botany He formed fifteen classes from 
the fruit and the situation of the corculum 
Since his time many systems have been 
formed from different parts of the plants 
Ray chose the flower, fruit, and external 
appearance of the plants for the founda 
tion of his system. Camellus framed a 
system from the valves of the capsule 
calling his classes pericarpia fora, uni¬ 
fora, bifora, <fcc. Rivinus selected the 
corolla, dividing the plants into flores regu- 
lares, ccinposit®, and irregulares, and 
these ags in into monopetali, dipetali, &c 
Haller formed a natural system from the 
cotyledons, the calyx, the corolla, the 
stamina, and the sexes of the plants ; but 
the system most generally adopted before 
the time of Linnasus was that of Tourne 
fort. He divided plants into herb® et 
suffrutices, arbores et frutices, and these 
again into herb® floribus monopetalis 
camoaniformibusjinfundebiliformibus &.« 




BOT 


86 

BOTANY. In the classification or the 
botanical nomenclature there are two 
principal systems—the sexual or artifii- 
cial one of Linnreus, and that of Jussieu, 
which is according to the natural order 
of plants. The Linnsean system is 
founded on the number, situation, and 
proportion of the essential organs of 
fructification, denominated stamens and 
pistils. The names of the classes and 
orders are of Greek derivation, and al¬ 
lude to the functions of the respective 
orders. Thus the vegetable kingdom is 
divided by that great naturalist into 24 
classes, of which 23 belong to flowering, 
and 1 to flowerless plants. The first 
eleven classes are distinguished entirely 
by the number of stamens, which are 
called Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, 
&c., as far as Dodecandria, from the 
Greek words one, two, three, &c. com¬ 
bined with male (andria), because the 
stamens of flowers are compared to 
males, and the pistils to females. Hence 
the orders, as far as Polygynia, are de¬ 
nominated Monogynia, Digynia, Trigy- 
nia, &c., according as the flower has one 
or more pistils; so called from the 
Greek mone (one), and gune (a female). 
Thus the jasmine, having two stamens, 
and one pistil, is placed in the second 
class of the first order of that class, or 
Diandria Monogynia. The following is 
a summary of the 24 classes, which owe 
their distinctions chiefly to the stamens 
and pistels: 1. Monandria, one stamen. 
—2. Diandria, 2 stamens.—3. Triandria, 
three.—4. Tetrandia, four.—5. Pentan- 
dria, five.—6. Hexandria, six.—7. Hep- 
tandria, seven.—8. Octandria, eight.—9. 
Enneandria, nine.—10. Decandria, ten.— 
11. Dodecandria. twelve.—12. Icosan- 
dria, twenty or more stamens, inserted 
into the calyx.—13. Polyandria, all above 
twenty inserted into the receptacle.—14. 
Didynamia, four stamens, two long and 
two short,—15. Tetradynamia, six stam¬ 
ens, four long and two short.—16. Mon- 
adelphia, the stamens united into the 
bodies by the filaments.—17. Diadelphia, 
the stamens united into the bodies by 
the filaments.—18. Polyadelphia, the 
stamens united into three or more bodies 
by the filaments.—19. Syngenesia, an 
thers united into a tube.—20. Gynan- 
dria, stamens insei’ted either upon the 
style or germen. 21. Moncecia, stamens 
and pistils in separate flowers, but on 
the same plant.—22. Dicecia, stamens 
and pistils, like the former, in separate 
flowers, but on two separate plants.— 
23. Polygamia, stamens and pistils sep¬ 
arate in some flowers, united in others, 
either on one, two, or three distinct 
plants.—24. Cyptogamia, stamens and 
pistils either not well ascertained, or 
not to be numbered with certainty. 

The Natural System of Plants, as de¬ 
vised by Jussieu and De Candolle dif¬ 
fers most materially from the Linnean 
System ; it takes into consideration the 
entire organization of the plant, with 


BOW 

its properties and peculiar habits. The 
most striking genus of a tribe of plants 
gives name to the order ; as, for in¬ 
stance, the Rose ( Latin rosa), forms the 
type of the natural order Rosaceae; and 
the Violet, that of the order Violaceae. 
In this manner Jussieu divided the 
whole vegetable kingdom into 15 classes, 
and the genera into 100 orders, but 
which number has been gradually in¬ 
creasing with the progress of discovery. 

In the Natural System the vegetable 
world has been classified under two 
grand divisions—the Vasculares and the 
Ci llulares; and these again dividedinto 
classes and sub-classes, 

Vasculares. Class I. Dycotyledons or 
Exogens. The plants of this class have 
siems consisting of concentric layers, 
formed by external annual additions, 
and are composed of vascular and cellu¬ 
lar tissue; the flowers are furnished 
with male and female organs of repro¬ 
duction, called stamens and pistils. 
Class II. Monocotyledons or Endogens. 
The stems of this class are formed by 
the addition of new fibres to the interior 
of the stem already formed; flowers 
sexual, the seed consisting of one coty¬ 
ledon. 

Cellulares. Class 1. Semi-vasculares. 
Plants having vessels as well as cellular 
tissue; the stems are increased by 
simple elongation; the leaves veined 
and forked; the sexual organs distinct 
and visible under the microscope only. 
Class II. The Agamre are plants which 
increase by elongation or irregular ex¬ 
pansion of their parts, and are wholly 
composed of cellular tissue, showing, 
under the microscope, no sexual organs 
whatever. These consist of the Fungi, 
Mosses, Lichens, Hepaticas or Liver¬ 
worts, and Algae. The Dicotyledons are 
divided into four sub-classes—the Thal- 
amiflorae, Calyciflorae, Corolliflorae, and 
Monochlamydese. 

BOULDERS. In geology, fragments of 
rock embedded in diluvial deposits; 
sometimes found lying on the surface 
of the ground, and bearing marks of 
abrasion and transport. Boulder for¬ 
mations are deposits of clay, gravel^&c., 
containing fragments of triturated rock. 

BOW. A sea term, for an instrument 
fixed on a staff, with vanes, for taking the 
sun’s altitude at sea; also the rounding 
parts of the ship’s side, distinguished by 
the starboard and leeboard into the vveathei 
and lee bow. 

BOW. The name of several things so 
called from their curved figure, as the bow 
of a key, the arched part to receive the 
finger ; the bow of a saddle, the piece ot 
wood on each side, laid archwise to receive 
the upper part of a horse’s back, bow 
of a violin, the round stick furnished with 
i hair, with which the performer plays 
I BOW An instrument for shooting 



BRA 


BRE 


69 


Allows, The long bow, the favourite of 
the English army in former times, is 
simply a bow with a string fixed at each 
end, to which the arrow was applied. It 
is used with great dexterity by the Tartars 
Asia, and the savages of America 



BOWSPRIT. A mast projecting ove: 
the stem or head to carry the sail forward. 

BOWYER. A bowmaker ; the bowyers 
are one of the city companies in London. 

BOX. Any case of wood, iron, or leather, 
which serves for conveying or keeping 
things. 

BOX. A plant, which is of two kinds ; 
namely, the dwarf box that is used for 
borders in gardens, and the box tree, which 
is a shrub or tree. The wood of this is 
yellow and hard. 

B. R. In England, an abbreviation for 
Bancus Regis, the Court of King’s Bench. 

BRACE. What holds a thing tight, as 
the braces of a drum ; in Carpentry, a 
piece of timber which serves to keep the 
frame work tight; in Printing, a crooked 

line marked thus j which serves to enclose 

words that are to be together. 

BRACELET. An ornament for the arm 
5r wrist; also a piece of defensive armour 
for the arm. 

BRACHMANS, or BRAMINS. The 
priests or philosophers among the Hindoos; 
so called from their god Brahma, to whose 
worship they devote themselves. 

BRACKET. A kind of stay in the form 
ofa knee, or shoulders on which shelves are 
made to rest; also in Shipbuilding, a kind 
of knee for the support of the gratings. 

BRADS (among Artificers;. A kind of 
nails used in building, which have no heads 
like other nails, as joiners’ brads, flooring 
brads, batten brads. 

BRAIN The soft contents of he era 


ilium or skull, consisting of the cerebium 
cerebellum, and medulla oblongata, which 
are surrounded by three membranes, called 
meninges, or mats, as the dura mater, pia 
mater, and arachnoides. The substance of 
the brain is distinguished into outer and 
inner; the former is called corticalis, cene- 
rea, or glandulosa ; the latter, medullaris, 
alba, or nervea. It is generally supposed 
to be the seat of the soul, or that part 
where all the senses terminate. 

BRAN. The husk of ground wheat. 

BRANCH. A shoot from the main bough 
of a tree ; also several things similar in 
figure, as the antlers or shoots of a stag’s 
horn ; the branches of veins, branches of a 
river, branches of a bridle, that is, the two 
pieces of bended iron that bear the bit- 
mouth, the chains, and the curb. 

BRANCHIAL Gills in the anatomy of 
fishes, organs of respiration answering to 
the lungs in other animals, with which all 
fishes are provided, except the cetaceous 
tribe and the lamprey. They are eight in 
number, and serve the fish to take in, and 
throw out water with the air. 

BRANCHIOSTEGIOUS. An order of 
fishes in the Linnsean system, including 
such as have gills without bony rays, an 
the pipe fish, sucker, frog fish, &c. 

BRANDY. A spirituous and inflamma¬ 
ble liquor, made from the lees of wine by 
distillation. Its constituent parts are wa¬ 
ter, alcohol, and a little oil or resin. Bran¬ 
dy is said to have been first manufactured 
in Languedoc 

BRANT-FOX A sort of black and red 
fox 

BRASIL WOOD. A sort of wood so 
denominated because, as is supposed, it 
was first brought from Brasil. It is red and 
heavy, so as to sink in water, takes a 
good polish, and yields beautiful orange 
and red colours, which are used by dyers. 
When chewed it has a sweetish taste. 

BRASS. A factitious compound metal, 
of a yellow colour, consisting of copper 
and about one third of its weight of zinc 

BRAWN. The muscular or fleshy part 
of the body, particularly that of the boar. 

BREACH. A gap made in the works 
of a town by the besiegers. 

BREACH (in Law). The violation of a 
contract; breach of pound, is the break¬ 
ing any place where cattle are distrained , 
breach of prison, an escape by breaking 
out if prison. 

BREAD. A light, porous, spongy sub 
stance, prepared by fermentation and 
baking, from the flour of wheat, rye, or 
barley. Wheaten bread is distinguished 
into white bread, which is made of the 







70 


BRE 


BR1 


finest flour, and brown bread, of flour hav¬ 
ing some of the bran in it. 

BREAD-FRUIT-TREE The autocar¬ 
pus of Linnasus, a tree growing in some 
of the Oceanic islands, so called because 
the fruit, which is milky and pulpy, sup¬ 
plies the place of bread to the inhabitants. 
This tree grows to the height of forty feet. 



BREAK. A sea te*rn, for that part of 
a deck where tne descent to the next deck 
below it, commences-, in Printing, the short 
line which ends a paragraph. 

BREAKERS. Billows that break vio- 
ently over rocks that lie under the surface 
of the sea. 

BREAKING GROUND. A military 
term, for opening the trenches and be¬ 
ginning the works for a siege. 

BREAKING IN The discipline of first 
training a colt to I* useful. 

BREAKWATER. The hull of a vessel 
or any erection of wood or stone, placed 
at the entrance or a harbour to break the 
force of the water, such as the Breakwa¬ 
ter lately erected in Plymouth Sound, 
England, and that in Delaware Bay. 

BREAM. A hah of the carp kind, that 
grows fast and has a broad body The 
Sea Bream, otherwise called the Red Gilt 
Head, is a fien of a red colour, with the 
iris aUvery 



BRBaST. The anterior part of the 
aorax. 

BRIaASTFAST. A sea term, for the 
arge rope employed to confine a ship 
sideways to a wharf or quay. 

BREASTPLATE. A piece of defensive 
armour worn on the breast; in Horseman¬ 
ship, a leathern strap running from one 


side of the saddle, across the horse’s breast 
to the other, to keep it in its place. 

BREAST PLOUGH. A sort of plough 
which is driven forward by the breast, 
and is used in England in paring off turf 
from the land. 

BREASTWORK. A military term, for 
works thrown up as high as the breast of 
the besieged ; a sea term, for the balus 
trade of the quarter deck. 

BRECCIA, or Pudding-stone. A sort 
of aggregate earth, consisting of fragments 
of stones conglutinated. The beautiful 
pillars in the Representatives Hall in the 
Capitol at Washington are of tiiis stone. 

BREECH. The hinder part of £ gun, 
from the cascabel to the b“»-e ; also a sea 
term, for tjie angle ol knee timber in a 
ship. 

BREEDING. That part of husbandry 
which consists in the rearing of cattle oi 
live stock of different kinds, particularly 
by crossing or mingling one species or 
variety with another, so as to improve the 
breed. 

BRESSUMMER A binding interstice 
or girder to different parts of a house. 

BREVET. A military term, for pro¬ 
motion in the army without additional 
pay. 

BREVIARY. A book containing tne 
daily service of the Romish church. 

BREWING. The art of making ma 
liquor, such as ale, beer, porter, &.c. which 
much resembles the process of making tea 
The proper ingredients used in brewing are 
malt, hops, and water, in certain propor¬ 
tions, according to the required strength of 
the liquor. Eighteen gallons of good ale and 
nine gallons of table beer may be drawn 
from a bushel and a half of malt; but 
make strong beer only six gallons are 
reckoned to one bushel of malt. Among 
the pernicious and unlawful ingredients 
used by brewers are an extract of the 
coculus indicus, hartshorn shavings, gin 
ger, Spanish juice, orange powder, liquo 
rice, caraway seeds and sulphuric acid. 

BRIBERY. The receiving of any ra 
ward or gift for corrupt purposes. 

BRICK. An artificial kind of stone, 
composed of clay, coal ashes, and sand, 
uly mingled together, dried by the sun 
and hardened by the fire. Bricks are 
distinguished, according to their quality, 
into marls and stocks, which latter are 
either gray or red, according to the co oui 
of the earth. 

BRICKLAYER. One whose trade is t<? 
build witli bricks. 

Bill DGE. A structure raised over rivers, 
&c and consisting of one or more arches 



BRI 


^he principal [>arts of a bridge are .he 
piers, or walls, built for the support ol the 
arches; the parapet, or breastvvall, made 
to protect the passengers, the banquet, 
pavement, or raised footpath, and the abut¬ 
ments or extremities of the bridge, which 
rest on the banks. The principal arches 
'ployed in bridge building are those of 
tuesemicircular orellipuea. form, the cate¬ 
narian arch, and the arch of equilibrium, 
which last is esteemed to be the best, be¬ 
cause it is equally strong in every part. 



BIUDGE. A military term, for any 
contrivance by which soldiers can cross a 
river, as a bridge of boats, formed by 
boats joined sideways, and covered with 
planks; or a bridge of rushes, formed of 
bundles of rushes bound fast together and 
covered with planks. Such temporary 
bridges are called flying bridges. 

BRIDGE. The name of several things 
similar in figure to a bridge, as the bridge 
of the nose, the gristle which parts the 
nostrils; the bridge in a violin, &c. the 
perpendicular arch which, supports the 
strings; the bridge, among Gunners, is the 
name for the two pieces of timber which 
go between the transums of a gun carriage 
on which the bed rests. 

BRIDLE. A part of the furniture of a 
horse’s head, which serves to guide the 
animal. The principal parts are the bitt, 
or snaffle, which goes into the horse's 
mouth; the curb, or chain of iron, that 
runs over the beard of the horse; the head- 
stall, or leather that goes round the head; 
the fillet, that lies over the forehead; the 
ihroatband, that goes under the throat; and 
the reins,which serve for the rider. 

BRIEF (in Law) An abridgment of a 
client’s case, made out for the instruction 
of counsel on a trial at law; also a license 
in England to make collections for repair¬ 
ing churches, losses by fire, &c. This last 
sort of brief is now abolished by statute. 

BRIEF (in Music). A measure of quan¬ 
tity, which contains two strokes down in 
beating time, and as many up. 

BRIG A small merchant’s vessel with 
two masts. 

BRIGADE. A military term, for a 
party or division of soldiers, whether horse 


BRO 75 

or foot, undei the command of a brig* 

dier. 

BRIGANTINE. A small light vesawl. 
which can both row and sail well, being 
adapted either for fighting or for chase 



BRIMSTONE. The vulgar name for 
sulphur. 

BRINE. Water impregnated with salt 

BRISKET. That part of the breast of 
an animal that lies nearest the ribs. 

BRISTLE. The hair of swine, which is 
much used by brushmakers, particularly 
that imported from Russia 

BRISTOL HOT WATER. Mineral 
waters of the lowest temperature of anv )t 
England, the constituent parts of which are 
carbonic acid, gas, lime, and magnesia, 
besides the muriatic and vitriolic acids 

BRITANNIA. The name given by the 
Romans to the island of Britain, which is 
represented on their medals under the 
figure of a female resting her left arm on 
a shield. Also a species of ware made of 
block tin. 

BROADSIDE. A sea term, for a dis¬ 
charge of all the guns on one side of a ship 

BROADSWORD. A sword with a 
broad blade, chiefly designed for cutting. 

BROCADE. A kind of stuff or cloth of 
gold. 

BROCOLI. An Italian plant of the 
cauliflower kind. 

BROGUE. A defective pronunciation 
of a language, particularly applied to the 
Irish manner of speaking English. 

BROKEN LETTER A term in Print¬ 
ing for the breaking the orderly succession 
in which the letters stood in a line or page, 
and mingling them ogetlier. 

BROKER. One who concludes bargains 
or contracts for merchants, as exchange 
brokers, ship brokers, &x. 

BROKERAGE. What is paid to a broKerf 
for his trouble. 





















72 


BUD 


BUL 


BROM E GRASS. A sort of grass much 
resembling the oat; whence it has also 
seen called oat grass. 

BRONZE. A mixed metal, composed 
principally of copper, with a small portion 
i>f tin and other metals. 

BRONZING The art of varnishing 
wood, plaster, and ivory, so as to give them 
the colour of bronze. 

BROOCH. A collar of gold formerly 
worn about the necks of ladies. 

BROOM. A flowering shrub, having a 
japilionaceous flower, which becomes a 

iiort roundish swelling pod, containing a 
kidney shaped seed in each. 

BROOM. A besom, which in England is 
frequently made of the broom shrub and 
-•erves for sweeping a house 

BRUT A. The second order of animals 
of the class mammalia in the L.nnsan 
system, comprehending those animals 
which have no fore teeth in either jaw, as 
bradypus, the sloth; mynycophaga, the 
ant-eater; rhinoceros, the rhinoceros; ele- 
;>has, the elephant, <fcc. 

BRUTE-WEIGHT. A term employed 
when merchandises are weighed with the 
cases, &c. in distinction from the net 
weight. 

BUBBLE. Abladder in water, ora vesi¬ 
cle filled with air; also a cheating project, 
such as the South Sea bubble in 1720, and 
numerous projects of a similar character 
which have been set afloat within the last 
few years, to the ruin of many. 

BUCCANEERS. A general name for 
the pirates, who used to make war on the 
Spaniards in their West India posses¬ 
ses. 

BUCK. A male deer ofthe fallow kind; 
also a male rabbit. 

BUCKET. A kind of pail made of 
leather. 

BUCKLE. A fastening for a shoe, or 
the harness of a horse, by means of an iron 
tongue within a hoop. 

BUCKLER. An ancient piece of defen¬ 
sive armour, made of wicker work, and 
worn on the arm. 

BUCKRAM. A sort of stiffened cloth. 

BUCKWHEAT, otherwise called 
Bhank. A sort of grain that is used in 
England as food for swine. It is much 
used in America for making a very palata¬ 
ble kind of cakes. It is also preferred for 
fattening fowls. The flowers grow in a 
rpike, or branched from the wings of the 
leaves 

BUCOLICS. Pastoral poems, so called 
from the Bucolica of Virgil. 

BUD. That part of a plant which con- 
ta.:is the embryo ofthe leaves, flowers, ,<tc. 


BUDDHA. The name of a deity among 
the people of India. 

BUDDLE. A frame to receive th* mine¬ 
ral ore after it is separated from the coarsei 
parts. 

BUDGET. Properly, a bag or knapsack 
that may be easily carried; also, in Eng¬ 
land, the annual statement of the finances 
made by the Chancellor of the Exchequer 
in the House of Commons. 

BUFF. A sort of thick leather prepared 
from the skin of the buffalo. 

BUFFALO. A wild ox a native of Af 
rica. It is domesticated in Italy and some 
other countries and used for draught. It 
has horns resupinated and flat on the fore 
side, a tough skin, black hair, small head 
and no dewlap. 



BUFFET. A sort of cupboard for plate, 
glasses,&c. 

BUGLEIIORN. A horn formerly used 
much in hunting, and now in the arm v 



BUILDING. The art of raising build¬ 
ings according to given designs, which is 
properly practical architecture; also the 
structure so raised. 


B U L B O US 
PLANTS. The 
name of such plants 
as have a fleshy, 
scaly root, called a 
bulb, as the leek, 
onion, &c 



BULGED. A sea term for a ship when 
she has struck off some of her ttmbera 
upon a rock or anchor. 

BULK The whole contents of a ship in 
her hold. 

BULL The m le of cattle, thr femal^ 










BUL 


o which is ca,led cow.; when the male 
fa cut he is called an ox. 



BULL. A brief or mandate issued by 
die Tope, and sealed with the bulla, a 
.enden or gold seal. 

BULL-DOG. A dog of true English 
breed, so called from his property of attack¬ 
ing the bull, whence he was formerly used 
in the cruel sport of bullbaiting. 

BULLET. A name for the leaden balls 
with which small fire arms are loaded. 

BULLETIN. In Europe an official ac¬ 
count of public transactions, or matters of 
general interest, as the state of the king’s 
health, &.c. 

BULLFINCH. A small European bird 
of a cinereous colour, having its head and 
wings black, and coverts of the tail white. 
It is easily tamed, and may be taught to 
it peak. 



BULL-FROG. A remarkable species of 
ue frog in North America, so called be¬ 



cause its voice resembles the distant low¬ 
ing of an ox. 

BULLFIGHT A cruel sport in Spain 
7 


B U r *?| 

and Portugal, where wild bulls are «a 
countered by men on horseback. 

BULL-HEAD. A sort of fish, having its 
head much broader than its body. 

BULLION. Gold or silver in the mass, 
before it is wrought into coin. 

BULL’S EYE. A maik in the shape of 
a bull’s eye, at which archers shoot by way 
of exercise. 

BULL-TROUT. A sort of salmon about 
two feet in length. 

BUM-BOAT. A sort of wherry used 
about harbours, to carry provisions, &c 
for sale, to ships lying at a distance. 

BUNT fa Sea Term). The middle part 
of a sail formed into a sort of bag, or hol¬ 
low, that the sail may gather more wind. 

BUNTLINES. Small lines which serve 
to force up the bunt of the sail, for tb- 
better furling it up. 

BUO Y. A short piece of wood or close 
hooped barrel fastened by a rope to the 
anchor, to point out its situation. It is also 
a piece of wood or cork fastened by a chain, 
serving to point out dangerous places in ot 
near a harbour 



BUPHAGA, or Beefeater. A sort of 
bird of the order picte, found in AfrW. 
It is so called because it alights on the 
backs of cattle, and picks holes ir. them to 
get at the larv® of the gad-fly, on which 
it lives. 

BUPRESTIS. An insect of the coleop¬ 
terous order, remarkable for the brilliancy 
of its colours, which emulate the polish of 
the finest metals. 

BURDEN (a Sea Term). Whatever can 
be stowed in a hold, or the number of tons 
which it can carry. Beasts of burden, in 
Husbandry, are those which ar^ fitted for 
bearing burdens, or drawing weights. 

BURGAGE (in Law). In England a 
kind of tenure by which the inhabitants 
of cities or boroughs held their lands or 
tenements of the king. 

BURGESS. In England an inhabitant 
of a borough, or one who possesses a tene¬ 
ment therein ; it is now more commonly 
taken for the representat ve of a borough 
town. 

BURGLARY (in Ls tv,. The breaking 
and entering the dwelling of another in 
the night, with the intent to commit some 
felony, whether the felonious intent ba 
put in execution or not. 

BURGUNDY PITCH. The juice of Um 










74 


BUT 


BUZ 


fir tree boiled in water, and strained 
through a linen cloth. 

BURNING-GLASS. A concave or con¬ 
vex glass, commonly spherical, which col¬ 
lects the rays of the sun towards a common 
point, called the focus. The burning glass 
of M. de Villette was three feet eleven 
inches in diameter, and it burnt at the 
distance of three feet two inches ; by it 
were melted a silver sixpence in seven 
minutes and a half; a King George’s half¬ 
penny in sixteen minutes, which ran in 
thirty-four minutes ; a diamond weigh¬ 
ing four grains lost seven-eighths of its 
weight. That of Buffon was a polyhedron, 
six feet broad, and as mauy high, consist¬ 
ing of one hundred a^d sixty eight small 
mirrors, or flat pieces of looking-glass, 
each six inches square, by means of which, 
with the faint rays of the sun in the month 
of March, he set on fire boards of beech 
wood at one hundred and fifty feet dis¬ 
tance. 

BURNING OF WOMEN. A supersti- 
• lous practice in Hindostan, for the widows 
to burn themselves on the funeral piles of 
their husbands. 

BURNISHER. A round polished piece 
of steel, serving to smooth and give a lustre 
o metals. 

BUSHEL. Dry measure, containing four 
pecks, or eight gallons. 

BUSH-HARROW. An implement of 
husbandry for harrowing grass lands, and 
covering grass or clover seeds. It consists 
of a frame with three or more bars, in 
which bushes are interwoven. 

BUSKIN. A kind of high shoe, anciently 
worn by tragedians : also a sort of leather 
stocking serving the purpose of a boot. 

BUSTARD. A species of European bird 
sf which there are several varieties. The 
SreatBustard is the largest land bird known 
in England. It seems to bear a remote 
ifinity to the Ostrich. 

BUTCHER BIRD. A sort of shrike 
remarkable for Its ferocity towards the 



ittle bird*, which it kills, and tearing them 
!c pieces, sticks them m thorns. 


BUST. The figure or portrait of a per 
son in relievo, showing only the upper part* 
of the body. 

BUTT. A measure of wine, containing 
126 gallons. 

BUTTEND. The largest end of a piece 
of timber nearest to me root. 

BUTTER. A fat unctuous substance, 
procured from the cream of rm.K by churn¬ 
ing ; a term in Chenustry for substances 
of similar consistency, as butter of anti¬ 
mony, butter of bismuth, butter of wax, 
&c. 

BUTTERBUR. A plant with a floscular 
flower, consisting of many florets. 

BUTTERFLOWER. A yellow flower, 
which abounds in the meadows in May. 

BUTTERFLY. A beautiful insect, so 
called because it first appears at the be¬ 
ginning of the season for butter. That 
which seems to be powder upon the wings 
of this insect is an innumerable quantity 
of feathers, which are only to be discerned 
through a microscope. The butterfly first 
appears in the state of the caterpillar, which 
is called the larva, and afterwards in that 
of the pupa, or chrysalis, from which it 
comes forth in its perfect state. 



The larva. The chrysalis 


BUTTOCK. The breech ornaunch of an 
animal, next to the tail: also a sea term 
for that part of a ship which forms her 
breadth, right astern from the tuck up¬ 
wards. 

BUTTON. Any thing in a round form 
which serves to fasten, particularly what 
is used in garments ; also a part of the cas- 
cabel in a gun or howitzer, which is in 
the form of a button. 

BUTTRESS. A kind of butment, built 
archwise, serving to support a building or 
wall. 

BUZZARD. A very sluggish bird of 
the hawk kind. The Turkey Buzzard 
known in the southern parts of the United 
States is a species of Vulture 

BY-LAW. A private law made withis 
some particular pl&ce or jurisdiction. 










CAD 


CAL 


7 » 


C. 


C, the third letter and second consonant of 
ihe alphabet; as a numeral, C stanis for 
!00, and CC for 200, &c.; in Music, it is 
tile highest part in the thorough bass ; as 
an Abbreviation it stands for Christ, as 
A. C. Anno Christi, or ante Christum; also 
for Companion, as C. B. Companion ofthe 
Bath. 

CAABA. An Arabic term for the house 
of God, a part of the temple of Mahomet in 
Mecca. 

CABALA. A traditional or mysterious 
doctrine among the ancient Jews, which 
they say was delivered by word of mouth 
to Mose3, and by him to the fathers. 
Among Christians, the cabala is an abuse 
of certain passages of Scripture for magical 
purposes. 

CABBAGE TREE. A tree of the Cape 
of Good Hope, so called from the resem¬ 
blance which its leaves bear, to those of 
the cabbage plant. 

CABIN. The apartment in a vessel for 
the officers and superior passengers. 

CABINET In England, the closet or 
private room in the king’s palace, where 
councils are held ; also the ministers of the 
king, who are summoned to attend such 
councils. In the United States, the term is 
applied to the four secretaries and the at¬ 
torney general at Washington, considered 
as counsellors of the President. 

CABLE. A sea term for a strong rope, 
which serves to keep a ship at anchor. 

CABLE’S LENGTH. The measure of 
120 fathoms. 

CACOETIIES. An ill habit or propen¬ 
sity •, as the cacoethes scribendi, an itch 
for authorship. 

CACOPHON Y A bad tone ofthe voice, 
proceeding from the ill disposition of the 
organs. 

CADENCE (in Grammar). The fall of 
the voice ; also the flow of verses or peri¬ 
ods ; in Music, it is a pause or suspension 
at toe end of an air, resembling points or 
virgules in prose ; in Dancing, cadence is 
ased when the steps follow the notes and 
measures ofthe music ; in the Manege the 
cadence is the measure or proportion obser¬ 
ved by a horse in all his motions, when he 
is thoroughly managed. 

CADET. One who is trained up for the 
army by a course of military discipline •, 
such as the cadets at the military college 
at West Point. 

CADETSHIP The commission given 


to a cadet, to enter the East India Compa 
ny’s service in England. 

CADI. A magistrate, or sort of justice 
of the peace, among the Arabs and Turk* 
CADM1A. A sort of mineral among the 
ancients, now called cobalt. 

CADUCEUS. A name for Mercury’s 
rod 01 sceptre, which on medals is an e.n 
blem of peace. It was carried by the Ro¬ 
man heralds when they went to proclaim 
peace. 



CAJSAR. A title or name given to the 
twelve emperors of Rome, who succeeded 
Julius Caesar. 

C AG MAG. Old geese are so called, 
which are sent up to the London market 
for sale. 

CAIRNS. Heaps of stones in a conical 
form, which are frequently to be met with 
in Scotland and Wales. 

CAISSON. A wooden chest filled with 
bombs or powder, and buried under some 
work to blow it up ; also the frame used in 
laying the foundations of a bridge. 

CALAMANCO. A kind of woollen stuff 
manufactured in England and Brabant. It 
has a fine gloss, and is chequered in the 
warp. 

CALAMARIiE. The third natural order 
of plants in the Linmean system, contain¬ 
ing the reeds resembling grasses 

CALAMINARIS, or Lapis Calamiixa- 
ris. The calamine stone, j> oxydeof zinc 
among the chymists ; a kind ofbituminoua 
fossile earth, which, when mixed with 
copper, produces brass. 

CALCAREOUS. The third orderofthe 
class earths in the system of Gmelin, con¬ 
sisting of chalk, limestone, spar, gypsum, 
marble, marl. 

CALCINATION 'I he solution of a 
mixed body by the means of heat or any 
corroding substance, as mercury, aquafor¬ 
tis, &c., whereby it is reduced to powder 
The body so reduced was named a calx, in 
common language a cinder, and in cliymi* 
try an oxide. / 

C \ f.OULATlON Theactoicomputi&f 





76 


CAL 


several sums by means of addition, sub 
traction, multiplication, division, &.c. 

CALCULUS,or Stone. A name gene¬ 
rally given to all hard concretions, not 
bony, which are formed in the bodies of 
animals. 

CALENDAR. A distribution of time 
into months, weeks, and days throughout 
the year, together with an account of the 
festivals, and other such matters as serve 
for the daily purposes of life. Calendars 
vary according to tne different forms of 
the year, and the divisions of time in differ¬ 
ent countries, as the Roman and Julian 
Calendars used by the Romans, the Gre¬ 
gorian and Reformed Calendars among the 
moderns. 

CALENDAR MONTH. The name 
given to the months as they stand in the 
almanac. 

CALIBER. The thickness or diameter 
of any thing, particularly of the bore of a 
cannon. 

CALIBER COMPASSES. A particular 
instrument used by gunners for measuring 
the diameters of shot, shells, &c. They 
resemble ofher compasses, except in their 
legs, which are arched, in order that the 
points may touch the extremities of the 
arch. 



CALICO. A kind of cloth made of cot¬ 
ton. originally made in the East Indies. 
It is so called from Callicut, a town on the 
coast of Malabar, where it was first manu¬ 
factured. The manufacture of calicoes 
has been successfully introduced into the 
United States. 

CALICO PRINTING. The art of dying 
cotton, linen, and other cloths topically; 
that is by printing figur.es here and there 
in different colours, and leaving some parts 
of the cloth without any figures. 

CALIPH, in the Arabic Khalifa, which 
signifies successor A title assumed by the 
successors of Mahomet, who reigned in 
Bagdad. 

CALKERS. Persons employed in calk¬ 
ing vessels ; that is, driving oakum and 
other things into the seams of vessels, to 
keep out the water. 

CALL. An artificial pipe made to catch 
quails; also a sea term for a whistle or 


CAM 

pipe, used in calling the sailors to then 
duty. 

CALL OF THE HOUSE. In England, 
a parliamentary term for an imperative 
call or summons sent to every member to 
attend on a particular occasion. 

CALOMEL. Mercury well pounded witfl 
sulphur; it is also called a muriate of mer¬ 
cury. 

CALORIC. A modern term for fire, ot 
that principle which produces the sensation 
of heat, which is supposed to be soim thing 
independent of the body in whicn it i* 
found. 

CALVARY. The name of a cross ir 
Heraldry, as it is borne in coats of arms 
It is so called because it resembles the croei 
on which our Saviour suffered. 

CALVINISM. The doctrines of Cal¬ 
vin, the Geneva reformer, and his adhe¬ 
rents, on predestination, reprobation, &c. 

CALUMET. An Indian pipe, which 
was otherwise called the Pipe of Peace, 
because it served the bearer as a pass or 
safe conduct among the neighbouring tribes 
of Indians. It was very similar to the ca- 
duceus, or Mercury’s wand, of the an¬ 
cients. 

CALX. A fine powder remaining afre; 
the calcination of metals and other mine¬ 
ral substances; also another name for lime. 

CALYCIFLORA2. The sixteenth nat¬ 
ural order of plants in the Lin mean system, 
comprehending those plants which h»*?e 
only a calyx, in which the stamina ar, in¬ 
serted. 

CALYPTRA. The tender skin in ro»ses 
that loosely covers the top of tli < t'leca, 
like a cup. 

CALYX. A general name fiv .he cup 
of a flower, or that part of a plant which 
surrounds and supports the other parts ol 
a flower. 

CAMBERED. A sea term, applied to a 
deck, the flooring of which is highest in the 
middle. 

CAMBRIC. A sort of very fine white 
linen, made of flax. Fabrics of cotton 
made in imitation of this are also called 
cambric. 

CAMEL. A well known quadruped, 
remarkable for its swiftness and its power 
of subsisting for many day s without water 
It is mild and gentle, unless particularly 
provoked, patient of hunger, and capablt 
of carrying great burdens. The f „sh and 
milk of this animal constitute tl incipal 
food of the inhabitants of Aiab a and the 
countries of which it is a nali't,. The Ara¬ 
bian camel, which is other wise called a 
dromedary, has but one hur ch, the Bactri- 
i an camel has two. This latter ssmms it 



CAM 


CAN 


71 


aeed in the more northern parts of central 
Asia. The Arabian species is generally 
used in the wanner parts of Asia and Af¬ 
rica. This animal is borne in coats of 

arms. 



CAMELOPARD or Giraffe. A re¬ 
markable animal found only in the middle 
and southern regions of Africa. It is the 
tallest of all animals, being about 17 feet 
high. It feeds on the tops of trees. It is 
very timid but defends itself, when attack¬ 
ed, by kicking. It is capable of putting out 
its tongue to the length of 17 inches, and 
this is so flexible that it may be reduced at 



which lies between the young wood and 
the bark of a tree. 

CAMBRIAN. In geology, a term to 
designate the lowest fossiliferous rocks 
*js developed in Wales and their equiva¬ 
lents in other countries. 

CAMEO. A sort of onyx stone, having 
various figures upon it; in Natural History? 
a sort of pellucid gem. 

CAMERA LUC1DA. An optical instru¬ 
ment invented by Dr. Hook, mr the pur¬ 
pose of making the image of any object 
7 * 


appear on the wall in a light room, eithei 
by day or night. This name has since been 
applied to an instrument invented by Dr 
Wollaston, for drawing objects in true pei 
spective. 

CAMERA OBSCURA. An optical ma¬ 
chine or apparatus, representing an artificial 
eye, by which the images of external ob¬ 
jects, received through a double convex 
glass, are shown distinctly, and in their 
native colours 



CAMLET A sort of stuff originally made 
of camel’s hair and silk mixed, but now cf 
wool and silk. 

CAMP. The spot of ground where an 
army rests and intrenches itself. 

CAMPAIGN. The space of time during 
which an army is kept in the field. 

CAMPANACErE. One of Linnseus’s 
natural order of flowers, including those 
that are hell-shaped, as the campanula, con¬ 
volvulus, &c. 

CAMPANULA, or Bell Flower A 
sort of plants, mostly perennials, and bear¬ 
ing a bell-shaped flower. 

CAMPHOR. A white concrete crystal¬ 
line substance, of an acrid bitter taste, and 
a penetrating smell. It was formerly sup¬ 
posed to be a resm which was procured 
from a tree, much like a walnut tree 
growing in Borneo, and thence called the 
camphor tree ; but modern chymists con. 
sider it to be a peculiar substance not to 
be classed either with the oils or the resins. 
It is procured from the volatile oil of seve¬ 
ral plants, as rosemary, sage, lavender, 
&c. 

CAN. A drinking vessel; particularly 
that used by sailors. 

CANAL. An artificial river, provided 
w ith locks and sluices, and sustained by 
banks and mounds. 

CANARY BIRD. A singing bird cl a 
greenish colour, formerly bred in the Cana¬ 
ries, and nowhere else. These birds ar 
now bred in all parts of Europe and A me* 1 



































C’A N 


78 CAN 

ca, and thei r colours are various shade* of 
yellow and green. 



CANCELLATION (in Law). Expung¬ 
ing the contents of a deed or instrument, 
by striking two lines through it. 

CANCER, the Crab (in Astronomy). A 
constellation, and the fourth sign in the 
zodiac, marked thus 55 , which the sun en¬ 
ters on the twenty-first of June, thence 
called the summer solstice. 

CANCER, Tropic of. A small circle 
of the sphere, parallel to the equator, and 
passing through the beginning of Cancer. 

CANCER (in Medicine). A hard ulcer¬ 
ous and exceedingly painful swelling, and 
generally seated in the glandulous part of 
the body. 

CANDLE. A long roll or cylinder made 
of tallow, wax, or spermaceti, in which is 
included a wick of cotton or rush, for the 
purpose of burning. Good tallow is made 
of the fat of sheep and bullocks in equal 
portions. The wick, which is made of 
several threads of cotton twisted together, 
must be fine, sufficiently dry, and properly 
twisted, or otherwise the candle will yield 
an unsteady light. The tallow is prepared 
by dropping the fat and boiling it in a 
copper, the scum which i? taken from it in 
the toiling is called greaves, which is made 
into cakes that are sold for fatting poultry. 
Candles are made either by dipping or in 
moulds, the former of which are the com¬ 
mon candles. When candles are to be 
dipped, the workman holds three of the 
broaches, with the cottons properly spread, 
between his fingers, and dips them into the 
tallow vat, then hangs them to cool, and 
when cooled dips them again and again 
until they are of the required size. The 
mould in which mould-candles are made 
is mostly of pewter, made to the diameter 
and length of the candle wanted 3 at the 
extremity of it is the neck, which is pierced 
to receive the cotton, one end of which 
tomes out at the neck, and the remainder 
js traced in the mould in such manner in 


a perpendicular direction, as that it should 
be in the middle of the candle ; after this 
the mould is filled with boiling tallow, and 
left to cool. Wax candles are made by 
pouring with a ladle melted wax on the 
tops of a number of wicks, tied by the 
neck at equal distances round an iron 
circle suspended directly over a large basin 
of copper tinned. 

CANDLEMAS DAY. The festival ob¬ 
served on the second of February, by Gath • 
olics and Episcopalians, in commem»>fi»iion 
of the purification of the Virgin Mary. 

CANDY. A preparation of sugar ir.xde 
by melting and crystallizing it several 
times. 

CANDYTUFT. An annual that is culti¬ 
vated in gardens, bearing a white or purple 
flower. 

CANE. A kind of strong Indian reed 
used for walking sticks 3 also the plant 
which yields the sugar, and grows free.y 
in the East and West Indies and parts of 
North and South America The skin of 
the sugar cane is soft, and tne spongy mat 
ter or pith it contains, very juicy. It is now 
extensively cultivated in Louisiana, and 
Alabama. 



CANE (in Commerce). A long measure 
of different dimensions in different coun¬ 
tries, from two to five yards. 

CANTS (in Astronomy). The name of 
two constellations in the southern Hemi¬ 
sphere 3 namely, Canis Major and Canis 
Minor 

CANKER A cancerous affection which 
occurs frequently in fruit trees 3 also a fun¬ 
gous excrescence in the feet of horses 

CANNIBAL. A man eater. 

CANNON. A piece of ordnance, or a 
great gun for a battery, which is mount®* 








CAN 


cap n 


on a carriage: the principal parts of a 
cannon are the muzzle, or mouth, the en¬ 
trance of the bore or the hollow part which 
receives the charge ; the chase, or the whole 
space from the muzzle to the trunnions; 
the trunnions, or two solid cylindrical 
pieces of metal, which project from the 
piece, and by which it is supported on the 
carriage , the vent, which in small firearms 
is called the touchhole, a small hole pierced 
at the end of the bore or chamber, for the 
purpose of priming the piece with powder, 
or to introduce the tube in order, when 
lighted, to set fire to the charge he cham¬ 
ber, that part of the bore or hollow of the 
piece where the powder is lodged which 
forms the charge 5 the breech, the solid 
piece behind, thehindermostpartof which 
is called the cascabel. That part next to 
the breech is called the reinforce, which 
is made stronger to resist the force of the 
powder. The ornaments of a cannon are 
the muzzle, astragal, and fillets, the chase 
astragal and fillets, the reinforce ring, and 
the breech mouldings The first cannon 
was used in 1304, on the coast of Den¬ 
mark 



JANOE. A little vessel or boat used 
jy the Indians, which is made all of one 
piece, of the trunk of a tree hollowed. 

CANON. A law, or ordnance of the 
church. The Canon Law consists of rules 
drawn from Scripture, from the writings 
tf the ancient fathers, from the ordinances 
if councils, and the decrees of the pope. 

CANON. A dignity in a cathedral 
thurch. 

CANON OF SCRIPTURE. That body 
of books of the Holy Scripture which serves 
for a rule of faith and practice. 

CANONIZATION. The act of enrolling 
any one among the number of the saints, 
winch is the practice of the Romish church, 
and performed by the pope. 

CANOPUS (in Astronomy). A bright 
star of the first magnitude, in the rudder 
if the ship Argo 

CANTATA. A piece of music for one, 
•wo, or more voices, chiefly intended for a 
single voice with a thorough ba»s. 

CANTEEN. A settling house for both 
cificers a>.t J ares ; &Jeo a small oftia 


plate or wood, in which soldiers on thet 
march calry their liquor. 

CANTERBURY-BELL. A fine flower 
much cultivated in gardens. The plant is 
biennial, and the flower 13 white or blue, 
and of an oblong figure. 

CANTHARIDES, or Spanish Flies 
A species of shining beetle, powdered and 
used for raising blisters. 

CANTON. A division or small parcel 
of a country, such as the cantons of Swit 
zerland. 

CANTON (in Heraldry). An ordinary, 
so called because it occupies but a cantel 
or corner of the escutcheon. 

CANVAS, or CANVASS. The cloth 
on which painters usually draw their pic¬ 
tures ; and also that of which the sails of 
vessels are made. 

CAP. In general, any covering for the 
head ; sometimes of a particular make, as 
a cardinal’s cap. 

CAP. The name of several things simi¬ 
lar in figure or use, as the cap of a great 
gun, a piece of lead laid over the touchhole; 
the cap in a ship, the square piece of tim¬ 
ber placed over the head of a mast. 

CAP (in Architecture). The uppermost 
part of any member, as the capital of a 
column, the cornice of a door, &c. 

CAP OF MAINTENANCE fin Heral¬ 
dry). One of the regalia or ornaments of 
state, carried before the king of Great 
Britain at the coronation and other great 
solemnities. 

CAPE (in Geography). A promontory 
or headland projecting into the sea farther 
than the rest of the coast, as the Cape of 
Good Hope, Cape St. Vincent, &c. 

CAPELLA. A star of the first magni¬ 
tude in Auriga. 

CAPER-BUSH. A shrub or tree, the 
bud or flower of which is converted into 
a pickle called caper. 

CAPILLARY. An epithet for what is 
as fine as a hair. Capillary tubes are pipes 
of the fineness of a hair, by which various 
phenomena in physics ajid hydrostatics are 
displayed. Capillary vessels, in Anatomy, 
the smallest and extreme parts of the mi¬ 
nutest ramifications of the veins and arte¬ 
ries. 

CAPITAL. The chief or head of a thing. 

CAPITAL (in Geography). The chief 
town. 

CAPITAL (in Architecture). The up¬ 
permost part of a column, serving as the 
head. 

CAPITAL (in Printing). The large let¬ 
ters, which serve as initials, or in titles 

CAPITAL (in Commerce). The sto*k 
or fund of a trading compact 















CAP 


CAR 


00 


CAPITOL. The building at Washington 
n which Congress meets It is beautifully 
situated on a hill and is by far the most 
-plendid edifice in America. 

CAPITULATION. A treaty between 
the besieged and the besiegers of any 
jdace, whereby the former surrender it, 
•and themselves, on certain conditions. 

CAPI VI. A tree of Brazil, the flower of 
which resembles a rose. It grows to the 
height of sixty feet. 

CAPRICORN. A southern constellation, 
and one of the twelve signs of the zodiac, 
which the sun enters on the 21st of De¬ 
cember. It is marked thus, Vp. 

CAPRICORN, Tropic of. A small cir¬ 
cle of the sphere, parallel to the equinoctial, 
passing through the beginning of Capricorn 
or the winter solstice, which is tiie sun’s 
greatest southern declination, namely, 23 
degrees and a half. 

CAPRIOLE. A caper or leap in danc¬ 
ing, like a goat’s leap. 

CAPSICUM. A plant, native of South 
America, the fruit of which is a pod, and 
the strongest kind of pepper, known by 
the name of Cayenne Pepper. 

CAPSTAN. A large piece of timber 
resembling a windlass, placed behind the 
mainmast. It is a cylinder with levers, 
uttd to weigh anchors, to hoist up or strike 
topmasts, Set 



CAPTAIN. A commander of a company 
of foot or a troop of horse; and in the 
naval or merchant service, the commander 
of a vessel: also in grammar schools in 
England the head boy of his class. 

CAPTION (in Law). The act of taking 
any person by any judicial process. 

CAPUCHIN. An order of Franciscan 
monks in the Romish church, so called from 
their capuch or hood sewed to their habits. 

CAPUT MORTUUM. The inert resi¬ 
duum of any body, remaining after all the 


. volatile and humid parts have been ea 
traded 

CAR. A small carriage of burden, drawn 
by one or two horses. 

CARABINE, or CARBINE. A sort of 
short gun, between a musket and a pistol, 
having its barrel two feet and a half long. 

CARACAL. An animal resembling Ite 
Lynx, found in the hot climates of Asia. 

CARACT, or CARAT. The weight of 
24 grains; or one scruple 24 carats make 
one ounce. This is the standard weight by 
which the fineness of geld is distinguished 
If the gold be so fine that, in purifying, it 
loses nothing, or but very little, it is said 
to be gold of 24 carats ; if it lose one carat, 
it is said to be gold of 23 carats. 

CARAT (in weighing of Diamonds, &c.) 
A weight of four grains. 

CARAVAN. A company of merchants 
or pilgrims in Asia or Africa, who go in 
an organized body through the deserts. 

CARAVANSERA. A large building in 
the East, or an inn for the reception of 
travellers and the caravans. The building 
commonly forms a square, in the middle 
of which is a spacious court, and under 
the arches or piazzas that surround it, 
there runs a bank, raised some feet above 
the ground, where the merchants and tra¬ 
vellers take up their lodgings, the beasts 
of burden being tied to the foot of the 
bank. 

CARBON. The pure inflammable part 
of charcoal, free from all the hydrogen 
and earthy or metallic particles which 
charcoal usually contains. By its union 
with oxygen, it produces two gaseous sub¬ 
stances, the first of which was formerly 
called fixed air, now carbonic acid; and 
the second, containing less oxygen, the 
oxide of carbon. 

CARBONATES. Salts formed by the 
combination of carbonic acid with different 
bases, as carbonate of copper, <fcc. 

CARBUNCLE. A precious stone, of the 
colour of a burning coal. 

CARBURET. A substance formed by 
the combination of carbon with metals. 

CARCASS (in Building). The shell oi 
timber work of a house before it is lathed 
and plastered, or the floors laid ; in Gun¬ 
nery, an iron case, filled with combustible 
materials, and discharged from a mortar 
after the manner of a bomb 

CARD. An instrument like a comb, 
which is used in combing or disentangling 
wool 

CARD OF A COMPASS. The circutai 
5aper on which the points of a compass 
are marked. 

CARD. See Caros. 













































CAU 


CAR 


CARDIACS Medicines that tend to 
strengthen the heart. 

CARDINAL. A dignitary in the Romish 
Church, and one of its chief governors, of 
which there are seventy in number. They 
constitute a college, by and from whom 
ihe pope is chosen. 

CARDINAL POINTS. The four points 
or divisions of the horizon, namely, the 
north, south, east, and west. 

CARDINAL’S CAP, or Cardinal 
Flower. A plant so called because its 
flower, by the intense redness of its colour, 
seems to emulate the scarlet cap of a car¬ 
dinal 

CARDINAL’S CAP, or HAT. A cap 
or hat of a peculiar form, which is worn 
by cardinals. 



CARDINAL VIRTUES. The four vir¬ 
tues of prudence, temperance, justice, and 
fortitude. 

CARDS. Pieces of pasteboard of an 
oblong figure, and different sizes, made 
into pacKS of 52 in number, and used by 
way of amusement in different games. 
They are painted with various figures, 
namely, hearts, spades, diamonds, clubs, 
and kings and queens. They are said to 
have been introduced in the fourteenth 
century, to divert Charles VI. king of 
France, who had fallen into a state of 
melancholy. By the hearts, creurs, were 
meant the gens de choeur, choirmen or 
ecclesiastics,instead of which the Spaniards 
use chalices. The spades, in Spanish espa- 
das, swords, were intended to represent the 
nobility, who wore swords or pikes. The 
diamonds, or carreaux,designated the order 
of citizens or merchants. The trefle, tre¬ 
foil .eaf or clover grasd, was an emblem of 
the husbandman ; this is called clubs with 
us,because the Spaniards have bastos,clubs, 
on their cards. The knaves represent the 
servants of the knights. The four kings 
were intended for David, Alexander, C®- 
sar, and Charlemagne, who established the 
four great monarchies of the Jews, Greeks, 
Romans, and Franks. The four queens 
were supposed to represent Argine, i. e. 
regina, the queen by descent, Esther, Ju¬ 
dith, and Pallas. The moulds or blocks used 


81 

for making cards were exactly like those 
which were shortly afterwards used in the 
making of books 

CAREENING. The heaving a ship on 
one side, for the purpose of clearing or 
calking the other side. 

CARGO (in Commerce). The merchandise 
and effects that are laden on board a ship 

CARICATURE (From the Italian Cari- 
catura). A distorted way of representing 
objects, so as to make them appear ridicu¬ 
lous. 

CARIES. A disease of the bones ; a kind 
of rottenness. 

CARINA. A keel; the name given by 
LinmEUS to the lower concave petal of a 
papilionaceous or butterfly-shaped flower, 
as the pea, which resembles the keel of a 
ship in its shape. 

CARLINE THISTLE. A plant of the 
thistle kind, which is sometimes used me 
dicinally. 

CARLINGS. Short pieces of timber 
which serve to support' and strengthen the 
larger beams in a ship. 

CARMAN. One who is employed in 
carrying goods from the wharfs to the 
merchant’s warehouses. 

CARMELITES. An order of monk* 
who were first founded on Mount Car¬ 
mel, 

CARMINATIVES. Medicines which 
expel wind. 

CARMINE. A dross or powder of a 
deep red colour, procured from cochineai, 
and used for painting in miniature 

CARNATION. A beautiful sort of clove 
pink, having its bright colours equally 
marked all over the flowers. 

CARNATION (in Painting) The flesh 
colour. 

CARNIVAL, or CARNAVAL. A sea¬ 
son of mirth and festivity, particularly ob¬ 
served by the Italians and generally by 
Catholics from Twelfth Day until Lent. 

CARNIVOROUS. An epithet applied 
to animals that feed on flesh. 

CAROTIDS. Two arteries in the necic, 
which convey the blood from the aorta to 
the brain 

CARP. A fresh-water fish fitted for 
stocking ponds, as it spawns three times a 
year. 

CARPENTER’S RULE. A tool gene¬ 
rally used in taking dimensions, and cast¬ 
ing up the contents of timber and the artifi¬ 
cer’s work. 

CARPENTRY. The art of cutting 
framing, and joining large pieces of wood 
for the uses of building: it is subservient 
to architecture, and is divided into House 
Carpentry and Ship Carpentry Carpea 




82 


CAR 


try differs from joining only inasmuch as 
the work is coarser, larger, and not so 
curious. 

CARPET. A sort of stuff wrought either 
with the needle or the loom, and used as a 
covering for the floor. Persian and Turk¬ 
ish carpets are most in esteem. 

CARRIAGE. In general, a vehicle for 
carrying goods and persons ; in Gunnery, 
the machine upon which the gun is mount¬ 
ed ; in Carpentry, the frame of timber-work 
which supports the steps of wooden stairs. 

CARRIERS. All persons carrying goods 
for hire; also a sort of pigeons that are used 
in conveying letters to a distance. 

CARROT. A fleshy root, cultivated as 
a garden vegetable. 

CART. A small carriage with two 
wheels, used in husbandry. 

CART-HORSE. An inferior kind of 
horse, used in husbandry. 

CARTE BLANCHE. A blank paper, 
delivered to a person to be filled up as he 
p eases; applied generally in the sense of 
unlimited terms granted to a person. 

CARTEL. An agreement between two 
states at war for the exchange of prison¬ 
ers. 

CARTILAGE. A part of the animal 
body, harder and drier than a ligament, 
and softer than a bone; its use is to render 
the articulation of the bones more easy. 

CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. Those 
having cartilaginous instead of bony skele¬ 
tons. 

CARTOON. A design made on strong 
paper, to be afterwards calked through, 
and transferred to the fresh plaster of a 
wall to be painted in fresco, such as the 
famous cartoons of Raphael now in the 
palace of Hampton Court, England. 

CARTOUCH. A case of wood holding 
about four hundred musket balls, besides 
iron balls, from six to ten, to be fired out of 
a howitzer. 

CARTOUCHES. Blocks or modillions 
used in the cornices of wainscoted apart¬ 
ments ; also ornaments representing a scroll 
of paper. 

CARTRIDGE. A case of paper or parch¬ 
ment filled with gunpowder, and used in 
'.lie charging of guns 

CARVEL. A small ship or fly-boat. 

CARVING The art of cutting wood 
into various forms and figures. 

CARYATIDES (in Architecture). A 
sort of columns or pillars shaped like the 
bodies of women, and in the dress of the 
Carian people. They were intended to 
routfescnt the Carian women who were ta¬ 
kes eaptiveu by She Athenians 

* SYOPHTLLX.?? A natural order 


CAS 

of plants, consisting of such as have puk 
like flowers. 

CASE. Ary outside covering which 
serves to enclose a thing entirely, as pack¬ 
ing cases or knife cases j in Carpentry, the 
case of a door is the wooden frame, in 
which it is hung ; in Printing, it is a frame 
of wood, with numerous small partitions 
for the letters. 

CASE (in Grammar). An accident of 
nouns which have different inflexions 01 
terminations. 

CASE-HARDENING. A method of 
preparing iron, so as to render its outer 
surface hard, and capable of resisting any 
edged tool. 

CASE-KNIFE. A large kitchen-kniie. 

CASEMENT. A window that opens on 
hinges 

CASE-SHOT. Musket balls, stones ol 
iron, &c put into cases and shot out of 
great guns. * 

CASH. Ready money, distinguisned 
from bills. 

CASHEW CUP-ASSOW. A bird about 
the size of a hen turkey found in Jamaica 
and the northern parts of South America. 
(See Curassow.) 

CASHEW-NUT. The fruit of the cas¬ 
hew, that abounds in Jamaica and Barba- 
does. From this nut is expressed a juice 
that is made into a pleasant wine 



CASHIER. The keeper of the c&sh oi 
money, which it is his business to receive 
and pay. 

CASHIERS OF THE BANK Officer* 
of the Bank who sign the notes that are 
issued out. 

CASHIERING. A dishonourable iis 
missal of an officer or soldier from the 
service 

CASHMERE. A country in Vidia 







CAS 


CAT 


which gives name to a valuable kind of 
eloth, and costly shawls manufactured 
there from the wool of a species of goat 
peculiar to Thibet. 

CASSAVI. An American tree, bearing 
a bell-shaped flower Its root, when dried 
and ground to flour, was converted into 
oread by the original inhabitants. 

CASSIA FISTULA, or Pudding Pipe 
Tree- A very large tree, a native of Al¬ 
exandria and the West Indies, which bears 
a long cylindrical taper or flat pod, divided 
into many cells, in each of which is a hard 
seed lodged in a clammy black substance, 
which is purgative, and is known in medi¬ 
cine by the name of the Purging Cassia, 
»r, simply, Cassia. 

CASSIOPEIA. A northern constella¬ 
tion. 

CASSIQUE, or CACIQUE. A sove¬ 
reign lord among the ancient Americans. 

CASSOCK. A vestment worn by cler¬ 
gymen under their gowns. 

CASSOWARY. A large bird of the os¬ 
trich kind, found only.in Java, and the 
Asiatic Islands. It is second m size orty 
to the Ostrich 

CAST. The name of figures or small 
statues in bronze. 

CASTE. The name of different tribes 
in Hindostan, of which the Brahmins is 
the most noble. The second is that of the 
soldiers, the third, that of merchants and 
husbandmen, the fourth that of laborers in 
various employments. 

CASTING (among Sculptors). The 
taking of casts or impressions of figures, 
busts, &c.; in a foundery, the running of 
metals into any mould prepared for this 
purpose. 

CASTLE. A fortress or place rendered 
defensible by nature and art. Castles, be¬ 
ing an emblem of grandeur, are frequently 
borne in coats of arms. 



CAST IRON. The iron as it is extract¬ 
ed from the ores by means of casting. 

CASTOR. A soft, grayish yellow sub¬ 
stance found in the bags of the beaver, 


8S 

near its groin. In a warm a ir, the cuto 
grows by degrees hard, brittle, and of 
dark colour. 

CAT. A well known animal nearly ai 
lied to the tiger, is either domestic or wild. 
The wild or mountain cat, is borne in coats 
of arms as an emblem of liberty, vigilance, 
and forecast. 

The animals of the cat family known in 
North America, are the Congar, vulgarlj 
called Panther; the wild cat, or catamount 
an animal three times the size of the do 
mestic cat, and having a short tail; and the 
Lynx. The domestic cat is a tame variety 
of the European cat. It is not a native of 
this country. 



CAT. A sea term for a ship usually 
employed in the coal trade; also a sort 
of strong tackle for drawing up the an¬ 
chor ; also a military term for a kind of 
shed under which soldiers conceal them 
selves while filling up a ditch or mining a 
wall. 

CATACOMBS. Grottoes or subterrane¬ 
ous places for the burial of the dead, fre¬ 
quently found in Egypt and in Italy. 

CATALOGUE. A list of books or any 
other matters, arranged in order, for pur¬ 
poses of sale or reference. 

CATAMARAN. A sort of floating 
raft originally used in China as a fishing 
boat 

CATARACT. A high, steep place or 
precipice in the channel of a river, caused 
by rocks or other obstacles stopping the 
course of the stream. Niagara is the most 
stupendous cataract in the world. Also a 
disease in the eye, arising from a little film 
or speck, which swimming in the aqueous 
humour, and getting before the pupil, caus¬ 
es a dimness of sight or blindness. 

CATARRH. A defluxion from the head 
occasioned by cold. 

CAT BIRD. A bird common in the Uni 
ted States of a bluish gray colour wince 
makes a noise very similar to the mewing 
of a cat. It is a pretty good singer; iu 
song consists of imitations of the notes of 
other birds. 

CAT-CALL. A harsh sort of pipe, iml 

tating the noise of a cat 











84 


CAT 


CAV 


CATCH (in Music). A short and humo¬ 
rous song; also a sea term for a swift- 
sailing vessel. 

CATCII-FLY. A plant much cultivated 
in gardens, having grass-like leaves, and 
a long stalk terminated by a cluster of 
crimson flowers. 

CATECHISM. A short system of in¬ 
struction in religion, conveyed in question 
ind answers. It is frequently applied to 
other subjects. 

CATECHU. A juice of a very astringent 
quality, pressed from out of several Indian 
fruits. 

CATECHUMENS. A naaae formerly 
given in the Christian church, to such as 
were prepared to receive the ordinance of 
baptism. 

CATEGORY (in Logic). A name for the 
predicates or attributes contained under 
any genus, of which Aristotle reckons ten, 
namely, substance, quantity, quality, rela¬ 
tion, acting, suffering, time, place, situa¬ 
tion, and habit. 

CATENARY. A curve on a crooked 
line formed by a rope when hanging. 

CATERER. A provider of victuals and 
other necessaries in the king’s household, 
or elsewhere. 

CATERPILLAR. The larva produced 
from the egg, which is transformed first 
into the chrysalis or nymph, and after¬ 
wards into the butterfly. 

CATGUT. A name for the strings made 
of the intestines of sheep or lambs, and 
used in musical instruments, &zc. 

CATHEADS. Two strong beams of tim¬ 
ber in a vessel which serve to suspend the 
Jnclior clear of the bow. 

CATHEDRAL. The episcopal church, 
or a church where is a bishop’s seat or 
see. 

CATHERINE-WHEEL. A sort of fire¬ 
works constructed in the form of a wheel, 
which is made to turn round when it is 
let off. 



CATHERINE-WHEEL (in Architec¬ 
ture). A large circular ornament in Gothic 
windows. 

CATHOLIC. An jpithet properly signi¬ 


fying universal; which the Romish cliurck 
assumes to itself as its title; whence th« 
name of Roman Catholics has been applied, 
since the Reformation, to the followers of 
the Romish doctrine and discipline. 

CATHOLIC KING. The title of the 
king of Spain. 

CATHOLIC PRIEST. A clergyman or 
priest ordained to say mass and administer 
the sacraments, &.c, according to the rites 
of the Romish Church. 

CATKIN, or Ament (in Botany). A long 
stem thickly covered with scales, under 
W'hich are the flowers and the essential 
parts of the fruit, which is so called from 
its resemblance to a cat’s tail. Catkins 
are to be found on the hazel, willow, &c. 

CAT’S EYE (in Mineralogy). A stone 
of a glistening gray, with a tinge of green, 
yellow', or white. 

CAT’S HEAD. A very large kind of 
apple. 

CAT’S-TAIL GRASS. A kind of reed, 
bearing a spike, like the tail of a cat. 

CATTLE. Horned beasts, that feed in 
pasture, or generally all four-footed beasts 
that serve for domestic purposes, including 
horses, horned cattle and sheep. In Eng¬ 
land horses and cows are called black 
cattle. 

CAVALCADE. A pompous procession 
of horses and carriages, &c. 

CAVALIER. A horseman; a person 
mounted on a horse, or expert in horse¬ 
manship ; in Fortification, a work raised 
within the body of a place, above the 
other works. 

CAVEAR, or CAVIAR. The spawn or 
hard roes of sturgeon, made into cakes, 
salted and dried in the sun, much used in 
Russia and other parts of the continent. 

CAVERN. A natural cave or hollow 
place, in a rock or mountain. 

CAVETTO (in Architecture!. A con¬ 
cave moulding, the curvature of whose 



y 


J— J 



j 

j 

section does not exceed the quadrant of a 
circle. 

































CEN 


CEE 


35 


f 


CAUL. A membrane in the abdomen 
which serves to cover the intestines. 

CAULIFLOWER The finest sort of 
cabbage, with a seeded head. 

CAUSEWAY, or CAUSEY. A path 
raised above the level of the ground, and 
paved with stones or gravel. 

CAUSTIC CURVE. A curve formed 
by the concourse or coincidence of the 
rays of light, reflated or refracted from 
any other curve 

CAUSTICS. Medicines which, when 
applied to any part of the body, burn it 
to a hard crust. 

CAUTERY. Any burning application 
CAYENNE PEPPER. A powder pre¬ 
pared from the pods of several species of 
the capsicum, which originally came from 
Cayenne, but is now brought from botli 
the Indies. 

CAYMAN. The American alligator. 
C.B. In England, Companion of theBath. 
C. C. Caius College: C. C. C. Corpus 
Christi College. 

CEDAR. A well known evergreen, very 
like the juniper in appearance, which de- 
ights in cold mountainous places. The 
eaves are much narrower than those of 
the pine tree, and tiie seeds are produced 
in large cones. The most celebrated spe¬ 
cies is that of Lebanon, which is also found 
in Russia and which is introduced by trans¬ 
planting into various Tart 3 of Europe and 
America. 

CEILING. The inside of the roof or 
top of an apartment, in distinction from 
the eurface of a floor. 

CELERY. A sort of parsley much used 
in winter salads. 

CELESTIAL GLOBE. An artificial 
representation of the heavens. 

CELL. The apartment or chamber of a 
monk or nun ; also a small close apartment 
in a prison. 

CELLAR. A place, commonly under 
ground, which serves as a store-room. 

CELLS (in Anatomy). Bags or bladders 
where fluids are lodged; in Botany, the 
partitions in the husks or pods of plants 
where the seeds are lodged. 

CELLUI AR MEMBRANE. One of 
the largest membranes in the human body, 
of a vascular texture, fitted for holding the 
fat. 

CEMENT. A compound of pitch, brick- 
dust, plaster of Paris, &c. used by chasers 
and other artificers fcr making their work 
firm. 

CEMETERY. A repository for the dead. 
CENSOR. A magistrate among the Ro¬ 
mans, who valued and taxed men’s estates, 
and also p» nished anv acts of immorality 
' 8 


CENSUS. In ancient Rome, an authen¬ 
tic declaration made by the citizens 
every five years before the censors, of 
the names of themselves and family, 
their place of abode, their condition in 
life, and the amount and nature of their 
estate. In modern use, an enumeration 
of the inhabitants of country. That ox 
the U. S. is made every ten years. 

CENT. A coin of the United States, 
whose value is the hundredth part of a 
dollar. In trade, per cent, denotes a 
certain rate by the hundred. 

CENTAUR. In mythology, a fabulous 
monster, half man and half horse. In 
astronomy a constellation ot the south¬ 
ern hemisphere, Archer in the zodiac. 

CENTRE-BIT. A carpenter’s tool,which 
makes a cylindrical excavation by turning 
on an axis or centre 



CENTRE OF GRAVITY. That point 
about which all the parts of a body in any 
situation balance each other. 

CENTRIFUGAL. An epithet for that 
force which causes a body revolving about 
a centre, or about another body, to recede 
from it. 

CENTRIPETAL. An epithet for that 
force which causes all bodies to tend to¬ 
wards some point as a centre. 

CENTURION. A military officer among 
the Romans, who had the command of a 
hundred men. 

CERES (in the Heathen Mythology) 
The daughter of Saturn and Vesta, an i 



goddess of corn and fruits She first taught 
men the art of cultivating the ground 












86 


OHA 


CHA 


CEREOLITE. A mineral substance, 
which in appearance and softness re¬ 
sembles wax. 

CERES. In astronomy, the name of 
one of the asteroid planets, discovered 
in 1801 by Piazzi; its mean distance 
from the sun being 263,740,000 miles, 
and its periodical revolution 4 years, 220 
days. 

CERINE. In chemistry, a substance 
which forms from 70 to 80 per cent, of 
bees’wax, it is soluble in boiling alcohol. 

CERITE. A siliceous oxide of cerium; 
sp. gr. 4-7. 

CERITHINiE. A sub-family of Mollus- 
ca, the Club-shells, of which the Ceri- 
thium, a genus of pectinibrauchiate 
Gasteropods, is the type. 

CERIUM. (Latin), a greyish mineral 
found in cerite. 

Cerography. Painting or writing in 
wax. 

CETE. An order of animals in the Lin- 
n®en system, including such as have 
breathing apertures on the head, tail hori¬ 
zontal, and pectoral fins instead of feet; 
as the dolphin, porpoise, and grampus, &c. 
Cetaceous fish suckle their young like land 
animals. 

CHAFF. The husks of corn when 
threshed and separated from the grain. 

CHAFFINCH. A bird so called because 
it delights in eating chaff. It sings very 
prettily. 

CHAFINGDISH A utensil for warm¬ 
ing meat. 

CHAGREEN. A rough kind of leather. 

CI1ALN (in Surveying). A measure of 
length, made of a certain number of links 
of iron wire, serving to measure a certain 
quantity of ground. Gunter’s Chain con¬ 
sists of a hundred such links, each measu¬ 
ring 7.92 inches, and consequently equal 
to 66 feet or 4 poles 1 square chain= 
10,000 links=!6 poles. 10 square chains 
3=100,000 links=160 poles=l acre. 

CHAIN. A series of rings or links fit¬ 
ted into one another. Chains are made of 
various metals, sizes, and forms, suited to 
different purposes. The gold chain is one 
of the badges of dignity worn by the Lord 
Mayor of London 



CHAIN-BOAT. A sea term for a large 
boat fitted for getting up mooring chains, 
anchors, &c. 

CHAIN-SHOT. Two bullets with a 


chain between them. They are used ia 
sea warfa e for cutting the shrouds and 
rigging of a ship. 



CHALCEDONY. A sort of agate or 
onyx stone. 

CHALDRON. A dry measure, consist¬ 
ing of 36 bushels. 

CHALICE. The communion cup usee’ 
at the sacrament of the eucharist. 

CHALK. A kind of white fossil, of 
which lime is made. It contains a little 
siliceous earth, and sometimes a small por¬ 
tion ofiron. Black chalk, or drawing slate, 
is a gray or bluish-black mineral, that is 
massive; the fractureglimmeringand slaty. 

CHALLENGE. In general, a summons 
to fight, whether in a duel, or in a pugilistic 
contest; in Law, an exception against ju¬ 
rors made by the party put on his trial. 

CHALYBEATE. An epithet for waters 
in which iron forms the principal ingredi¬ 
ent, as the waters of Tunbridge Welle, 
England. Ballston in the United States. 

CHAM. The title of the emperor or 
sovereign of Tartary. 

CHAMELEON,* or CHAMELEON. 
A quadruped of the lizard tribe, that was 



originally supposed to live on air, but is 
now known to live on flies, which it catches 
with its tongue. Its most remarkable eba 
racteristic is. that it assumes the colour of 
the thing to which it Is applied, but its nat¬ 
ural colour in the shade, and at rest, is said 
to be a bluish gray. 

CHAMBER (in Gunnery). That part 
of a mortar or great gun, as far as the pow 
der and shot reach when it is loaded. 

CHAMBER (in England). A court, as 
the Star Chamber; in Commerce, a room 
set apart for mercantile business, • also foi 
keeping treasures and stores, astim Chain 
ber of London, &c 











CI1 A 


CHA 


S7 


CHAMBER OF A MINE. The place 
where the powder is confined, that is to be 
used for blowing up the works. 

CHAMBERLAIN (in England). An 
officer who has the care of any particular 
chamber or place, as the Lord Great Cham¬ 
berlain of England, a great officer of state, 
to whom belongs the government of the 
palace at Westminster; the Chamberlain 
of London, who receives the rents of the 
city, and deposits them in the chamber or 
treasury of London. 

CHAMBERS (in England). Rooms or 
apartments belonging to the inns of court ; 
in Anatomy, two spaces between the crys¬ 
talline lens and the cornea of the eye, di¬ 
vided off by the iris. 

CHAMELEON. See Chameleon. 

CHAMOIS, or, The Wild Goat, which 
inhabits the Alpine mountains, having 
boms erect, round, and smooth. 



CHAMOMILE. An odoriferous plant, 
which has a very bitter taste, but many 
medicinal virtues. 

CHAMPAGNE. A fine French wine, 
so called from Champagne, a former pro¬ 
vince of France. 

CHAMPION (in Law). The combatant 
who undertook to fight in the trial by bat¬ 
tel, formerly in use in England. 

CHANCE-MEDLEY (in Law). The 
accidental killing of a man, not without 
the fault of the killer, but without any evil 
intent. 

CHANCEL. That part of a church be¬ 
tween the altar and communion table, and 
the rails or balustrade by which it is en¬ 
closed. This applies particularly to Cath¬ 
olic, and Episcopal Churches. 

CHANCELLOR (inEngland). Anoffi- 
cer of state, known by the title of the Lord 
High Chancellor of England, and the chief 
person next to the sovereign in the admin¬ 
istration of justice; the Chancellor of the 
Exchequer is an officer who has the prin. 
cipal management of the king’s revenue. 
The term is applied to the first judge of the 
Chancery Court in the state of New York 


CHANCERY, The Coukt of (in Eng 
land). The highest court of judicature ir. 
the realm next to the Parliament. The 
Lord Chancellor presides in this court; and 
is assisted by the Vice-chancellor, the 
Master of the Rolls, the Masters in Chan 
eery, &c. 

CHANCES, Doctrine of. A branch 
of modern mathematics, which treats of 
the probabilities of certain events taking 
place. 

CHANNEL. The middle or deepcv 
part of any sea ; also a strait or narrow ssa 
between two lands, as St. George’s Chan 
nel, between Great Britain and Ireland, 
and the British or English Channel, prop¬ 
erly called the Channel, between England 
and France. 

CHANTRY. A chapel anciently joined 
to some cathedral or parish, where mass 
used to be said daily for the souls of the 
founders. 

CHAOS. A dark and rude mass of 
matter, out of which the heathen philoso 
phers supposed the world was formed 

CHAPEL. In England, a smaller kind 
of church, which, being built for the con¬ 
venience of the parish church, is denomi¬ 
nated a chapel of ease. 

CHAPERON. A hood or cap, particu¬ 
larly that worn by the knights of the 
garter. 

CHAPLAIN. In England, originally 
signified one who performed divine service 
in a chapel, but now more commonly one 
who attends upon the king, or other person 
of quality, for the performance of his cleri 
cal duties in the family The term is also 
applied to the clergyman attached to the 
navy or army. 

CHAPLET. A wreath or garland worn 
about the head. Chaplets are borne in 
coats of arms, as tropnies or ensigns of 
military prowess. 

CHAPTER. A body of the clergy be¬ 
longing to a cathedral, collegiate, or con¬ 
ventual church; also the place of their 
meeting, in England. 

CHARACTER. Any mark which selves 
as a sign to denote some particular object, 
as the astronomical characters, mathemati¬ 
cal characters, &c. 

CHARADE. A sort of riddle, the sul- 
ject of which is a word of one or two 
syllables. 

CHARCOAL. The substance from wood 
half burnt, which is much used in the 
manufacture of gunpowder. 

CHARDS OF ARTICHOKES. The 
leaves of artichoke plants bound in straw 
till they lose part of their bitterness, art! 
become white 





C11E 


CH E 


88 

CKAREWOMAN, or CHARWOMAN. 
In England, a woman who goes out by the 
day to job 

CHARGE (in Law). The instructions 
given by the judge to the jury ; in Ecclesi¬ 
astical Law, the instructions given by a 
bishop to the clergy of his diocess. 

CHARGE (in Gunnery). The quantity 
of powder and ball, or shot, with which a 
gun is loaded ; in Electricity, the accumu¬ 
lation of electric matter on one surface of 
an electric machine; in Heraldry, whatever 
is borne on coats of arms. 

CHARGE D'AFFAIRES. A person in¬ 
trusted with the public interest in a 
foreign nation. The Charges d’Affaires 
constitute the third or lowest class of 
foreign ministers. 

CHARIOT. An ancient car, in which 
armed men used to ride to battle. They 
were furnished with scythes, hooks, and 
other offensive weapons. 



CHARMS. Incantations or verses used 
by magicians and sorcerers. 

CHARR. A small fish of the salmon kind. 

CHARTER. In England, a writing or 
letter patent, whereby the king grants pri¬ 
vileges to towns, corporations, <fcc. whence 
the name of Magna Charta, or the Great 
Charter of Liberties granted to the people 
of the whole realm. In the United States, 
Charters are granted by the State legisla¬ 
tures, or by Congress. 

CHARTS. Draughts or descriptions of 
coasts; or, in general, projections of some 
parts of the sea in plans for the use of 
sailors. 

CHARYBDIS A vortex or gulf at the 
entrance of the Sicilian straits, which is 
much celebrated by the ancient writers; 
but its exact situation is not known in the 
present day. 

CHASSEURS. A select body of light 
infantry in the French army 

CIIASTE-TREE. A tree growing to 
the height of eight or ten feet, having the 
leaves fingered like these of hemp. 

CHATEAU. Formerly acastle or baronial 
seat in France, now simply a country seat. 

CHATTELS (in Law). Personal goods. 

CIIECKY (in Heraldry). A term for 


the shield, or any part of id, when it u«d 
vided into cheques or squares 

CHEEKS. A general name among 
mechanics for pieces of timber in any ma¬ 
chine, which are two of a kind. 

CHEESE. The curd of milk separated 
from the whey, then pressed and hardened, 
and afterwards left to dry. 

CHEESECAKES. A sort of cakes made 
of curds, sugar, butter, <fcc. 

CHEESE-PRESS. A press In which 
the curds are pressed for making cheese. 

CHEESE-VAT. The case in which curds 
are pressed into the form of a cheese. 

CHEF-D’CEUVRE. A masterpiece or 
superior performance of any artist. 

CHEMISTRY. In natural philosophy, 
the study of the effects of heat and mix¬ 
ture, with a view of discovering their 
general and subordinate laws; that 
branch of natural science, as defied by 
Dr. Brande, which investigates the 
nature and properties of the elements of 
matter, and their mutual actions and 
combinations. Chemistry determines 
the proportions in which they unite, 
and ascertains the modes of separating 
them when united. It also inquires 
into the laws and powers which pre¬ 
side over and affect the agencies by 
which material combination or decom¬ 
position takes place. Organic chem¬ 
istry is the chemistry of vegetable and 
animal compounds; and Inorganic 
chemistry is that which investigates 
inorganic compounds. In the Atomic 
Theory of chemistry there are certain 
Chemical Symbols and Equivalents 
which have been adopted for the pur¬ 
pose of expressing by letters and figures 
the definite proportions in which sub¬ 
stances chemically combine; and these 
are presented in a tabular form under 
the article Atomic Theory, to which the 
reader is referred. 

CHEMISTRY, History of. Chemistry 
as a practical art connected with metal¬ 
lurgy, or the extraction of metals from 
their ores, was of high antiquity, for we 
learn from Scripture that Tubal Cain, 
the eighth from Adam, was an expert 
artificer in brass and iron. Various 
branches of the chemical art, such as 
the preservation of vinous liquors, dye¬ 
ing, tanning, making glass, and various 
preparations in pharmacy and cooking 
were in use at a very early period: be¬ 
sides the famous Egyptian philosopher, 
called by the Greeks Hermes, and the 
Romans Mercury, is reputed to have 
been versed in many chemical arts, and 
to have been the founder of the chemi¬ 
cal science,at least in that nation. From 
the Egyptians, Democritus, a Greek, 
learned the art of softening ivory, of 
vitrifying plants, and imitating precious 
stones, which he communicated to his 
countrymen. After his time we read of 
many metallic preparations, as ceruse, 





CHE 


C I I* 


verdigris,, letnarge, &c. Dioscorides de¬ 
scribes the distillation of mercury from 
cinnabar; but their process of distilla¬ 
tion consisted in the separation of the 
air, or the more subtle parts of water, 
from the rest of the matter, which was 
done by putting the matter to be distil¬ 
led into a vessel, the mouth of which 
was covered with a wet cloth, and by 
this means the steams of the ascending 
vapor were condensed, which were af¬ 
terwards procured by wringing out the 
cloth. Such is the distillation spoken 
of by Galen, Oribasius, and Paulus 
JEgineta. After the conquests of the 
Saracens in the seventh and eighth cen 
turies, chemical researches began to be 
more enlarged. Geber, Avicenna, and 
other Arabian physicians ntroduced 
into the materia medica many prepara¬ 
tions both vegetable and mineral; but 
the knowledge of those chemical agents, 
the acids and the alkalis, was at that 
time exceedingly imperfect, for, except 
the acetous acid and soda, there is no 
mention of these matters until many 
years atter. Roger Bacon does not ap¬ 
pear to have been acquainted with them 
in the twelfth century, and Raymond 
Lully only hints at the existence of the 
marine acid. 

There was one circumstance at this 
period which contributed more than 
any other to the improvement of chem¬ 
istry, that was the then growing at¬ 
tachment to the study of alchemy, and 
the search after the philosopher’s stone, 
which, though false in principle, yet led 
in its results to a more extensive ac 
quaintance with the composition of 
mineral bodies. After the introduction 
of this art, which, as its name denotes, 
was of Arabian origin, we read of alcohol 
and the newly discovered menstrua, 
which were powerfully applied to the 
transmutation of metals into gold. Al¬ 
though the futility of such pursuits 
served to bring the science of chemistry 
for some time into dispute, yet the 
knowledge which was acquired of metals 
and minerals by such repeated opera¬ 
tions upon them, was turned to the 
useful j)urposes of medicine. To the 
alchemists we are indebted for the 
methods of preparing spirits of wine, 
aquafortis, volatile alkali, vitriolic acid, 
gunpowder, &c. In the improvement 
of medicine by means of chemistry, 
Basil Valentine stood foi’emost. In his 
Currus Triumphalis Antimonii, he com¬ 
municated to the public a number of 
valuable antimonial medicines. Parac¬ 
elsus, another chemical professor, was 
so sanguine in the application of his fa¬ 
vorite science, that he opposed himself 
to the practice of Galen, and endeavored 
to cure all disorders by chemical prep¬ 
arations. He was followed*by Van Hel- 
mont, Glauber, and Lemery, who all 
applied their knowledge of chemistry to 
the service of medicine. The science of 
metallurgy at the same time made cor¬ 
responding advances. Agricola, who 


89 

was a contemporary with Paracelsus, 
laid the foundation for a correct knowl¬ 
edge of metals. Lazarus Ecker, Sckul- 
ten, and many other Germans, described 
the processes of assaying metals. An¬ 
thony Neri Er. Merret, andKunkel, th« 
discoverer of the phosphate of urine, 
have explained the processes of making 
glass, enamels, &c. but their writings 
were not entirely free from the alchem¬ 
ical illusions of the day. Kircher and 
Conryngius, who followed them, suc¬ 
ceeded in purifying the science of chem¬ 
istry from these errors. Since that time 
chemistry has assumed a new and sys¬ 
tematic form, to which the writings and 
discoveries of many distinguished men 
in the course of the last two centuries 
have materially contributed, as Bacon, 
Boyle, Newton, Boerhaave, Geoffroy, 
Reaumur, Lavoisier, Stahl, and Berg¬ 
man. To this list might be added the 
works of Brande, Ure, Faraday, Laurent, 
Hoffman, and others in our own time, 
who have digested the improvements 
and corrected or enlarged them by 
farther experiments. 

CHERVIL. An umbelliferous plant 
whose leaves are divided into many seg¬ 
ments. 

CHESS. A very difficult game, perform¬ 
ed with little round pieces of wood, on a 
board divided into sixty-four squares. 
Each side lias eight men, consisting of a 
king, queen, two knights, two bishops, and 
two rooks or castles, besides eight pawns 
or foot soldiers; which are all moved ac¬ 
cording to certain rules. 

CHESS-BOARD. The board on which 
tfie game of chess is played. 



CHESS-ROOK. Another name for tho 
castles which stand at the outer corners of 
the chess board. . 

CHEST (in Anatomy). The breast, tho¬ 
rax, or that part of the human body whick 
contains the heart and lungs. 

CHESTNUT. A tree bearing a very 
rouglicoated fruit of the same name. Th 
wood was formerly much valued as timbei 
in England, and is now used in the fine 
kinds of joinery work In the United 
























CiJ 1 


00 CHI 

States it is seldom employed 3xcej as tim¬ 
ber or fuel. 

CHEVALIER Literally a knight or 
horseman, answering to the English cava¬ 
lier. 

CHEVAUX DE FRISE (in Fortifica¬ 
tion). A sort of turnpikes or tournequots, 
consisting of spars of wood set into a piece 
of timber, and armed with a short spike, 
so as to point all ways They serve to 
stop up breaches 



CHEVRON (in Heraldry). One of the 
honourable ordinaries, representing two 
rafters of a house joined together in chief, 
such as carpenters set on the highest part 
of a house to support the roof 



CHI ARO OBSCURO. See Claro 

.*BSCURO. 

OHIUKWEED. An annual. 

CHIEF (in Heraldry). One ..f the hon¬ 
ourable ordinaries, which occupies the nead 
or upper part of the escutcheon. As the 
head is the chief part of a man, so is the 
chief the principal part of the escutcheon, 
and contains a third part of the field. 



CHIEF The head man of a tribe of 
Indians. 

CHILTERN HUNDREDS. A hilly dis¬ 
trict of Buckinghamshire, England, which 
has belonged to the crown from ttire im- 
8 * 


memorial, having the office of Steward oi 
tiie Chiltern Hundreds attached to it. 15} 
the acceptance of this office, any member 
of parliament is enabled to vacate his seat, 
for as no member can retain his seal 
after accepting an office, so likewise every 
member wishing to vacate his seat is obit 
ged to do it in this manner ; that is, in tlo 
usual phrase, ‘accept the Chiltern Hum 
dreds.’ 

CHIMrERA (in the Heathen Mytholo 
gy). A monster feigned to be like a lion 
in the forepart, a dragon behind, and » 
goat in the middle. 

CHIMES OF A CLOCK. A particular 
apparatus, by which the clock at certain 
times is enabled to play certain tunes. 

CHIMNEY. That part of a house which, 
b^he means of a funnel, serves to earn 
off the smoke. Various devices have bee 
tried to prevent tile smokihg of chimneys, 
as the carrying them up zigzag, or narrowe - 
at the top than at the bottom, and the like, 
which have all been found ineffectual. It 
is now supposed that chimneys should be 
built as nearly perpendicular as possible, 
should be free from all roughness in the 
inside, and be a little wider at the top th&r 
at the base. 

CHINTZ. A fine Indian painted calicc 
Also cotton goods made elsewhere in imi¬ 
tation of it. 

CHIP SQUIRREL. A beautiful little 
striped animal common in the woods of 
North America. 

CHINCHILLA. A beautiful little anima 
of Peru, probably of the rat kind, which 
produces a fur much in use. 



CHIROMANCY. The pretended art of 
foretelling a person’s fortune by the lines 
in his hands. 

CHIVALRY. The name anciently given 
to knighthood, a military dignity ; also the 
martial exploits and qualifications of s 
knight. Chivalry, as a military dignity, 
is supposed by some to have taken its rise 
from the crusades, because these expedi¬ 
tions gave rise to many chivalrous exploits 














DHK 


CHR 


91 


and feat* of arms ; but it is evident that 
its origin may he traced much higher, to 
the northern nations who settled in Europe 
on the decline of the Roman empire, 
whose martial habits and temper led them 
to make valour and prowess, the only 
sources of honour and distinction. 

CHIVES. A sort of small onions. 

CHLORINE. A gaseous body of a green 
yellow co our. 

CHLORITES. A kind of green jasper, 
almost as pellucid as the coarse eme¬ 
rald. 

CHOCOLATE (in Commerce). A kind 
of paste, prepared chiefly from the cocoa 
nut, with a mixture of other ingredients 

CHOCOLATE TREE. A species of the 
cocoa tree, from the fruit of which the 
chocolate is prepared. 

CHOIR. That part of a cathedral where 
the service is performed. 

CHOKEDAMP (in Mining). The noxi¬ 
ous air occasionally found at the bottom 
of mines. 

CIIOKEPEAR. A very rougli tasted 
pear. 

CHOLERA MORBUS. A disease con¬ 
sisting of a violent perturbation in the 
belly, accompanied with a discharge of 
bile towards and downwards. 

CHORD (in Geometry). A right line, 
drawn from one part of an arc of a circle 
to another. 

CHORDS (in Music) Strings, by the 
vibration of which the sensation of sound 
is excited. 

CHOROGRAPHY. A part of geogra¬ 
phy, which treats of the description of 
particular countries. 

CHORUS. A company of persons all 
singing in concert. 

CHRISM. An unction or anointing of 
children, which was formerly practised as 
soon as they were born. 

CHRIST. Which properly signifies 
anointed, is the name of the ever blessed 
Redeemer of the world. 

CHISTENDOM. The whole Christian 
world. 

CHRISTENING. The ceremony of 
admitting a person into the communion 
of the Christian church, by means of bap¬ 
tism, or sprinkling with water. It is a 
term particularly applied to infant bap¬ 
tism. 

CHRISTIAN. One who professes the 
Christian religion 

CHRISTMAS. A festival observed in 
«he Christiin church, on the twenty-fifth 
•f December, in commemoration of our 
Saviour’s nativity. 

CHROMA. A soft kind of music. 


CHROMATICS. That part of optics 
which explains the several properties ot 
light and colour. 

CHRONICAL. An epithet for diseasei 
of long duration. 

CHRONOLOGY. The science which 
teaches the measures and divisions of time 
The divisions of time are either natural or 
artificial; the natural divisions of time are 
the year, month, week, day, and hour, 
deduced from the motions of the heavenly 
bodies, and suited to the purposes of civil 
life; the artificial divisions of time are the 
cycle or period, the epoch iid the a;ra 
or epocha, which have been framed for 
the purposes of history. 

CHRONOLOGY, History of. Cliro 
nology, as regards the natural divisions of 
time,wasdoubtless coeval withthecreation, 
for we learn from the sacred historian that 
the work of creation was performed within 
the period of a week, or seven days, whence 
this division was observed by the Hebrews, 
and from them transmitted to the Egy p¬ 
tians and other nations. But the Persians 
are said to have been ignorant of such a 
division. The Greeks had weeks of ten 
days, and the Romans weeks of eight days. 
It is evident from the names of the days of 
the week among most European nations, 
that we derive this division from the an¬ 
cient Celts or Scythians, who, in all pro¬ 
bability, at the dispersion of mankind after 
the deluge, borrowed this patriarchal mode 
of measuring time. The year is that divi¬ 
sion of time which was regulated by the 
motions of the sun, being that period of 
time in which the sun passes through the 
6igns of the zodiac. This division was 
doubtless formed at the time that astro 
nomical observations were first ua<le ; oui 
the Egyptians are the first people on record 
who formed this division, which they made 
to consist of 360 days, and subdivided into 
12 months of 30 days each ; to these Tris- 
megistus is said to have added five moie 
days. The ancient Jewish year was th.i 
same as the Egyptian ; but on their de 
parture from Egypt they adopted the luna 
year, consisting of 30 days and 29 dayt 
alternately, and in order to make it agree 
with the solar year, they sometimes added 
11 or 12 days at the end of the year, and 
sometimes a whole month after a certain 
number of years. The Greeks also reck¬ 
oned by the same kind of year. The 
ancient Roman year was also lunar, and 
at first consisted of 10 months of 30 and 
31 days; two months were afterwards 
added by Numa Pompilius, which con¬ 
sisted of 29 and 31 days, making in the 
whole 355 days. Julius Caesar first re 





CHRONOLOGY. 


92 

formed the calendar, and adopted the solar 
year of 365 days in the common year, 
with the addition of a day in every fourth 
year, called Bissextile, or Leap Year; in 
order to adjust the computation to the true 
solar year, it was then reckoned 365 days 
6 hours, but as the true solar year was 
found to be 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 
48 seconds, a farther reformation of this 
calendar has been made on the assumption 
that the solar year consists of 365 days, 
5 hours, and 49 minutes. According to this 
computation, which was made by Pope 
Gregory XIII. in 1582, and thence called 
the Gregorian style, an intercalation of one 
day in February should be made every 
fourth year, and that the sixteen hundredth 
year of the Christian aera, and every fourth 
century hereafter, should be a bissextile or 
leap year. One day consequently is to be 
intercalated in the years 2000, 2400, 2800, 
&c.; but in the intervening centuries 1700, 
1800, 1900, 2100, &c. it is to be suppressed, 
and they are to be reckoned common. 
Moreover as the equinoxes had fallen back 
ten days and the full moons four days, 
since the Nicene council, a. d. 325, he 
ordained that ten days should be cut off 
after the fourth of October, so that the fifth 
should be thefifteenth. Thismodeofreckon¬ 
ing, which is now introduced in most coun¬ 
tries of Europe, is called the New Style, 
to distinguish it from tho Old Style, or the 
former reckoning. This is however still 
not perfectly correct, for as the excess of 
the Julian year, within the space four 
centuries, is three days, one hour, and 
twenty minutes, that of the Gregorian is 
one hour and twenty minutes within the 
same period, or about a day in 7200 years. 

Besides these alterations in the form and 
length of the year, attempts had been made 
by the Greeks at an early period to adjust 
in their reckonings the lunar year to the 
solar year, for which purpose they hit on 
the device of framing cycles or series of 
years, which being numbered in an orderly 
manner from first to last, should return to 
.he same point of reckoning from which 
ihey commenced. The first of these cycles 
was framed by Cleostratus, about 532 years 
before Christ. It consisted of eight years, 
or 2922 days, during the course of which 
46 lunations would elapse of 29 and 30 
c lys alternately, together with three inter¬ 
calary months. By this cycle he proposed 
to adjust the lunar to the solar year, so 
that at the conclusion of each cycle tne 
moon should be renewed, but he failed in 
his object, for at the end of 16 years 
there was found to be an error of three 
dev*, which in the space of 160 years would 


amount to more than a whole month The 
Metonic Cycle, formed by Rleton at the 
commencement of the Peloponnesian war, 
for the purpose of correcting the former, 
consisted of 19 years, at the end of which 
the sun and moon would be in the same 
quarter. This cycle, which was so much 
esteemed by the Greeks as to be called 
the Golden Number, nevertheless failed to 
the amount of eight or ten hours at the 
end of one period, and of three days in 133 
years The cycle of Eudoxus was an iis- 
provement on that of Cleostratus, by sub¬ 
tracting a month of 30 days from a period 
of 160 years, which was supposed to be 
equal to the difference that would subsist 
at the expiration of that period between the 
solar and the lunar motions. The Calippic 
Period, contrived by Calippus at the new 
moon of the summer b. c. 331, was in¬ 
tended as an improvement upon that of 
Melin, which it multiplied by four, so as 
to make a period of 76 years, or 27,759 days. 
As 940 lunations are equal to 97,758 days, 
9 hours, 5 minutes, and 9 seconds, which 
is only 40' 29" 57'" less than 76 solar 
tropical years, it follows that the lunar 
motion, according to this calculation, did 
not vary more than 14 hours, 13 minutes, 
and 22 seconds, wherefore this period has 
been chosen to form the basis to the modern 
cycle of the moon, which is said to have 
commenced one year before the Christian 
aera. There is also a solar cycle, consist¬ 
ing of a series of 28 years, at the completion 
of which the same order of bissextile and 
dominical letters return, a cycle which 
came into use in the early ages of Chris¬ 
tianity ; besides the cycle of indiction, or 
a series of 15 years, introduced in the 
reign of Constantine; the Epacts, or ex¬ 
cesses of any solar revolutions above the 
lunar, which were introduced for the pur¬ 
pose of ascertaining the time when Easter 
ought to be celebrated; the Dionysian 
Period, or series of 532 years, formed by 
Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman abbot, by 
multiplying the solar cycle 28 into the lunar 
19, for the purpose of restoring the new 
and full moons to the same day; and 
lastly, the Julian Period, invented by 
Scaliger, and so called because it is adapted 
to the Julian year ; this is a series of years 
formed by the multiplication of the solar 
and lunar cycles and the cycle of indiction 
into one another, making the sum of 7980 
Julian years. 

The application of chronology to history 
is of comparatively modern date In 
Homer and other ancient writers there 
appears to have been no idea of recording 
events in any exact order of time. The 



CH Y 


CHY 


93 


succession of Juno’s priestesses at Argos 
served Hellanicus for the regulation of 
his history, but the principal Greek his¬ 
torians followed no other order than what 
was furnished by the series ot events which 
key narrated. The Roman historian Livy 
defines the periods of the events described 
n his history by the appointment of con¬ 
suls, and afterwards the succession of em¬ 
perors and kings served a similar purpose 
in forming the histories of other European 
nations until a more exact computation of 
iCne began to be observed. 

CHRONOMETER. An instrument fcr 
the exact measurement of time. 

CHRYSALIS. The second state of an 
insect, which it passes into from the cater¬ 
pillar or reptile form, previous to its be¬ 
coming a butterfly or a moth, &c 



CHUB. A river fish of the carp kind, 
so called on account of its great head. 

CHRONOGRAM. An inscription in 
which numeral letters occurring in 
the words are made to express the date 
or epoch of the action mentioned, as in 
the motto of a medal struck by Gusta 
vus Adolphus in 1632. 

ChristVs DVX; etgo trlVMph vs. 

CHRYSANTHEMUM, a genus of com¬ 
posite plants, of which the Ox-eye Daisy 
and Corn Marigold are familiar exam¬ 
ples. 

CHRYSOBALAN. A genus of tropical 
trees. 

OHRYSOBERYL. A precious stone, of 
a yellowish-green color. 

CHRYSOCHLORE. A genus of small 
insectivorous mammals, representing 
in Africa the mole of Europe. Its fur 
reflects most brilliant metallic hues of 
green and gold, a circumstance which 
though common to the outer covering 
of birds, fishes, and insects, has not yet 
been observed in any other quadruped 
than this. 

CHRYSOGRAPHY, The art of writing 
in letters of gold. 

CHRYSOLITE. A precious stone, a va¬ 
riety of apatite, of a yellowish or green¬ 
ish color. 

CHRYSOLOGY. That branch of politi¬ 
cal economy which relates to the pro¬ 
duction of wealth. 

CHRYSOMELA. A genus of beautiful 
beetles 

CHRYSOPRASE. A precious stone, a 
pale green variety of quartz. 

CHRYSOTYPE. A photographic pro¬ 
cess, in which a solution of gold is used. 


CHURCH. A place or building conse¬ 
crated to the public worship of God. In 
a restricted sense, a building conse- 
ci'ated to Christian worship and ordin¬ 
ances; the collective body of Christians, 
sometimes called the Catholic or uni¬ 
versal church; a particular body of 
Christians, united under one form of 
ecclesiastical government, in one creed, 
and using the same ritual and ceremon¬ 
ies, the followers of Christ in a particu¬ 
lar city or province; the body of clergy, 
or ecclesiastics, in distinction from the 
laity; divine service; ecclesiastical au¬ 
thority. Invisible Church, the collec¬ 
tive body of saints in heaven and on 
earth. 

CHYLE. In animal physiology, a milky 
fluid generated in the stomach during 
the process of digestion, by the action 
of the pancreatic juice and the bile on 
the chyme, and which being absorbed 
by the lacteal vessels is gradually as¬ 
similated into blood. 

CHYME. That particular modification, 
which food first assumes after it has un 
dergone the action of the stomach, and 
which, after the chyle has been separ¬ 
ated from it, becomes excrementitious 
matter. 

CIBORIUM. An insulated arched vault 
on four columns; any insulated taber¬ 
nacle ; the tomb of a martyr, sculptured 
and used as ani altar; the coffer contain 
ing the host in Roman Catholic cere¬ 
monies; a large drinking cup; the 
Egyptian bean. 

CICADA. A genus of hemipterous in¬ 
sects of many species, living on trees or 
shrubs, popularly called tree-hoppers, 
frog-hoppers,, &c., and in some places, 
erroneously, locusts. 

CICATRICE. A scar; a little seam or 
elevation of flesh remaining after 
wound or ulcer is healed; a cicatrix; a 
mark; an impression. 

CICATRICLE. The germinating or 
foetal point in the embryo of a seed or 
the yolk of an egg. 

CICELY. A plant, a species of Chaero- 
phyllum. The Sweet Cicely is the 
Myrrhis odorata. 

CICERONE. A guide; one who shows 
and explains to strangers the curiosities 
of a place. 

CICINDELA. A genus of coleopterous 
carnivorous insects, popularly called 
the Sparklers, in allusion to their rich 
metallic colors. 

CHEF-D’CEUVRE. A masterpiece 
or superior performance of any artist. 

CHERRY. The well known fruit 
of a tree which was introduced into 
Britain at the time of its invasion by 
the Romans. 

CHERUBIM. An order of angels 
composed of various animals, as a man, 
an ox, an eagle, and a lion. 



04 


CIC 


cm 


CICONIA. A genus of wading birds 
(tbe storks), the largest of the heron 
family. 

CILIA. In anatomy, the hairs which 
grow from the margin of the eyelids. 
—In botany, long hairs on plants or 
leaves. 

CILIARY. Belonging to the eye- 
lashes 

CILIOBRACHIATE. In physiology, 
having the arms provided with cilia, 
more especially applied to a class of 
Polypods. 

CILIOGRADES. A tribe of the 
Acalephans, or Sea-nettles, which swim 
by means of cilia. 

CIMBIA. In architecture, a fillet or 
band round the shaft of a column. 

CIMICIDES. An extensive tribe of 
hemipterous insects, of which Gimex 
lectuarius, or common bedbug, is the 
type. 

CIMMERIAN. Pertaining to the 
Cimmerii, or their country; extremely 
and perpetually dark. The Cimmerii 
were an ancient people of the land now 
called the Crimea, and their country 
being subject to heavy fogs, was fabled 
to be involved in deep and continual 
obscurity. Ancient poets also men¬ 
tion a people of this name who dwelt 
in a valley near Lake Avernus, in 
Italy, which the sun was said never to 
visit. 

CIMOLITE. In mineralogy, a light 
grey silicate of alumina, from the island 
of Cimolo. 

CINCHONA. A celebrated tree in 
Peru, which produces Peruvian bark, 
and also its extract, quinine, both ex¬ 
tensively used in medicine. 

CINCHONACEgE. A native order 
of plants, the Rubiaceae of Jussieu and 
other botanists, of which cinchona is 
the type. 

CINCHONINE. A vegetable alkali 
found in cinchona. 

CINCHONATE. A salt formed of 
cinchonic acid and a base. 

CINERITIOUS. Resembling ashes; 
grey. 

CINGULUM. In zoology, a term 
applied to the neck of a tooth, or that 
constriction which separates the crown 
from the fang. 

CINN AB AR. In mineralogy, a beau¬ 
tiful red pigment, the sulpliuret of mer¬ 
cury. Yermilion is pure cinnabar, being 
a compound of mercury and sulphur in 
nearly the same proportion, viz.: mer¬ 
cury, 84 50; sulphur, 14-75: sp. gr. 
6-7—8'2. 

CINNAMIC ACID. An acid formed 
in translucent prisms from oil of cin¬ 
namon. 

CINNAMON STONE. A mineral 
of a red color foqnd in Ceylon and 
Brazil. It is composed of silica, alu¬ 
mina, lime, and oxide of iron. 

CINN YRIDZE. In ornithology, a 


family of birds, the Sun-birds, which 
are distinguished by their brilliant 
plumage: Cinnyris is the type and 
genus. 

CINQUEFOIL. In botany, a five¬ 
leaved clover; the common name of 
plants of the genus Potentilla.—In 
architecture, a five-leaved ornament, in 
circular and other divisions of the 
windows of ancient churches. 

CINQUE-PORTS. Originally, five 
English ports on the eastern coast, viz., 
Dover, Sandwich, Hastings, Romney, 
and Hythe, but to these Winchelsea, 
Rye, and Seaford, were afterwards 
added. 

CINQUE-SPOTTED. Having five 
spots. 

CINTER. In architecture, the fram¬ 
ing erected between piei-s to support 
the materials of an arch during erec¬ 
tion, till it is keyed. 

CIPHER. The arithmetical char¬ 
acter 0, or zero, which signifies nothing 
by itself, but when placed at the right 
hand of any common number, increases 
it tenfold, or on the left of a decimal, 
decreases it in like proportion; any 
arithmetical figure; a number; a char¬ 
acter in general; an intertexture of 
letters, as the initials of a name; a de¬ 
vice,- an enigmatical character, a secret 
or disguised manner of writing; cer¬ 
tain characters agreed on by two or 
more persons to stand for letters or 
words, and understood only by them. 
In figurative language, a thing of no 
consequence or importance; a nonen¬ 
tity. 

CIPHER-KEY. A key for decipher¬ 
ing writings. 

Ciphering. The act or art of 
computing by numbers; arithmetic. 

CIPOLIN. In mineralogy, a green 
Italian marble, with white zones. That 
from Rome contains carbonate of lime, 
quartz, schist, and a little iron. 

CIPPUS. In antiquity, a small monu¬ 
mental column, bearing an inscription 
or epitaph ; a sign-post. 

CIRCAR. In Hindostan, a district 
or province. 

CIRCASSIAN. Pertaining to Cir¬ 
cassia; a native of Circassia- a kiud of 
woollen cloth. 

CIRCEAN. Pertaining to Circe, a 
fabled goddess of antiquity, celebrated 
for her knowledge of magic and venom¬ 
ous herbs, by which she was able to 
fascinate and work her incantations; 
hence, magical, venomous. 

CIRCINAL, OR CIRCINATE. In 
botany, applied to a leaf when spirally 
rolled up from the apex towards the 
base, as in ferns. 

CIRCINUS. The Compasses,—a con¬ 
stellation of four stars near the South 
Pole. 

CIRCIUM. In botany, a name ot 
the genus Carduus. 





CIV 


CIR 

CIRCLE. A plain figure bounded by 
line only, called the circumference, 
M B C D, to which all the lines drawn to 
it from a point in the middle, called the 
centre, as A B, A C, and A D are equal 
to each other. The line which divides it 
:nto two equal parts is called the diameter, 
as B D. Every circle is supposed to be 
divided into 360 parts or degrees, where¬ 
fore angles are measured by the arc of a 
circle, thus B A C, which is a right angle, 
is equal to the arc B C, or 90 degrees. 



CIRCUITS. In Englaad, certain divi¬ 
sions of the kingdom, through which the 
judges pass once a year, or oftener, to hold 
courts and administer justice. A similar 
division exists in the United States in re¬ 
spect to the national court. 

CIRCULATION (in Anatomy). The 
natural motion of the blood in a living an¬ 
imal, whereby it proceeds from the heart 
to all parts of the body by the arteries, and 
returns to the heart by the veins. 

CIRCUMFERENCE. The curve line 
which bounds a circle. 

CIRCUMFERENTOR. An instrument 
used by surveyors for taking angles. 



CIRCUMFLEX. An accent in Gram¬ 
mar, marked in Greek thus ( -), in Latin 
thus (*), to regulate the pronunciation. 

CIRCUMLOCUTION. The describing 
a thing by many words, which might be 
explained by a few. 

CIRCUMSTANTIAL. An epithet in 
law, for evidence drawn indirectly from 
circumstances, as distinguished from posi¬ 
tive proofs. 

CIRCUMVALLATION, or A LINE 
OF CIRCUMVALLATION. A trench 
thrown up quLe round a besieger’s camp. 


96 

CIRCUS A circular building at Rome 
where games were exhibited ; it ia now 
used to designate a place where feats ol 
horsemanship are exhibited In Archi¬ 
tecture, an assemblage of houses built so 
as to form a circle. 

CITRIC ACID. The acid of limes. 

CITRON. A species of the lemon, which 
is much cultivated in Persia and the wann 
climates of Europe. 



CITY In England, a corporate town 
having a bishop’s see, and a cathedral 
town. This distinction is not always ob¬ 
served in common discourse, for they say 
the town of Ely, which is a bishop’s see, 
and the city of Westminster, which at 
present lias no see. In the United States 
the term is applied to any incorporated 
town, which has a mayor and aldermen. 
By geographical writers it is loosely appli¬ 
ed to any large town. 

CIVET CAT. An animal of the weasel 
kind, about two feet in length exclusive ol 
the tail. It is a native of warm climates; 
but many of them are kept in Europe, par¬ 
ticularly in Holland, for the civet This is 
taken from a bag under its tail, and is a 
fat substance, having the smell of musk 
and used as a perfume. 



CIVILIAN A doctor or professor of ths 
civil law. 

CIVIL LAW, otherwise callec t mf»ix i 
Law The law of the Roman empire, 
digested from the laws of the republic and 




















CLE 


CLO 


_ 

those of the emperors, and adopted by most 
of the nations of Europe. This law is used 
under certain restrictions in the ecclesias¬ 
tical courts, England, as also in the univer¬ 
sity courts and court of the admiralty. 

CIVIC CROWN. A garland composed 
of oak leaves, which was given to a Roman 
soldier who had saved the life of a citizen. 



CIVIL YEAR. That form of the year 
which each nation has adopted for com¬ 
puting their time by. The civil year in 
Europe, and America, consists of 365 days 
for the common year, and 366 days for leap 
year, which happens every fourth year. 

CLARIFICATION. The making any 
liquid, by a chymical process, clear from 
impurities. 

CLARINET A wind instrument of 
the reed kind. 

CLARO, or Chiaro Obscuro (in Paint¬ 
ing). The art of distributing to advantage 
the lights and shadows of a piece. 

CLASS. A term applied to the general 
divisions of any subject, as in the Linntean 
system, animals, plants, and minerals are 
divided into classes. 

CLASSICAL. A term applied to authors 
of standard authority, particularly the 
waiters among the Greeks and the Romans, 
whose works are comprehended under the 
name of the Classics. 

CLAVICLES. The two channel bones 
which fasten the shoulder bones and the 
breast bone. 

CLAY. A sort of fat clammy earth, stiff, 
viscid, and ductile to a great degree. The 
clays are opaque and noncrystallized bo¬ 
dies, and of dull fracture. They form with 
water a plastic paste, possessing consider- 
ab etenacity, which may be hardened with 
heat, so as to strike fire with steel. The 
principal clays are porcelain clay, consist¬ 
ing ofsi-icaand alumina; marl clay, con¬ 
taining some carbonate of lime ; pipe clay, 
requiring a high temperature for fusion; 
and potter’s clay, which is used for coarse 
pottery. 

CLEMATIS. A climbing shrub, other¬ 
wise called the Virgin’s Bower, or Wild 


Climbers. The common sort, bearing a 
bluish flower, is a native of the south of 
Europe 

CLERGY. A general name for all pfc.- 
sons in holy orders. 

CLERK (in Law). A clergyman; in 
Commerce, one who keeps a merchant’s 
accounts. 

CLIENT. One who retains a lawyer tc 
manage or plead his cause. 

CLIFF or CLEF (in Music). A mark 
set at the beginning of a song, to show the 
key in which the piece is to be performed. 

CLIMATES. Spaces upon the surface 
of the terrestrial globe, contained between 
two parallels of latitudes, so far distant 
from each other that the longest day on 
one parallel, differs half an hour, from the 
longest day on the other. It is also used 
to denote the general character of the wea¬ 
ther and temperature, in any given place. 

CLOAK. An upper loose garment, worn 
over the clothes in cold or rainy weather. 

CLOCK. A machine for measuring time, 
which tells the hour by a stroke upon a 
bell. In order that the clock may be an 
equable measure of the solar day, which is 
unequal, it is usual forelocks and watches 
to go a few minutes faster or slower than 
the sun. 

CLOISTERS. Covered passages, such 
as were formerly attached to cloisters or 
other religious houses. 

CLOTH. Any kind of stuff that is wo¬ 
ven or manufactured in the loom, whether 
it be made of wool, hemp, or flax. 

CLOTHIER, or CLOTHWORKER 
A manufacturer of cloth. In the Uniteu 
States, it is applied exclusively to those 
w r ho dress and colour cloths. 

CLOVE. An Indian spice, the fruit c 



the clove tree, which grows in she spj« 
islands in the Pacific Ocean. 





t 


COA 


C < > C 91 


CLOUD A mass of vapour, more or 
«•* opaque, drawn or sent out of the earth 
into the atmosphere. When condensed 
intc water, they fall in rain. 

CLOVE GILLIFLOWER, or CLOVE 
PINK. A finer kind of pink cultivated in 
gardens 

CLO V ER. A kind of three leaved grass 
or trefoil j it is much used as a food for cat¬ 
tle. 

CLYSTER. An instrument for the in¬ 


jection of any fluid into the body. 

CO. An abbreviation of company. 

COAL. In mineralogy, an inflammable 
fossil substance, of vegetable origin, 
found embedded in strata of different 
thickness. It appears to have been pro¬ 
duced, in primeval ages, by the long- 
continued decomposition of wood, by 
which 9 atoms of carbonic acid, 3 of 
carburetted hydrogen, and 3 of water 
have been separated. The coal of the 
tertiary strata of the earth'd crust is 
generally lignite-wood or brown coal. 
In geology, the coal formation, coal¬ 
fields, or coal measures are a series of 
deposits consisting of coal, limestone, 
ironstone, sandstone, and shales of va¬ 
rious kinds and thicknesses. 

In America, it was first discovered by 
Father Hennepin, in 1069, on the Illinois 
River where Ottawa now stands. It 
was first used from Virginia, near Rich¬ 
mond, which for many years supplied 
the whole Atlantic market. The first 
Antharcite was sent to Philadelphia, in 
1803, but was considered of so little 
value that it was used for making side¬ 
walks. In 1877, we produced over 
21,000,000, tons of this now esteemed 
coal. In 1820, there was produced in 
the United States, of Bituminous and 
Antharcite about 81,600 tons, but in 1877, 
there was produced 50,000,000 tons. This 
tonnage places our Country as the 
second coal producer in the world. 
Great Britain being first, with an out¬ 
put of 130,000,000 tons in 1877. With 
regard to extent and accessability the 
United States stand foremost among 
nations, and is destined to become at no 
distant day the great fuel producer of 
the world. We give below the area of 
the coal fields in various countries. 

_ AREA OF COAL. FIELDS 

COUNTRIES. ^ sq UARE MILES. 

United States ..192,000 

Nova Scotia.18,000 

Great Britain.11,900 

Spain.3,000 

France.1,800 

Prussia.1,800 

Austria.1,800 

Belgium.900 

Chili, Australia, India, China, &c..28,800 

COASTER. A vessel employed in going 
from one port to another along the coast. 

COAT. A garment worn commonly 
uppermost; a thin covering laid or done 
uver any hing, as a coat cl paint, &c.; in 


Anatomy, the membraneous cover of any 
part of the body, as the coats of the ey®, 
the stomach. &c. 

COAT ARMOUR, or Coats of Arms. 
Armorial ensigns or bearings, which were 
originally painted on the coats of arms. 

COATIMOUDI. An animal shaped 
somewhat like a raccoon with a long snout 
flexible like the trunk of an Elephant 
When asleep it rolls itself into a lump. 

COAT OF MAIL. A piece of armom 
made in the form of a shirt, and wrought 
over with many iron rings. 

COBALT. A mineral of a gray colour, 
consisting of silver and arsenic, which lat¬ 
ter is obtained from it in great quantities. 
It has never been found pure in nature, but 
mostly in the state of an oxide, or alloyed 
with other metals. 

COCAO. See Cocoa. 

COCCULUS INDICUS. An Indian 
tree producing a poisonous berry, which is 
one of the deleterious ingredients unlaw¬ 
fully U3ed in the making of beer 

COCHINEAL. An insect which infests 
different plants, but particularly the opun- 
tia. This insect, when dried, is used in 
dyeing a rich scarlet. There is a red ber¬ 
ry which grows on an American tree, called 
the Coccus American us or Ficus Indianus, 
which also yields a beautiful scarlet dye 

COCHLEA (in Anatomy). The internal 
cavity of the ear, so called from its resem¬ 
blance to the spiral shape of the cochler, 
or snail’s shell. 

COCHLEA (in Mechanics). One of the 
five mechanical powers, otherwise called a 
screw. 

COCK. The male of mostbirds, partic- 
ularly of the well known domestic fowl in 
a farmyard. 

COCK. The name of a part of several 
instruments, as that part of the lock of a 
musket which sustains the jaws, or pieces 
of iron that receive the flint; also the 
wrought piece that covers the balance in 
a clock or watch ; an) the spout which is 
put into beer or water barrels, &c. 

COCKCHAFFER, or Tree Beetle. A 
mischievous insect, which devours the 



leaves of trees, &c. The grub, which is 
soft and gray, with testaceous head and 














98 


coc 


COF 


legs, remains m the earth three or more 
years before it is transformed into the per¬ 
fect insect. 

COCKATOO A species of parrot, hav¬ 
ing a short tail and a tuft of long feathers 
on the head. It is a native of the Moluc¬ 
cas. 

COC KBOAT. A small boat belonging 
ma shi,a, that is used in rivers. 

COCKET (in England). The office at 
the Customhouse where the goods to be 
exported are entered; also the Custom¬ 
house seal, or the parchment sealed and 
delivered by officers of the customs to mer¬ 
chants, as a warrant that their goods are 
customed. 

COCK FIGHTING A cruel sport 
common in England, which consists in 
pitting two cocks against each other, of the 
game breed, and armed with spurs that 
inflict deadly wounds. 

COCKING (in Carpentry) A method 
of securing beams to wallplates 

COCKLE. A sort of shell fish. 

COCKNEY. A nick name given to one 
who is born and bred in the city of London, 
within the sound of Bow bells. 

COCKPIT. A place where cocks fight; 
also an apartment in the treasury in Lon¬ 
don, where the king’s speech is read before 
the meeting of parliament. 

COCKPIT. The place in a ship of war 
where the wounded are dressed by the 
surgeon. 

COCK’S COMB. A fine plant cultivated 
in gardens and hot houses. Some sorts are 
annuals and some perennials. 

COCOA NUT TREE. A tree common 
In Asia and South America, which yields 
the fruit called the cocoa nut. The shell 



of the fruit Is of a bony substance, contain 
big a kernel and a sweet refreshing liquor, 


called by the natives, toddy. The husk af 
the shell is used for making chocolate, ui 
from the kernel is extracted an oil. 

COCKSWAIN, vulgarly called Coca- 
sow. An officer who has charge of the 
cockboat 

COCTION. The reducing the aliments 
to chyle ; in Surgery, the reducing morbific 
matter to a healthy state. 

COD. A large fish which inhabits the 
northern seas, and is much esteemed for 
its flesh. The cod fisheries on the banks 
of Newfoundland employ three hundred 
vessels and several thousand men. 

COD FISHER. A vessel employed 
in the cod fishery; also the person em¬ 
ployed. 

CODEX. A name particularly applied 
to the volume, containing the ancient Ro¬ 
man or Imperial law. 

CODICIL. A supplement to a will. 

CODLIN. An apple, so called, because 
it is fittest to be coddled or boiled in 
milk. 

COFFEE. The fruit of the coffee tree, 
and the drink which is made from it. 

COFFEE ROASTER. An iron utensil, 
in which the coffee is roasted gradually 
over a fire, until it is in a fit state for 
grinding. 

COFFEE TREE. A tree ofthejasamine 
kind, which bears a berry Known by the 
same name. The berries grow in cluster* 
like cherries. The tree wTch is a nativa 
of Arabia bears tne best v,ofl}je, and passer 
under the name of Mecha Coffee *s pro¬ 
duced in the West Indies, South America 
and the Asiatic Islands. 



COFFER. A chest or trunk ; m Miner¬ 
alogy, a trough in which fin ore is ‘•roken 

to pieces - y in Fortification, a trench cut l* 
the bottom of a dry ditch 







COI 


COL 


99 


COFFERDAM. A case of piling fixed 
In the bed of a river, for the purpose of 
building a pier dry. 

COFFIN. A case or box for the recep¬ 
tion of a dead body, that is to be buried ; 
in the veterinary art, the whole hoof of a 
horse’s foot above the coronet. 

COG. The tooth of a wheel. 
COGNIZANCE (in Law). The hearing 
of a thing Judicially; also the tcknow- 
ledgment of a fine. 

COGNIZANCE OF PLEAS. InEngland 
i privilege granted by the king to a city 
»r town to hold pleas of all contracts, &c. 
within the I.berty of the franchise ; in Her¬ 
aldry, the same as the crest. 

COHESION, or Attraction of Cohe¬ 
sion. That power by which the particles 
of bodies are held together: the absolute 
cohesion of bodies, is measured by the force 
necessary to pull them asunder. 

COHORT. A military body among the 
Romans, consisting of the tenth of a legion, 
or about 600 men. 

COIF. A sort of hood or cap for the 
head, formerly worn in England, by Ser¬ 
jeants at law. 

COIL. The ring or circle formed by a 
cable in coiling or winding it. 

COGNOMEN. The last ot the three 
names (the other two being the pras- 
nomen and the nomen) by which it was 
common for the Romans of good family 
to be designated; a surname; the family 
name. 

COGNOVIT. In law, an acknowledg¬ 
ment by a defendant that the plaintiff's 
claim is just, and consent that judgment 
be entered accordingly. 

COIR. A material for cordage, consist¬ 
ing of the fibres of the cocoa-nut; cord¬ 
age made of this material. 

COIX. A genus of tropical East Indian 
grasses, popularly called Job’s tears. 

COIN. A corner or external angle; a 
wedge; a quoin; money stamped; a 
piece of metal converted into money, by 
impressing on it marks, figures, or char¬ 
acters; that which serves for payment. 
In archaeology, a kind of die cut diagon¬ 
ally, after the manner of a flight of a 
staircase. Current coin is money legal¬ 
ly stamped, and circulating in trade. 
Ancient coins are chiefly those of the 
Jews, Greeks, and Romans, which are 
kept in cabinets as curiosities. 

COKE. Fossil coal deprived of its bit¬ 
umen, sulphur, or other extraneous or 
volatile matter, by fire. 

COLCOTHAR. The brown-red oxide of 
iron which remains after the distillation 
of the acid from sulphate of iron; it is 
sometimes called crocus rnartis, and is 
used in polishing. 

COLIN. A bird of the partridge kind, 
found in America, especially in Vir¬ 
ginia. 


COLLIQU AMENTUM. In physi- 
ology, the first rudiments of animal 

eneration; an extremely transparent 

uid in an egg, observable after two or 
three days’ incubation, containing the 
first rudiments of the animal. 

COLLODION. A solution of gun¬ 
cotton in a mixture of alcohol and 
ether, used for taking portraits by the 
photographic process. 

COLLUM. In botany, that part of a 
plant from which the "stem and root 
proceed.—Among jewellers, the hori¬ 
zontal face or plane at the bottom of a 
brilliant. 

COLD. Not only the sensation of cold 
but the state of the body which causes the 
sensation. By some, cold is supposed to be 
a distinct substance, and that when we 
call a body cold, we may be understood to 
signify, that it absorbs caloric or heat from 
other bodies. 

COLEOPTERA. The first order of in¬ 
sects in the Linn^'an system, comprehend 
ing all those with four wings, as the beetle, 
glowworm, ladybird, leather eater, &c. 

COLE WORT, or Kale. A variety of 
the cabbage, which thrives in the winter, 
and improves from the action of the frost 
upon it. 

COLIC. A violent pain in the abdomen, 
h called from the colon, the intestine for¬ 
merly supposed to be affected. 

COLLAR, (in Heraldry). An ornament 
for the neck, worn by knights, such as the 
collar of the order of the Garter in the sub 
joined figur* 



COLLATERAL (in Law). A term foi 
what is sideways, or not direct, as collateral 
kinsmen, those who are not descended from 
one common stock, as the issue of two sons 
who are collateral kinsmen to one another 
COLLATING, (among Book-binders) 
The examining the whole number of sheet# 
belonging to a book, in order to see if they 
are all gathered properly. 

COLLATION OF A BENEFICE. In 
England, the bestowing of a benefice h» 
Die bishop, when he has the right of p»*t 





m 


COL 


COM 


ronage j it differs from institution in this, 
that institution into a benefice is perform¬ 
ed by the bishop at the presentation of 
another who is patron. 

COLLATOR One who compares copies 
or manuscripts. 

COLLEAGUE. An associate in the same 
office or magistracy. 

COLLECT. A short prayer, particularly 
■uch prayers as are appointed with the 
epistles and gospels, in the public service 
of the Episcojial Church. 

COLLECTION. The act of collecting 
or bringing .tings together from different 
quarters, as a collection of money for charit¬ 
able purposes, either at the church door or 
from house to house; also that which is 
collected or brought together into an assem¬ 
blage, as acollection of coins, paintings, &c. 

COLLEGE. A corporation or society of 
persons, having certain privileges, and 
founded in England by the king’s license, 
as the College of Physicians, or the Colleges 
in the Universities. In this country, Col¬ 
leges are incorporated by the legislatures. 
The term is here only applied to literary 
institutions. 

COLLEGIATE. In England, an epithet 
for a church that is endowed, for a soci¬ 
ety, &c. 

COLLIER. A vessel employed in carry¬ 
ing coals from one port to another: also 
one who works in the coal mines. 

COLLUSION (in Law). A compact 
between two persons to bring an action one 
against the other, for some fraudulent or 
unlawful purpose. 

COLOCYNTHIS. See Coloquintida. 

COLOGNE EARTH. A substance used 
by painters, much approaching to amber 
in its structure, and of a deep brown. 

COLON (in Anatomy). The second of 
the three large intestines ; in Grammar, a 
point marked thus (:) to divide a sentence. 

COLONEL. The first in command of a 
regiment. 

COLONNADE. A range of pillars run¬ 
ning quite round a building. 

COLONY. A company of people re¬ 
moved from one country to another, where 
they form a settlement under the sanction 
of the government; also the place where 
such a settlement is formed, as the colonies 
belonging to Great Britain in the East and 
West Indies and in North America, &c. 

COLO&UINTIDA. The fruit of the wild 
gourd, brought from the Levant. The pulp, 
which is light, spongy, and white, is re¬ 
markable for its intense bitterness, whence 
it has the name of the bitter. 

COLOSSUS. A statue of a prodigious 
•ire, such as that of the sun anciently in 


the harbour of the island of Rhode* 1 
was placed at the entrance of the harbour 
with the right foot standing on one sid 
the land, and the left on the other. 

COLOURS. Were anciently supposed 
to be an inherent property of the coloured 
substance, but they are now considered to 
be the property of ight, the elementary 
rays of which, being propagated to the 
sensorium, affect the mind with the differ 
ent sensations of colour, according to theii 
degrees of refrangibility. 

COLOURS (in Painting). The variou* 
tints which are produced by the different 
mixture and application of certain drugs 
COLOURS (in Heraldry). The tinctures 
with which the field or any part of the 
escutcheon is distinguished, namely, or, 
yellow ; argent , white ; gules , red ; azure , 
blue ; sable , black ; and vert, green. 

COLOURS. A military term, for the 
banners,flags,and ensigns used in the army 
COLUMN. A cylindrical pillar, which 
serves either for the support or ornament 
of a building. It consists of a capital, 
which is the top or head; the shaft, which 
is the cylindrical part; and the base, 01 
that on which it rests. Columns are dis¬ 
tinguished as to their form into the Doric, 
Ionic, Corinthian, Composite, and Tuscan 
COLUMN (in the Military Art). A 
long deep file of troops or baggage. 

COLUMNIFERA2 (in Botany). One of 
Linnaeus’s natural orders, including the 
mallow-like plants 

COLURES (in Astronomy). Two great 
imaginary circles, which intersect one ano 
ther at right angles. 

COMB (in Commerce) An instrument 
to clean, untangle, and dress flax, wool, 
hair, also a sea term, for a little piece 
of timber set under the lower part of the 
beakhead. 

COMBINATION (in Chemistry). The 
intimate union of tht particles of different 
substances, so as to form a new compound 
in Mathematics, the alterations or varia¬ 
tions in all possible ways of quantities, 
letters, sounds, and the like thus, two 
square pieces, each divided diagonally into 
two colours, may be arranged and com¬ 
bined sixty-four ways. 

COMBUSTIBLES (in Chemistry) All 
substances which have the property of 
uniting with the supporters of combustion 
such as sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, &c 
COMBUSTIBLES (in the Military Art, 
Combustible materials used in offensive o 
defensive operations. 

COMBUSTION. The decomposition of 
bodies accompanied with light and heat 
COMEDY A dramatic represent&tiai 



COM 


COM 


101 


of the light, humorous, and pleasant kind, 
particularly intended to ridicule the follies 
of men. 

COMET. An opaque, spherical, and solid 
body, like a planet, performing revolutions 
about the sun in elliptical orbits, which 
have the sun in one of the foci. It is 
divided into the nucleus or dense part; the 
head ; the coma, a faint light surrounding 
the head ; and the tail, which is the long 
train of light by which these bodies are 
distinguished. The comet is sometimes 
borne in coats of arms, when it is said to 
be streaming. 

COMMA (in Grammar). A point marked 
thus (,) and put between words and sen¬ 
tences. 

COMA. In astronomy, the hairy ap¬ 
pearance that surrounds a comet when 
the earth is between the comet and the 
sun. Comma Berenices is a constella¬ 
tion of the northern hemisphere, which 
contains forty-three stars. In patholo¬ 
gy, a morbid condition of the brain, at¬ 
tended with the loss of sensation and 
voluntary action. 

COMBitETACEiE. In botany, a natural 
order of exogenous plants, chiefly tropi¬ 
cal, consisting of trees and shrubs, of 
which Combretum is the type. 

COMMENTARY. An explanation of 
the obscure passages in an author. 

COMMERCE. A trafficking or dealing 
with foreign countries, by means of export¬ 
ing and importing different commoditiec 

COMMERCE, History of. The inter 
course between different nations for pur¬ 
poses of commerce, doubtless took place 
soon after the dispersion of mankind, for 
we find it recorded in holy writ that the 
Lshmaelites, who were settled in higher 
parts of Arabia, carried on a trade with 
Egypt in spices, balm, and myrrh, and 
that in one of their journeys Joseph was 
sold to them by his brethren. As the 
commodities in which they dealt, as gums 
and sweet scented woods, which were to 
be procured only from the East Indies, 
there is no doubt that these people and the 
Egyptians were among the first who made 
distant voyages and travels in the way of 
trade. They were succeeded by the Phoe¬ 
nicians, an adventurous people who were 
the first that raised any naval power that 
makes any figure in history. By their 
enterprise and industry they became a 
wealthy and luxurious people, and their 
two cities, Tyre and Sidon, became the 
emporiums of the un: versa In the time 
of I)avid and Solomon we find the Jewish 
nation a vaned themselves of the assistance 
of this people in equipping their fleets. 
After the destruction of old J vre, a new 
9 * 


city arose out of the ruins, which rivalled 
the other in wealth, industry, and com¬ 
merce ; and while in her glory she planted 
the colony of Carthage, on the coast of 
Africa, which from the convenience ofher 
situation and the industry of her inhabit¬ 
ants, rose to an extraordinary pitch of 
prosperity. The Carthaginians made them¬ 
selves masters of Spain, and of the islands 
of Sicily and Sardinia, discovered the 
greatest part of the coast of Africa and the 
Canary Islands, traded with Britain by 
the route of the Scilly Islands, and are 
s apposed to have made their way even to 
America. In the mean time Egypt, under 
the Ptoiemies, also attained a high degree 
of grandeur and affluence. Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus in particular, by encouraging trade, 
made his people rich and himself power¬ 
ful. Such was the greatness of Alexandria 
alone, that the produce of the customs fell 
little short of two millions annually. Under 
the Romans commerce was encouraged in 
every part of the world where they had 
any influence, as may be learned not only 
from historians but also from various medals 
and inscriptions, showing that every con¬ 
siderable city had several colleges or trading 
companies. 

On the decline of the empire, commerce 
was, owing to the unsettled state of all 
Europe, and the constant irruption of the 
barbarous tribes, almost at a stand. About 
this period it happened that some straggling 
people, either forced ty necessity or led 
by inclination, took their abode in a few 
scattered islands that lay near the coast of 
Italy, and as these islands were separated 
from each other by narrow channels, full 
of shallows, that prevented strangers from 
navigating, the inhabitants found them¬ 
selves protected from all hostile inroads, 
and in the midst of this security they fol¬ 
lowed their pursuits with so much industry 
and success, that these once insignificant 
islands rose in the space of two centuries, 
that is from the sixth to the eighth century, 
into a great city and a powerful republic 
Such was the humble origin of the once 
potent state of Venice, which by degrees 
acquired an extent of commerce ami a naval 
power that had not for a lengt h of time any 
rival. She drew to herself the profits of 
the Indian trade, and by availing herself of 
every favourable conjuncture, she not only 
monopolized tire trade of all Italy, but of 
all the countri s in subjection to the Maho¬ 
metans ; but as other countries in Eurooe 
began to enlarge their commerce, Venice 
lost the monopoly, and this combining with 
her own immoderate ambition, caused the 
decay of her trade and the decline of her 





102 


COMMERCE. 


power. From the league of Cambray, which 
was formed against her by the powers of 
Europe, Venice may be said to have ceased 
to hold the first rank as a commercial state. 

The origin of the proud city of Genoa, 
as it was called, was very similar to that 
of Venice Like Venice, she rose front an 
assemblage of fugitives and adventurers on 
the rocky, barren, and inhospitable shores 
of Liguria; and like her she gained, by the 
industry and perseverance of her inhabit¬ 
ants, a prodigious extent of commerce. 
Her merchants traded with all countries, 
and throve by becoming the carriers from 
one country to another. Her fleets were 
formidable and her conquests numerous, 
but after perpetual wars with her rival, 
Venice, she was at length compelled to 
yield the dominion of the sea, and finally 
lo3t all her consequence. 

In the meantime, the trade of Germany 
was rising in consequence. Some commer¬ 
cial cities, confederating together, formed 
a commercial league, known by the name 
of the Hanseatic League, the object of 
which was, by combining their resources, 
to form a fleet for the protection of their 
trade with other countries. These cities 
not only associated among themselves, but 
also formed alliances with other states, as 
England and France, and had a code of 
laws which were respected and observed, 
under the name of the Lex Mercatoria, 
for a long time thoughout all Europe. In 
this manner the Hanse Towns acquired a 
considerable share of influence, and were 
respected by all the sovereigns >n Europe. 
The kings of France and England granted 
them considerable privileges, exempting 
their vessels in case of shipwreck from all 
demands whatsoever, either on the part of 
the admiralty or of private persons, and 
respecting their flag in times of war. This 
good understanding between them and 
the states of Europe was considerably in¬ 
creased by the freedom with which they 
lent their money to different princes in 
time of need, particularly during the cru¬ 
sades, when they gave powerful succours 
both in ships as well as in money. This 
confederacy did not, however, always re¬ 
tain its moderation ; for, as they increased 
in wealth and power, so they grew ambi¬ 
tious and domineering, and more than once 
they ventured to set themselves up against 
the states of Germany ; in consequence of 
this, the German princes gradually with¬ 
drew the cities that were subject to them¬ 
selves from the confederacy, and thus 
effected its dissolution. Tae only cities 
which now retain the name of Hanse 
Towns, and some other vestiges of the 


Hanseatic league, are Hamburg. Bremen 
and Lubeck. 

The next important change in the stats 
of European commerce was brought about 
in Portugal and Spain, by means of the 
discoveries which took place in the fifteenth 
and subsequent centuries. To the spirit 
and enterprise of Emanuel, King of Por¬ 
tugal, we are indebted for the discovery ef 
the Cape of Good Hope, which was effected 
by Vasco de Gama, in 1498, and by open 
ing a new way to the Indies atForded te 
the Portuguese an opportunity of making 
conquests and settlements which secured 
to them the commerce of India, which the 
Venetians had hitherto enjoyed through the 
medium of the Arabians. The discovery 
of America by Columbus, which followed 
quickly after, paved the way for a still 
greater extension of mercantile enterprise, 
which, though at first enjoyed only by the 
Portuguese and Spaniards, was at length 
shared by other states. The Dutch, an 
enterprisir.g people, were the first who 
wrested from the Spaniards a portion of 
their conquered possessions, ®nd made so 
good a use of the advantages they gained 
as to become one of the greatest trading 
people in Europe. By the help of increas 
ing wealth, they converted their little 
fishing villages into large and populous 
cities and towns. Although their country 
was far from being fertile, and their native 
commodities few or none, yet by commerce 
they succeeded in filling their storehouses 
with all the productions and manufactures 
of the world. 

Having given this general sketch of com¬ 
merce from its earliest beginnings, we must 
not close this account without making men¬ 
tion of the commerce of England, which, 
though among the last to avail itself of this 
source of wealth and aggrandizement, has 
by slow and gradual steps raised its com¬ 
merce to a pitch which has never been 
surpassed by any nation. It appears that 
a commercial intercourse with Britain was 
begun at a very early period, and that tire 
Phoenicians and Carthaginians traded with 
this island for the tin of Cornwall, but it is 
probable that the native Britons did not for 
many ages take any active part in this 
traffic, or make any attempt to share in the 
advantages of commerce beyond the giving 
theircommodities to such as wished to trade 
with them. They had nothing better than 
leather or wicker boats, which were too 
slight to enable them to leave their shores, 
even so as to cross the Channel. 

The Saxons made considerable endea¬ 
vours to extend their intercourse with 
foreign nations, particularly in the time of 



COM 


COM 


Alfred the Great, who sent people as far 
as the East for commercial purposes, as 
also for the sake of procuring information. 
After the Conquest, the English princes 
were for a long time too much engaged in 
political and military concerns to turn their 
attention to this subject, and little was done 
beyond that of giving encouragement to 
foreigners to settle in England, or to have 
dealings with the people. One provision 
of Magna Charta held forth indemnity and 
protection to foreign merchants in the pas¬ 
sage to and fro, as also during their stay 
in the country. 

Safe conducts were afterwards given to 
the English going abroad, which afforded 
them the opportunity of carrying on a traf¬ 
fic for their commodities with foreign na¬ 
tions. In consequence we find that staples 
or markets were established both in Eng¬ 
land and on the continent, where English 
wool, lead, and other productions were 
bought and sold; and as encouragement 
was given to the Hanseatic League, a tra¬ 
ding company was in consequence formed 
in the reign of Edward I. first called the 
Company of Merchants trading to Calais, 
Sec., afterwards the Merchant Adventurers 
of England, or the Company of Merchant 
Adventurers trading to Hamburg. This 
company, whicli is the first of the kind in 
England, was incorporated by Edward I. 
in 1296. In the reign of Edward III. com¬ 
merce and manufactures both met with 
considerable encouragement, but the inter¬ 
course of foreigners with England was now 
more encouraged than that of Englishmen 
with foreign nations. In consequence the 
staple or mart was confined to certain 
towns, where, by the statute of the staple 
as it was called, it was ordained that for¬ 
eigners might resort for the purchase of 
English commodities, but Englishmen were 
prohibited under great penalties from ex¬ 
porting any themselves. A number of 
other laws were made for the establishment 
and government of the staple, which form¬ 
ed that branch of the English law since 
known by the name of the Law-Merchant. 
For the encouragement of manufactures, 
protection was given to clothmakers to 
come from foreign parts and reside here. 
In the reign of Edward VI. the principle 
of confining commerce within the limit of 
the country was, in consequence of the 
recent discoveries, somewhat altered. A n 
intercourse with Russia was commenced 
by means of some English adventurers, 
who, going on a voyage of discovery in or¬ 
der to rind out a north east passage to Chi¬ 
na, came to the port of Archangel, where 
hay were well received by the Muscovites, 


10 * 

whence they afterwards formed a company 
and received a charter to secure to them¬ 
selves the trade to Russia. This company 
was incorporated in the reign of Philip and 
Mary, under the name of the Russia Com 
pany The reign of Elizabeth was stiP 
more favourable to commercial adventures 
of every kind. Drake, Sir Walter Raleigh 
and Henry de Clifford, Earl ofCumberland, 
distinguished themselves by their voyages 
and discoveries; besides which several 
fresh companies were formed under the 
auspices of this queen. The Eastland 
Company was incorporated under the title 
of the Company of Merchants to the East 
the Turkey or Levant Company was alsc 
incorporated in 1581; but the most impor 
tant of all the companies which had hith 
erto been formed was the East India Com¬ 
pany, which was first established by char¬ 
ter in 1600. In the reign of William III 
a new East India Company was formed, 
which was for a time a rival to the old one, 
but in 1708 the two companies were con¬ 
solidated into one ; since which they have 
experienced considerable vicissitudes, and 
in consequence of the numerous wars in 
which they have been engaged their affairs 
were at one time so reduced that they were 
obliged to apply to the government for as¬ 
sistance, in consequence of which they 
have lost much of their independence, and 
are necessarily subject to more control 
than they were formerly. English com¬ 
merce continued to increase from the reign 
of Elizabeth till the present, absorbing 
nearly the whole of the carrying trade 
of the world. The United States, com¬ 
peted successfully with them for a con¬ 
siderable period, but the close of the 
war in 1864, found nearly the whole 
transatlantic trade in the hands of 
British shipowners. But the immense 
resources of the country and its ready 
recuperative power must ultimately 
assert itself, and eventually command 
the markets of the world. 

COMMISSION (in Law). The warram, 
or letters patent by which one is authorized 
to exercise jurisdiction ; in Military Affairs, 
the warrant or authority by which one 
holds any post in the army ; in Commerce, 
the order by which any one trafficks or ne¬ 
gotiates for another ; also the per centage 
given to factors and agents for transacting 
the business of others 

COMMITTEE (in a Legislature). A 
certain number of members appointed by 
the house, for tl e examination of any mat¬ 
ter ; in general, he or they to whf m any 
matter is referred by some body for hrtbet 
examination. 



COM 


COM 


m 

COMMODITY. Any merchandise or 
ware which a person deals or trades in. 

COMMODORE. An officer in the 
British or American navy, invested with 
the command of a detachment of ships of 
war destined for a particular purpose. 
The Commodore of a convoy is the lead¬ 
ing ship in a fleet of merchantmen. 

COMMON (in Law). A right or privi¬ 
lege claimed by more persons in another 
man’s lands, waters, woods, &c 

COMMONALTY. The common people, 
all classes and'conditions of people who 
are below the rank of nobility; tbe bulk 
of mankind. 

COMMON-CARRIER. One who un¬ 
dertakes for hire to transport goods 
from place to place. 

COMMON-COUNCIL. The council of a 
city or corporate town, empowered to 
make by-laws for’ the government of the 
citizens. 

COMMON LAW. The law of the realm 
grounded on general customs or immemo¬ 
rial usage. In general the common law 
of England is common in this country. 

COMMON PLACE BOOK. A sort of 
register, or orderly collection of things 
worthy to be noted in a book 

COMMON PLEAS. One of the king’s 
courts at Westminster Hall, where pleas 
or causes are heard between subject and 
subject Similar courts exist in most of 
the United States 

COMMON PRAYER. The liturgy, or 
public form of prayer prescribed by the 
church of England to be used in all church¬ 
es and chapels at slated periods. The 
book of common prayer used by episcopa¬ 
lians in the United States is so altered 
from the English copy as to adapt it to the 
local circumstances of the church. 

COMMONS (in England) In a gene¬ 
ral sense, the whole peop'e, as distinguish¬ 
ed from the nobility ; in a particular sense, 
the knights and burgesses who represent 
the Commons in parliament, whence the 
house in which they sit is called the House 
of Commons 

COMMONS 'in Law). See Doctors 
Commons. 

COMMONWEALTH That form of 
government in which the administration 
of public affairs is common or open to all 
with few or no exceptions. It is distin¬ 
guished from monarchy or aristocracy 

COMMUNION. A name given to the 
sacrament of the Lord’s supper 

COMMUNION SERVICE. The office 
for the administration of the holy sacra- 
tient in the church of England 

COMMUNION TABLE The table 


erected at the east end of the church, round 
which the communicants kneel to partake 
of the Lord’s supper. 

COMMUTATION (in Law). The sub 
stitution of one punishment for another. 

COMPANY (in Law). A society of 
persons forming a corporate body; in Com¬ 
merce, a trading association, in which 
several merchants form a joint stock, with 
which they trade for the common interest 
of the stockholders, such as the East India 
and other companies. fSee Commerce.) 

COMPANY (in Sea Affairs). The whole 
crew of a ship, including the officers. 

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. The 
science which teaches the structure of the 
body in animals. 

COMPARATIVE DEGREE (in Gram¬ 
mar). The second degree, as, better 

COMPASS, or the Mariner’s Compass 
An instrument used by mariners to point 
out the course at sea. It consists of a card 
or fly, on which are drawn the several 
points of the compass ; the needle, or mag¬ 
netic needle, a small bar of steel, which 
has the property of turning one of its ends 
to the north pole; and the box, which con¬ 
tains the card and needle. 



COMPASSES, or Pair of Compasses 
A mathematical instrument, consisting of 
two sharp pointed branches or legs of iron, 
brass, or steel. 


COMPLEMENT (in Astronomy) The 
distance of a star from the zenith. 

COMPLEMENT (in Military AJSkirs) 
The full establishment of a regiment. 










































COMPLEMENT OF AN ARC (in Ge¬ 
ometry). What an arc wants of 90° or 
the quadrant of a circle ; thus the comple¬ 
ment of 50° s 40°, and the complement of 
40° is 50°. 

COMPOSING. That branch of the art 
of printing which consists in arranging the 
types or letters in such an order, as to lit 
them for the press. This the compositor 
performs, by gathering a letter at a time 
into his composing stick, which when full 
he empties into a frame called a galley. 
Of the several lines arranged in order in 
the galley he makes a page, and of several 
pages he makes a form 



COMPOSING-STICK. A compositor’s 
tool made of iron plate, and consisting of 
the head, the bottom, the back, the two 
slides, and the two screws. While the 
compositor is in the act of composing he 
holds the composing-stick in his left hand, 
placing the second joint of his thumb over 
the slides of the stick, so as to keep the 
letter tight and square together, as he pla¬ 
ces them in the stick. When the compo¬ 
sing stick is full, he proceeds to empty it 
into the galley. 



COMPOSITE. One of Linnasus’ natu- 
lal orders, comprehending the plants with 
compound flowers, as the dandelion, sun¬ 
flower, &c. 

COMPOSITION (in Music). A piece 
of music composed according to the rules 
of art. 

COMPOSITION (in Painting). The 
putting together the several parts of a 
picture, so as to set off the whole to the 
best advantage. 

COMPOSITION (in Commerce). An 
agreement entered into between an insol¬ 


vent debtor and his creditQ-, by which the 
latter accepts a part of the debt, in com¬ 
pensation for the whole. 

COMPOSITE NUMBERS. Such num¬ 
bers as some other numbers besides units 
will measure, as 12, which is measured by 
2, 3, 4, and G. 

COMPOSITE ORDER (in Architec¬ 
ture) One of the five orders of arcliitec 
ture, so called because it is composed of 
the ionic and Corinthian orders. 




COMPOSITOR (among Printers). He 
who composes the matter for the press. 

COMPOST, pronounced COMPO (in 
Husbandry). Several sorts of soils or 
earths and other matters mixed together, 
in order to make a particularly fine kind 
of mould. 

COMPOUND. A term in botany appli¬ 
ed to a flower consisting of several distinct 
lesser flowers. 

COMPOUND INTEREST. Is that in¬ 
terest which arises from principal and in¬ 
terest put together 

COMPOUNDING FELONY, or Theft 
Bote (in Law). Where the party robbed 
takes his goods again of the thief, upon an 
agreement not to prosecute. 

COMPOUNDING WITH ONE’S 
CREDITORS. Where the debtor, not be¬ 
ing able to pay all his debts, agrees with 
his creditors to pay a part. 

CONCAVE LENS. An epithet for 
glasses ground hollow or. the inside, so m 
to reflect on the he Tow side 





































































































































106 


CON 


CON 


CONCENTRATION (in Chemistry). 
The act of increasing the strength of fluids 
bj volatilizing part of their water. 

CONCENTRIC. An epithet for figures 
having one common centre 

CONCERT. A musical performance in 
which any number of practical musicians 
unite in the exercise of their talent. 

CONCERTO. A piece of music consist¬ 
ing of several parts that are all to be per¬ 
formed together. 

CONCHOLOGY. That branch of natu¬ 
ral history which treats of testaceous ani¬ 
mals, or such animals as have a perma¬ 
nently testaceous covering, which are com¬ 
prehended under the testacea in the Lin- 
naean system. 

CONCLAVE. The room in the Vatican 
at Rome where the cardinals assemble to 
choose a pope; also the assembly itself. 

CONCORD (in Grammar). That part 
of syntax which treats of the agreement of 
words according to their several inflec¬ 
tions. 

CONCORD (in Law). An agreement 
between parties who intend to levy a fine. 

CONCORD (in Music). The union of 
wo or more sounds in such manner as to 
render them agreeable. 

CONCORDANCE. A sort of dictionary 
of the Bible, in which every word is given 
with references to the book, chapter, and 
verse in which it is to be found. 

CONCORDAT. A treaty or public act 
of agreement, between the pope and any 
prince. 

CONCRETION. The growing together 
of several substances or parts of substances 
into one body. 

CONCRETION (in Surgery). Morbid 
concretions are substances formed in the 
animal body, as the calculus or stone, &c. 

CONDENSER. A pneumatic engine or 
syringe, whereby an uncommon quantity 
of air may be crowded into a given space. 

CONDITION (in Common Law). A 
restraint annexed to a thing, so that by the 
nonperformance, the party to it shall sus¬ 
tain loss, and by the performance receive 
advantage. 

CONDITION (in Civil Law). A clause 
of obligation stipulated, as an article of a 
treaty or contract. 

CONDUCTOR. A name given to those 
substances which are capable of receiving 
and transmitting electricity. 

CONDUCTOR OF LIGHTNING. A 
pointed metallic rod, contrived by Dr. 
Franklin, to be filed to buildings, to secure 
them from the effects of lightning. 

CONDUIT. A pipe for the conveyance 
ft water to any particular part. 


CONDOR. A large kind of South Amer 
ican vulture, measuring with the wings ex¬ 
tended, from tip to tip, twelve or sixteea 
feet. It preys on birds, lambs, and kids, 
it is the largest bird of flight. 



CONE (in Geometry). A solid figure, 
having a circle for its base, and its top 
terminating in a point or vertex. It is 
produced by the revolution of a right 
angled triangle about its perpendicular leg, 
called the axis of the cone. 



CONE (in Botany). The fruit of several 
evergreen trees, as of the fir, cedar, cypress, 
so called from its conical shape. It is com¬ 
posed of woody scales, that are usually 
open, each of which has a seed at the end 



CONE (in Conchology). A beautiful 
sort of shell, inhabited by the limax. Sheila 
of this sort mostly bear'he highest price of 












CON 


CON 


1*7 


My, ® n « «pecie« being valued as high as 
five hundred dollars. 



CONFESSION (in Theology). A public 
declaration of one’s faith, or the faith of a 
public body; also a part of the Liturgy, in 
which an acknowledgment of guilt is made 
by the whole congregation. Auricular 
confession, a private confession or acknow¬ 
ledgment of one’s sins, made by each 
individual in the Romish church to his 
priest or father confessor. It is so called 
because it is made by whispering in his 
ear 

CONFER VACEJE. A natural order of 
Algae, or water plants, of which the con¬ 
ferva is the genus. Confervites are 
fossil algae, belonging to the order. 
Confervoid is a botanical term applied 
to those plants which have the appear- 
ance cfConfervae. 

CONFLUENT. In pathology, a term 
applied to those pustules on the skin 
which are so numerous as to form 
patches, the matter of which runs to¬ 
gether. 

CONFLUENCE. The meeting of two 
rivers, or the place where they meet. 

CONGELATION. A condensation of 
any fluid by means of cold. 

CONGER, or CONGER EEL. An eel 
of an extraordinary size, and extremely 
voracious, which preys on carcasses, and 
other fish. 

CONGREGATION (in Ecclesiastical 
Affairs). An assembly of persons who meet 
together for purposes of divine worship; 
(in Physics) a term for the least degree of 
mixture, in which the parts of the mixed 
body do not touch each other in more 
than one point. 

CONGRESS. An assembly of envoys, 
commissioners,deputies, &c. fropi different 
courts, who meet to agree on matters of 
general interest; also an assembly of the 
deputies from the different states in the 
republics of America. The Congress of 
the United States consists of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. Each state 
sends two senators, and one representative 
for every 40,008 inhabitants In the slave 


states five slaves are reckoned as three 
freemen. Senator? are chosen for six 
years, representatives for two. 

CONGREVE ROCKET. An inventloa 
so called from the inventor, Sir William 
Congreve, by which balls and other com¬ 
bustibles are discharged to an immense 
distance. 



CONIC SECTIONS. Curve lines and 
plane figures produced by the intersection 
of a plane with a cone. These sections 
are derived from the different directions 
in which the solid cone is cut by a plane 
passing through it; they are the triangle 
circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola 
The doctrine of Conic Sections, which 
is one of the abstrusest branches of geome¬ 
try, was particularly cultivated by the an¬ 
cients. Aristeus is said to have composed 
five books relating to this subject, but they 
have not been handed down to us. The 
most ancient treatise extant is that of 
Apollonius, in eight books, the first four of 
which is said to have been written by 
Euclid, and afterwards perfected by Apol¬ 
lonius, with the addition of four other 
books. 

CONIFERzE, or CONIFERS. An order 
of plants, which, like the fir, pine, and 
cedar, bear cones or tops in which the 
seeds are contained. 

CONIMA. A very fragrant gum-resin, 
obtained in British Guiana. 

CONSENSUAL. In physiology, a term 
applied to movements, contrary to, or 
independent of, the will, which arise 
from previous contrary movements, as 
in the contraction of the iris when the 
eye is voluntarily directed upwards; 
excited or caused by sensation. 

CONJUGATE. An epithet to denote the 
junction of two lines, as a conjugate axis 
that which crosses another axis 

CONJUGATING (in Grammar). The 
act of going through the inflections of a 



















CON 


108 CON 

verb according to ita several moods, lenses, 
and persons. 

CONJUGATION (in Grammar). The 
moods, tenses, and persons of a verb 
coupled together in regular order. 

CONJUNCTION. A term in Astronomy 
for the meeting of two planets in the same 
degree of the zodiac, which is marked 
thus (£). 

CONJUNCTION (in Grammar). A 
part of speech which joins words and sen¬ 
tences. 

CONNOISSEUR. A person well versed 
in any art or science. 

CONOID (in Geometry). A figure re¬ 
sembling a cone. 

CONQUEROR. In a general sense, one 
who has gained a battle or any thing by 
means of fighting; particularly applied to 
William 1. who succeeded to the throne of 
England after having gained the battle of 
Hastings. 

CONSANGUINITY. Kindred by blood 
and birth between persons descended from 
the same common stock. 

CONSCRIPT FATHERS. An appel¬ 
lation for the Roman senators, so called 
because they were enrolled from the eques¬ 
trian order into the list of senators. 

CONSCRIPTS. Recruits in the French 
trmy. 

CONSEQUENCE. That which follows 
from any principle by way of inference; 
among logicians, the last part or propo¬ 
sition of an argument, in distinction from 
the antecedents, being something gathered 
from a preceding argument. 

CONSEQUENT (in Geometry). The 
tatter of two terms of proportion, in dis¬ 
tinction from the former, or antecedent. 

CONSIGNMENT. The sending or de¬ 
livering over of goods to another person. 

CONSISTORY, or CONSISTORY 
COURT. In England, the session or as¬ 
sembly of ecclesiastical persons held by the 
bishop or his chancellor. 

CONSONANCE (in Music). An agree¬ 
ment of two sounds. 

CONSONANT (in Grammar). A letter 
which cannot be sounded by itself without 
the help of a vowel; in Music, an epithet 
for that interval which produces consonant 
concords. 

CONSTABLE. A civil officer, anciently 
of great dignity, as the lord high constable 
of England, and also the constables or keep¬ 
ers of castles, «fcc.; now an inferior officer 
of justice. 

CONSTELLATION. An assemblage of 
hxed stars, imagined to represent the form 
af lome creature or other object, as a bear, 


a ship, and the like , whence tin \ have 
derived those appellations which are con 
venient in describing the stars. The divi 
sion of the heavens into constellations is 
very ancient, probably coeval with astro¬ 
nomy itself. Frequent mention is made 
of them by name in the sacred writings 
as in the book of Job, and in the prophecy 
of Amos. Some of the constell itions are 
also mentioned by Homer and Hesiod, 
who flourished above 900 years before 
Christ; and Aratus, who lived about 277 
years before Christ, professedly treats of 
all such as were marked out by the ancients, 
and were afterwards admitted into the 
Almagest of Ptolemy. These were forty 
eight in number, called the Old Constella 
tions, to which have since been added 
others, called New Constellations. 

CONSTITUENT (in Law). In England, 
one who by his vote, constitutes or elects 
a member of parliament. The term is also 
applied to voters in the United States. 

CONSTITUENTS (in Physics). The 
elementary parts of any substance. 

CONSTITUTION (in Law). Properly, 
any form of government regularly consti¬ 
tuted; in a particular sense, the mixed ana 
popular form of government in England, 
consisting of king, lords, and commons, a* 
the free constitution of the United States. 

CONSTITUTION (in Civil Law). A 
law made by some king or emperor; and 
in the canon law, the same as an ecclesi 
astical law or canon. 

CONSTITUTION (in Medicine). The 
temperament of the whole body, arising 
from the quality and proportion of the parts 

CONSUL. A chief magistrate among 
the Romans, of which there were two that 
were elected every year. 

CONSUL An officer commissioned by 
government, to reside in foreign coun¬ 
tries of any considerable trade, to facilitate 
and despatch business and protect the 
merchants of the nation. 

CONSUMPTION. The r ssting and de¬ 
cay of the body by disear a 

CONTEMPT (in Lav/). A disobedience 
to the rules, orders, or p-oiess of a court. 

CONTINENT. The main land, as dis¬ 
tinguished from the tea. 

CONTORTA3. One of Linnaeus’ natural 
orders, including plants with a single 
twisted petal. 

CONTOUR. The outline of a figure. 

CONTRABAND GOODS. Goods pro¬ 
hibited by law to be exported or imported 

CONTRACT A covenant or agreemen* 
between two or more persons, with a law 
ful consideration or cause 




CON 


COP 


109 


CONTRACTION. In general, the di¬ 
minishing the exten. or dimensions of a 
body. 

CONTRACTION (in Surgery). The 
shrinking up of the muscles or arteries. 

CONTRACTION (in Grammar) The 
reducing two syllables into one. 

CONTRACTION (in Arithmetic). The 
shortening of operations. 

CONTRAST (in Painting). The due 
placing the different parts and objects of a 
tigure, that they may be suitably opposed 
to each other. 

CONTRA VALIDATION, Line of. A 
lure or trench, cut round a place by the be¬ 
siegers, to defend themselves against the 
sallies of the garrison. 

CONTRAVENTION (in Law). The in¬ 
fringement of a contract. 

CONTROLLER (in Law). An overseer 
or officer appointed to control or oversee 
the accounts of other officers. 

CONTUMACY (in Law). A refusal to 
appear in court when legally summoned. 

CONVALESCENCE. That period be¬ 
twixt the departure of a disease, and the 
recovery of one’s health. 

CONVENTICLE. A term applied first 
to the little private meetings of the follow¬ 
ers of John Wickliffe, and afterwards to 
the religious meetings of the Nonconform¬ 
ists. 

CONVENTION (in Law). Any assem¬ 
bly of the states of the realm or their depu¬ 
ties ; in military affairs, an agreement 
entered into between two bodies of troops, 
opposed to each other. 

CONVERGING LINES. Lines which 
continually approximate. 

CONVERGING RAYS (in Optics). 
Those rays that issue from divers points of 
an object, and incline towards one another 
until they meet. 

CONVEX. Curved, or protuberant out¬ 
wards ; as a convex lens, mirror, &c. 

CONVEYANCE (in Law) A deed or 
instrument by which lands, &c. are con¬ 
veyed or made over to another. 

CONVEYANCER. One who follows 
the business of conveyancing, or drawing 
up conveyances. 

CONVOCATION. In England, an as¬ 
sembly of the clergy, consisting of an up¬ 
per and lower house, which meet when the 
parliament meets, to consult on the affairs 
of the church. 

CONVOLVULUS or Bindweed. A 
plant so called, because it creeps up and 
twists itself round whatever is near it. 
Some few sorts are cultivated in gardens, 
fcna bear a beautiful blue flower. 

CONVOY. A sea term, for ships of war 
10 


which accompany merchantmen in time 
of war, to protect them from the attacks 
of the enemy ; in military affairs, a detach¬ 
ment of troops employed to guard any sup¬ 
ply of money, ammunition, &c. 

COOK. One who practises the art of 
cookery. The company of cooks in Eng¬ 
land was incorporated in the fifteenth cen¬ 
tury. 

COOLER. A vessel used by brewers, 
for cooling the beer after it is drawn off. 

COOMB. A measure of corn, containing 

four bushels. 

COOP. A place where fowls are kept 
confined ; also a vessel made of twigs, in 
which fish are caught, and a barrel or ves¬ 
sel for keeping liquids. 

COOPER. A maker of tubs, coops, or 
barrels. The company of coopers in Eng¬ 
land was incorporated in the reign of Hen¬ 
ry VII. 

COOPERY. The art of making tubs or 
barrels with boards bound by hoops. 

COOT. A water fowl, mostly of a black 
colour,called also a Moor Hen. These birds 
frequent lakes and still rivers, where they 
make their nests among the rushes, &.C. 
floating on the water, so as to rise and fall 
with it. 



COPAL. An American name for all 
odoriferous gums, but particularly applied 
to a resinous substance imported from 
Guinea. It is hard, shining, transparent, 
and citron coloured. 

COPERNICAN SYSTEM. A particu¬ 
lar system of the sphere first proposed by 
Pythagoras, and after* /ards revived by 
Copernicus, a Polish a? /onomer. Accord¬ 
ing to this system the sun is supposed to 
he placed in the cent e, and all the other 
bodies to revolve re and it in a particular 
order; which not* n is now universa..y 
adopted, under tb name of the Solar Sya 
tern 

COPING. T' e stone /eowiring oh the 
top of n wall. 

COPPER. A metai next to iron i* 

















110 


COP 


COR 


specific gravity but lighter than gold, 
silver, or lead. It is one of the six primi¬ 
tive metals. 

COPPERAS. A name given to bine, 
green, and white vitriol: it is a factitious 
sulphate of iron. 

COPPERPLATE. A plate on which 
figures are engraven ; also the impression 
which is taken off the f late on paper, by 
means of printing. 

COPPERPLATE PRINTING. The 
process of taking engravings from copper¬ 
plates, by means of a rolling press, as in 
sh* ‘•ubjoined cut. 



COPPERSMITH. An artisan who 
works copper into different utensils. 

COPPICE, or Copse. A small wood, 
consisting of underwood. 

COPULA (among Logicians). The 
wrb that connects any two terms in an 
normative or negative proposition, as, God 
made the world ; made is the copula. 

COPULATIVE (in Grammar). An 
' pithet for such conjunctions as join the 
»ense as well as the words; as and, or, 
tc 

COPY (m Law). The transcript ot an 
.riginal writing. 

COPY (among Printers). The original 
US. or the book from which the composi- 
,or sets his page. 

COPYHOLD (in Law). In England, a 
tort of tenure by which the tenant holds 
bis land by copy of court roll of the manor 
at the will of the lord. 

COPYRIGHT (m Law). The exclusive 
right of printing and publishing copies of 
any literary performance, which is now 
confirmed by statute, to authors or their 
publishers, for a certain number of years, 
that is to say, in England for twenty eight 
years in all cases, whether the author sur¬ 
vive that period or not; and to the end of 
the author’s life if he live beyond that pe¬ 
riod ; besides, as an action lies to recover 
^amajes for pirating the new corrections 
md aiditions to an el* work.; publishers 


may acquire almost a perpetual interest in 
a work by republishing it with additions 
and annotations. In the United States, 
the copyright law gives to the author, the 
exclusive right to his productions for four 
years, with the privilege of renewing it for 
the same period, if he is living within the 
last six months of the term. 

CORAL. A hard, brittle, calcareous 
substance, which was formerly supposed 
to be of a vegetable nature, but is now 
found to be composed of a congeries of 
animals, endued with the faculty of 
moving spontaneously. They are distin¬ 
guished by the form of their branches, 
and are found in the ocean, adhering to 
stones, bones, shells, &c. The islands in 
the South Sea are mostly coral rocks 
covered with earth. The coral fishery is 
particularly followed in the Mediterranean, 
on the coast of France and Algiers, where 
the red coral most abounds. 

CORBEL. A shoulder piece jutting out 
in walls to bear up a post. 

CORCLE, or CORCULUM (In Botany). 
The essence of the seed, or the rudiment 
of the future plant. 

CORD OF WOOD. A parcel of fire¬ 
wood, four feet broad, four feet high, and 
eight feet long. 

CORINTHIAN ORDER (in Architec- 
ture). The noblest and richest of the fiv« 



orders, so called because columns wsrt 
first made of that proportion at Corinth. 
Its capital is adorned with twe rews of 























































COR 


•aves, between which arise little stalks or 
taulicoles, forming sixteen volutes. 

CORDELIERS. In Catholic countries, 
an order of monks, so called because they 
wear a cord full of knots about their mid¬ 
dle. 

CORDOVAN. A sort of leather made 
of goat skin at Cordova in Spain. 

CORK TREE. A glandiferous tree of 
the oak kind, having a thick, spongy, and 
soft bark known by the name of cork, it 
grows abundantly in Italy, Spain and other 
parts in the South of Europe. 

CORMORANT, or CORVORANT. An 
exceedingly voracious bird of the pelican 
tribe. It builds on the highest cliffs hang¬ 
ing over the sea. 


CORN. A general term in England for 
wheat. Sometimes, for all grain of which 
bread is made. In the United States, it 
is a common term for Indian corn. See 

Maize. 

CORNEA. One of the coats of the eye, 
which is transparent in the fore part, to 
admit the rays of light. 

CORNELIAN. A precious stone, of a 
flesh colour, of which rings are made. 

CORNET (in Military Affairs). An in¬ 
strument very similar to a trumpet, which 
is used in the army ; also a commissioned 
officer in a troop of horse or dragoons. 

CORNFLAG. A plant having a double 
tuberose root, with leaves like the fleur 
de lis, and a flower consisting of one petal, 
shaped like the lily. 

CORNFLOWER. A plant that grows 
wild among the corn. 

CORNICE. Any moulded projection 
that crowns or finishes the part to which 
It is affixed, as he cornice of a room, a 
door, &c. 

CORNISH CHOUGH. In England, a 
sort of crow, of a fine blue or purple black 
colour, with red beak and legs ft was 



COR 111 

reckoned the finest bird of Its kind, and 
therefore borne in coats of arms. 

CORNUCOPIA, or The Horn ok 
Plenty. Fabled to be the horn which 
Hercules broke off from Achelous’ head. 
It was filled by the nymphs with all manner 
of flowers and fruits, and made the emblem 
of abundance. 

COROLLA. The leafy parts of a flower 
which is marked with divers colours. Each 
leaf or division of the corolla is called & 
petal. 

COROLLARY. A consequence drawn 
from some proposition already proved 01 
demonstrated. 

CORON ARIAS. One of Linnaeus’ natu¬ 
ral orders of plants, containing those of the 
libaceous tribe, which are most fitted for 
making garlands. 

CORONATION. The act or solemnity 
of crowning a king; also the ceremony of 
investing the pope with his sacerdotal en¬ 
signs and dignity. 

CORONER. An officer whose particular 
duty it is to make inquisition into the un¬ 
timely death of any person. 

CORONET (in Heraldry). A small 
crown worn by the nobility. 

CORONET, or CORNET (in Farriery) 
The upper part of a horse’s hoof. 

CORPORAL (in Law). An epithet for 
any thing that belongs to the body, as cor¬ 
poral punishment, in distinction from a 
fine; a corporal oath, bo called because 
the party taking it, is obliged to lay his 
hand on the Bible. 

CORPORAL (in Military Affairs). A 
rank and file man, with superior pay to a 
common soldier, and with nominal rank 
under a serjeant. 

CORPORATION. A body politic or 
incorporate, so called because the persons 
composing it, are made into one body. 

CORPOSANTO, or CORPOSANT. 
Small luminous balls supposed to be elec¬ 
trical which play about the rigging of 
ships in stormy weather and are regarded 
with superstitious awe, by sailors. 

CORPS. A French term for any body 
of forces forming the division of a grand 
army. 

CORRECTION (in Printing). The cor¬ 
recting of proof sheets as they come from 
the compositor’s hands, in order to free 
them from all faults. 

CORRECTIVES. Medicines which 
serve to correct the qualities of other medi¬ 
cines. 

CORRECTOR. The person appointed 
in a printing office to correct the proofs as 
they come rough from the compositor 5 ? 
hands 







112 


CO& 


COV 


CORRIDOR (in Fortification). A covert 
way round a fortress; in Architecture, a 
long gallery leading to several chambers. 

CORROSIVES. Saline menstruums, 
which have the property of dissolving bo¬ 
dies, as burnt alum, white vitriol. 

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE OF 
MERCURY. An oxymuriate of mercury, 
and an extremely acrid and poisonous 
preparation. 

CORRUPTION OF BLOOD. An in¬ 
fection growing to the blood, estate, and 
issue of a man attainted of treason. 

CORSAIR. A pirate or sea roboer, par¬ 
ticularly on the coast of Barbary. 

CORSLET. An ancient piece of armour 
with which the body was protected. 

CORTES. The states or the assembly of 
the states of Spain and Portugal. 

CORTEX. The outer bark of a plant'. 

CORUNDUM. A mineral of the sap¬ 
phire kind, which is found in the East 
Indies, especially in Pegu and the island 
of Ceylon. 

CORUSCATION. A gleam of light issu¬ 
ing from anything, particularly that which 
is produced by the electrical fluid. 

CORVUS (in Astronomy). A constella¬ 
tion in the southern heinisphene. 

CORYDALES. One of Linnaeus’ natu¬ 
ral orders of plants, containing those which 
have helmet-shaped flowers. 

CORYMB (in Botany). A mode of 
flowering, in which the lesser flower stalks 
are produced along the common stalk on 
both sides, rising to the same height. 



CO-SECANT (in Geometry). The secant 
of an arc, which is the complement of 
another arc to ninety degrees. 

COSMETICS. Preparations which 
whiten and soften the skin. 

COSMOGRAPHY. The science of de¬ 
scribing the several parts of the visible 
world. 

COSMOPOLITE. A citizen of the 
world. 

COSSACKS. Irregular troops attached 
to the Russian army; a predatory tribe 
which inhabit the banks of the Nieper and 
Don. 

COSTS OF SUIT. The expenses attend¬ 
ing a law suit, which are in part recover¬ 
able from the party who loses the cause 


COTTON. A sort of wool or flax, which 

encompasses the seed of a tree that is much 
cultivated in Central Africa, in the Indies 
and particularly in America. It only flour¬ 
ishes in warm climates. The cloth 
which is manufactured from this wool 
when spun, is also called cotton. 



COTTONGRASS. A perennial of the 
grass tribe, so called, because its seeds have 
a down)' substance attached to them which 
resembles cotton, and has been used in its 
stead. 

COTTONTIIISTLE. An herbaceous 
plant, with a biennial root, which is sc 
called because it has downy leaves. 

COTYLEDONS (in Botany). The lobes 
of the seed, of which there are mostly two 
They are destined to nourish the heart of 
the seed. 

COUANDO. A species of small South 
American porcupine. 

COUCH. A seat, or small moveable bed 
to lie on. 

COUCH (in Husbandry). A layer or 
heap of .'salt or barley. 

COUCH (in Painting). The ground or 
basis on which the colour lies. 

COUCHGRASS. A noxious weed, 
which spreads very fast in arable land, and 
chokes every thing else that is sown. 

COUCHING (in Surgery). The remov¬ 
ing the opariue lens out of the axis of vis¬ 
ion, so as to restore the sight. 

COVENANT (in Law) An agreement 
or consent of two or more, by deed or 
writing. 

COVERT. A thicket or shady place for 
deer or other animals. 

COVERT-WAY (in Fortification). A 
space of ground level with the field on the 
edge of the ditch, ranging quite round the 
works. 

COVERTURE (in Law). The stataof 
a married woman who is under the power 
and protection of her husband, whence 
she is called a feme coverte. 




cou 


COUGAR. The largest animal of Amer¬ 
ica of the cat kind, and sometimes called 
•he American Lion. In South America it 
is called Puma, in North America, Pan¬ 
ther. It is of an ash colour, and so powor- 
ful, that it will bear the body of a man up 
a tree. 

COVING (in Architecture). The pro¬ 
jection in houses beyond the ground plot. 

COUNCIL (in Law). An assembly of 
the different members of any government 
who meet tc consult about affairs. In 
England that is called the Privy Council 
wheTe'n the king himself and his privy 
counsellors meet, in the king’s court or 
palace to deliberate on affairs of stale. 
When the council is composed only of 
cabinet ministers, or the king’s most con¬ 
fidential servants, it is called a Cabinet 
Council. 

COUNCIL (in Ecclesiastical Affairs). 
The same as the synod. 

COUNCIL OF WAR ^in Military 
Affairs). An assembly of the chief officers 
in the army or navy, called by the general 
or admiral in particular emergencies, to 
concert measures for their conduct. 

COUNTERFEIT. A fraudulent imita¬ 
tion of any thing, made so as to pass for 
genuine, as counterfeit coin. 

COUNTERMINE. A mine made by 
the besieged, in order to blow up the mine 
of the besiegers. 

COUNTERSCARP (in Fortification). 
That side of the ditch which is next the 
camp, and faces the body of the place. 

COUNTER-TENOR (in Music). One 
of the middle parts, so called because it is, 
as it were opposed to the tenor. 

COUNTINGHOUSE. An office in 
which a merchant transacts his business. 

COUNTRY DANCE (in Music). A 
lively pointed air calculated for dancing. 

COUNTY. One of the ancient divi¬ 
sions of England, which by the Saxons 
were called shires ; England is divided in¬ 
to forty counties or shires, Wales into 
twelve, Scotland into thirty. Each of the 
United States is also divided into coun¬ 
ties. 

COUP DE MAIN. A sudden unpre¬ 
meditated attack 

COUF D’CEIL. The first glance of the 
eye, with which it surveys any object at 
arge. 

COUP DE SOLEIL. Any disorder 
•uddenly produced by the violent scorch¬ 
ing of the sun. 

COUPLE. A band with which dogs are 
lied together. 

COUPLE-CLOSE (in Heraldry). An 
or linary, so termed from its enclosing the 

10 * 


CRA 113 

chevron by couples, being always bcrne in 
pairs, one on each side a chevron. 

COUPLES (in Building). Rafters fra 
med together in pairs with a tie. 

COUPLET. The division of a hymn, 
ode, or song, wherein an equal number, o. 
an equal measure of verses is found in each 
part. 

COURANT. An epithet for any beast, 
represented in an escutcheon in a running 
attitude. 

COURSE. A sea term, for that point of 
the horizon or compass for which a ship 
steers. 

COURSE (in Masonry). A continued 
range of bricks or stones of the same 
height. 

COURSE OF EXCHANGE (in Com 
inerce). The current price or rate at which 
the coin of one country is exchanged for 
that of another 5 which, as it depends upon 
the balance of trade and the political rela¬ 
tions which subsist between the two conn 
tries, is always fluctuating. 

COURSER. A race horse. 

COURSING. The pursuing of any beast 
of chase, as the hare, &c. with greyhounds. 

COURT (in Law). In monarchical 
countries, the king’s palace or mansion; 
in common use, the place where justice is 
judicially administered. 

COURTS OF CONSCIENCE. Courts 
for the recovery of small debts. 

COVY. An assemblage of wild fowl, 
particularly partridges. 

COW. The female of the ox kind, 
which is kept for her milk and her calves. 

COWKEEPER. One who keeps cows 
for the purpose of selling the milk. 

COWPOX. A substitute for the small¬ 
pox. It is taken from the udder of the 
cow, and used in that sort of inoculation 
now known by the name of vaccination. 

COWRY. A testaceous animal, which 
is said to have the power of leaving its 
shell and forming a new one. These ani¬ 
mals live in sand at the bottom of the sea. 
The shell is used as a coin in India. 

COWSLIP. A plant which grows wild 
in the meadows, and bears a pretty yellow 
flower. 

C. P. S. (in England). Custos privatl 
sigilli; i. e. keeper of the privy seal. 

CR. An abbreviation for creditor. 

CRAB (in Astronomy). Cancer, one of 
the signs of the zodiac. 

CRAB (in Botany \ A wild apyle tree 
and also the fruit of hat tree. 

CRAB (among Shipwrights). An engint 
with three claws for launching of ships. 

CRAB’S EYE. A stone found in the 
craw fish, resembling an eye. 




114 


CRA 


ORE 


CRAB. A sort of shell fish, which every 
year cast off their old shells, with much 
pain and difficulty. 



CRADLE. A moveable bed for a child. 

CRADLE (with Surgeons). A wooden 
machine to lay a broken leg in after it has 
been set. 

CRADLE (with Shipwrights). A frame 
of timber raised on each side of a ship, for 
the more convenient launching of her. 

CRAMP. As^iasmodic affection, which 
".auses a violent distortion of the muscles, 
nerves, &c.; also a disease to which hawks 
are subject in their wings. 

CRAMP IRONS. Ironj which fasten 
stones in buildings. 

CRANBERRY. In England,a pale red 
berry of a tart taste, the fruit of the cran¬ 
berry tree. The cranberry of the United 
States grows on low bushes, in in.t/sby 
places. It is of a bright red cohu.i, and 
makes excellent tarts. 

CRANE. A sort of heron, with a long 
aeek, bill, and legs 



CRANESBILL. The English name for 
he geranium. 

CRANIOLOGY. The science which 
jrofesses to discover men’s faculties and 
characters, from the external appearances 
»f the skull 

jr 


CRANE. A machine, with ropes, pm 
leys, and hoops, for drawing up heavy 
weights. 



CRANIUM. The skull, or superior par* 
of the head. 

CRANK. A machine resembling an el¬ 
bow, projecting from an axis or spindle; 
also a piece of brass work of a similar 
shape, on which the bell wire is fixed, so 
as to ntove the bell. 

CRAPE. A light transparent stuff, re¬ 
sembling gauze 

CRATE. A large case made of open 
bars, in which earthen ware is packed. 

CRATER. The mouth of a volcano 
from which the fire issues. 

CRAY FISH, or CRAW FISH. A 
small sort of lobster. 

CRAYON. A small pencil of any sort 
of colouring stuff, made into a paste and 
dried. 

CREAM OF TARTAR. The common 
white tartar freed from its impurities; a 
salt prepared from the lees of wine. 

CREDIT (in Commerce). A mutual loan 
of merchandises, &c. Letters of Credit, 
letters given by merchants to persons 
whom they can trust to draw money from 
their correspondents. 

CREEK. A small inlet, bay, or cove; a 
recess in the shore of the sea, or of a 
river. Creek Indians is the name ap¬ 
plied to a largo tribe of the native in¬ 
habitants of the United States of Amer¬ 
ica, who formerly occupied all the coun¬ 
tries lying north of lat. 31 deg. 

CREMATION. The burning of the 
dead, according to the custom of many 
ancient nations. 

CREOLE. A native of Spanish Ameri¬ 
ca or the West Indies, descended from 
European ancestors. 

CREASOTE. An oily liquid obtained 
from wood-tar, consisting of cai'bon, 
oxygen, and hydrogen, and so named 
from its property of preserving animal 
substances. 

CREATIN'. A crystallizable substance 
obtained from muscular fibre. 

• OREMAILLERE. In fortification, an 
indented aigaag line. 








































CRO 


C R O 


116 


CREPITATION. The crackling noise 
made by some salts during the process of 
calcination. 

CRESS. A garden salad. 

CREW. The company of sailors be¬ 
longing to a vessel. 

CRICKET. A little insect that haunts 
fireplaces and ovens. 

CRIER. An officer who cries or makes 
proclamation 

CRIMES. Offences against morals, as 
far as they are prohibited by law. 

CRIMPS. Persons who used formerly 
to decoy others into the land or sea ser- 
vf-M. 

CRISIS. That stage of a disorder from 
which some judgment may be filmed of 
its termination. 

CROCODILE. An amphibious animal, 
and the largest of the lizard tribe, which 
inhabits the rivers of Africa and Asia. It 
is covered with hard scales, that cannot 
easily be pierced, except under its belly. 

CROCUS. A bulbous plant, that flowers 
very early in spring. 

CROP. The craw of a bird; also the 
produce of what is sown in a field. 

CROSS. A gibbet, on which the Romans 
used to nail malefactors by the hands and 
feet 

CROSS (in Heraldry). The most ancient 
and the noblest of all the honourable ordi¬ 
naries, formed by the meeting of two per¬ 
pendicular with two horizontal lines, so 
as to make four right angles in the figure 
of a cross, such as the cross batonne in 
the subjoined figure. 



CROSS The name given to the right 
side of a coin, in distinction from the pile 
or reverse. 

CROSS (in Architecture). Any building 
which is in the figure of a cross. 

CROSS BOW. A kind of bow formerly 



ssueh used which was strung and set in 
a shaft of wood, with a trigger, &c. 


CROSSBILL. A sort or Grosbeak, $ 
bird so called becauie the rnandib.M of 
its beak cross each other. 



CROSS-EXAMINATION (in Law). A 
close and rigid examination on the part of 
the adversary,consisting of cross questions 
in order to elicit the truth. 

CROTCHET (in Music). Half a minim, 
marked thus. 









. 


CROTCHET (in Printing). Marked thus 
[ ], to separate what is not the necessary 
part of a sentence. 

CltOUF. The hindmost part of a ho^e. 

GROUPER. A leathern strap fitted to go 
under the tail of a horse, to keep the sad¬ 
dle in its place. 

CROW. A sociable noisy bird, that foefk 
partly on carrion 



CROW (among Mechanics). An iron 
instrument that is used as a lever for raising 
weights. 

CROWN. In England, a coin, in val¬ 
ue five shillings, so called from tho figure 
of the crown which was originally given 
upon it. 

CROWN (in Anatomy). The vertex ot 
highest part of the head. 

CROWN (in Architecture). Tbo upner 
most member of a cornice. 















CRU 


CUB 


1I6 

CROWN. A cap of state worn by sove 
reign princes The crown of England is 
called St. Edward’s crown, because it is 
made in imitation of the ancient crown 
supposed to have been worn by that mo¬ 
narch. That, now in use, was made at 
.he Restoration, for the coronation of 
Charles the Second 



CROWN (among Jewellers). The upper 
work of the rose diamond 

CROWN-GLASS. The finest sort of 
window glass. 

CROWN-IMPERIAL. A well known 
beautiAil flower, the root of which is 
perennial. 

CROWN-OFFICE. In England, an of¬ 
fice belonging to the Court of K i ng’s Bench, 
of which the king’s coroner or attorney 
there is commonly master 

CROZIER. A shepherd’s crook; also a 
bishop’s staff, which is of u similar form, 
and an emblem of his pastoral office. 

CRUCIFIX. A figure either in statuary 
or painting, representing our Saviour on 
the cross. 



CRUCIFIXION. The act of nailing or 
Axing to a cross; the suffering of being j 
crucified. , 

CRUCIBLE. A melting pot used by j 


chemists for the melting of nrutals um 
minerals. 



CRUISE. A voyage or expediticn t» 
quest of an enemy’s vessels 

CRUISER A vessel appointed fa 
cruising. 

CRUOR. Coagulated blood. 

CRUSADES. The expeditions under 
taken by the princes of Christendom for 
the conquest of the Holy Land, in the 
twelfth and three following centuries. On 
these occasions, every soldier bore a cruci¬ 
fix on his breast, as an emblem of spiritual 
warfare. 

CRUSTACEOUS SHELL FISHES 
Fishes ^covered with shells which are made 
up of several pieces and joints ; such as 
crabs, lobsters, crayfish, &c. in distinc¬ 
tion from the testaceous fish, as oysters. 

CRYPTOGAMIA. One of the classes of 
plants in the Linnrean system, comprehen 
ding those whose fructification or flower is 
too concealed or minute to be observed 
by the naked eye, as the mosses, the alga 
or seaweeds, the ferns, and the fungi or 
funguses. 

CRYPTS. Subterraneous places where 
the martyrs were buried, and the primitive 
Christians performed their devotions; also 
underground chapels, such as the crypt 
under St. Paul’s and other churches which 
took their rise from this practice. 

CRYSTAL, or Rock Crystal (in Mine¬ 
ralogy). A transparent stone as clear as 
glass. It is found in Iceland, Germany, 
and France, and belongs to the quartz oi 
siliceous genus; also a factitious body cast 
in the glass-houses, called crystal glass 
which is very brittle, and burns with little 
or no flame. 

CRYSTAL (in Chemistry). That part 
of a salt which assumes a regular and solid 
form, on the gradual coo’ing of its solution 

CRYSTALLINE HUMOUR. A pel 
lucid humour of the eye, so called from 
its transparency like crystal 

CRYSTALLIZATION. The reducing 
of any salt into a regular form, by dissolv 
ing it in a menstruum, and allowing it to 
cool until it shoots into the bodies called 
j crystals. 

CUB. The young of some particu.ai 
j beasts, as of a fox and a bear 
























CUL 


CUR 


117 


CUr>E (in Geometry). A regular solid 
•ody, supposed to be generated by the 
motion of a square plane along a line equal 
and perpendicular to one of its sides. It 
is enclosed by six equal sides or faces, 
which are square, as in the annexed figure. 
A die is a small cube 



CUBE (in Arithmetic). The third power 
of any number, produced by multiplying 
the number into itself, and then again into 
he product, as 3X3=9X3=27, the cube. 

CUBE ROOT. The side of a cube num¬ 
ber, thus 3 is the cube root of 27. 

CUBIT. A measure equal to about 
1 foot 9 inches. 

CUCKOO. A bird which is heard about 
the middle of April, and ceases to sing at 
the end of July. It deposits its eggs in 
the nests of other birds, generally in that 
of the hedgesparrow. The American Cuc¬ 
koo differs in its note from the European 
bird of that name It is also smaller in 
•ixe 



CUCKOO-SPITTLE A white froth or 
spume, very common on the lavender and 
other plants in the spring, which forms the 
nidus of a sort of cicada. 

CUCURBITACEA3. One of Linnaeus’s 
natural orders of plants, comprehending 
those which resemble the gourd, as the 
cucumber, the melon, &c. 

CULM (in Botany). The stalk or stem 
of corn or grasses. 

CULM (among Miners). A sort of coal 
in Wales. 

CULMINE^E. One of the Linnaean na¬ 
tural orders of plants, consisting of the 
grasMs. 

CULPRIT (in Law). A word of form, 
applied in court to one who is indicted 


for a criminal offence. It is as much as 
to say, in French, ‘culpable prit, found oi 
considered guilty.’ 

CUMMIN SEED. A long, slender seed 
of a rough texture, unctuous when bruised 
of a strong smell and an acrid taste. 

CUPBEARER (in England). An officei 
of the king’s household, who was for 
merly an attendant at a feast. 

CUPEL. A chemical vessel made oi 
earth, ashes, or burnt bone, in which assay 
masters try metals 

CUPOLA. A roof or vault rising in v 
circular form, otherwise called the Tholus 
or Dome, as the cupola of Ft. Paul’s Ca¬ 
thedral, here represented. 



CUPPING (in Surgery). The operation 
of applying the cupping-glass to the fleshy 
parts of the body, for the purpose of draw¬ 
ing away blood, or humours. 

CURASSO\V. A species of bird of which 
there are several varieties in South Amer¬ 
ica, and the West Indies, of which the 
Cashew Curassow is the largest 7’his 
bird was formerly domesticated m some 
parts of Europe. 

CURATE. Properly, one who has tire 
cure of souls ; now applied in England 
to one who officiates for hire in the place 
of the incumbent. 

CURB OF A BRIDLE A chain of 
iron that runs over the horse’s beard 

CURFEW. Literally, cover feu or fire , 
a law introduced from Normandy into 
England by William the Conqueror, that 
all people should put out their fire and 
lights, at the ringing of the eight o’clock 
bell. 

CURLEW. An European water fowl 
of a gray colour, with a large beak. 

CURRANT. The fruit of a shrub having 
no prickles; the leaves of this plant are 
large, and the fruit, which is either black, 
red, or white, is highly esteemed; also £. 
dried fruit that comes from the Levant. 



















CU1 


118 

CURRENCY (in Law). Paper money 
issued by authority, and passing current 
instead of coin; also, in general, any sort 
of money that passes current by authority, 
»s the metallic currency, signifying the 
coin of the realm. 

CURRENTS. Impetuous streams. 

CURRIER. A dresser of tanned leather 
to make it pliable and fit for use. The 
Company of Curriers in England was in¬ 
corporated in the reign of Henry VI. 

CURRY-COMB. An iron sort of comb 
fd the dressing of horses. 

CURSITOR. In England, an officer in 
iaa^cery, who makes out original writs 
for any particular county. 

CURTAIN (in Fortification). The front 
of a wall or fortified place, lying between 
two bastions. 

CURVE. A line whose parts incline 
different ways. 

CUSP. Properly, the point of a spear 

CUSP (in Astronomy). A term for the 
horns of the moon. 

CUSTOM (in Law). A duty on the 
importation or exportation of goods 

CUSTOS ROTULORUM, or Keeper 
of the Rolls. In England, he that has 
the keeping of the records of the sessions 
of the peace. 

CUT. An engraving on wood. 

CUTLER. A maker and seller of knives, 
and all cutting instruments. 

CUTPURSE. A sort of thieves who 
rob by cutting purses. 

CUTTER. A kind of boat attached to a 
vessel of war, which is rowed with six 
oars, and is employed in carrying light 
stores, passengers, &c. In the United 
States, the term revenue cutter, is applied 
to small fast sailing vessels, used to watch 
harbours for the prevention of smuggling. 



CYANOGEN (in Chemistry). Carbon 
combined with azote 
CUTTLE-FISH. A sea fish furnished 
with many stickers and holders for ae- 


CY M 

curing its prey. It emits a black fink 
used in making Indian ink 



CYBELE (in Heathen Mythology). Th* 
daughter of Ccelus and Terra, wife of 
Saturn, and mother of the gods; she in 
always represented with a turreted head 
and accompanied with a lion 



CYCLE. A continual revolution of num¬ 
bers, as applied to a series of years which 
go on from first to last, and then return 
to the same order again. 

CYCLOID. A curve generated by thu 
rotation of a cncle along a line. 
CYCLOPAEDIA. See Encyclopedia 
CYLINDER. A figure conceived to 1* 
generated, by the rotation of a rectang s 
about the side. 



CYLINDER (in Gunnery). The whole 
hollow length of a great gun; the bore. 

CYME. Properly, a sprout or shoot, 
also a sort of flowering, where the florett 
do not all rise from the same point. 

CYMQSA2 One of Linnasus’s nature 




















DAV 


DAT 119 


CYNICS In ancient history, snarling 
philosophers, who valued themselves on 
their contempt of riches, of arts 
sciences, and amusements. Diogenes 
was one of this sect. 

CYNOSURE. The constellation of the 
Little Bear, to which, as containing the 
north star the eyes of mariners and 
travelers were in former times, contin¬ 
ually turned. Hence the poets have 
used the term to denote anything to 
which attention is strongly directed. 

CYPHONISM. A species of punish • 
ment frequently used by the ancients, 
which consisted in besmearing the 
criminal with honey, and exposing him 
to insects. 

CYPR.ZEID2E. A family of Marine gas- 
terpods (the Cowries), with involute and 


As a numeral, D represents 500; and 
when a dash or stroke is placed over it, 
ft denotes 5000 

DACTYLIOGRAPHY. The art of en¬ 
graving on gems 

DACTYLOLOGY The art of commu¬ 
nicating ideas by spelling words with 
the fingers. 

DACTYLONOMY. The art of number¬ 
ing with the fingers. 

DACTYLOPTERUS. In ichthyology, a 
genus of fishes covered with large scales 
and the head long and flattened; lam. 
Loricata. 

DADO. In architecture, the part in 
the middle of the pedestal between the 
base and cornice. 

DAGUERREOTYPE. A process inven¬ 
ted by Daguerre, by which images from 
the lens of a camera obscura are fixed 
on metal plates. 

DAGOBA. In India and the East, a 
hemispherical dome of earth or stone 
with a small square erection on its top 
called a tee. 

DALIAN PROBLEM. In mathematics, 
the duplication of the cube, or the pro¬ 
cess of finding the side of a cube double 
that of another one. 

DAMASK STEEL. In the arts, a - fine 
kind of steel from the Levant, of a 
streaky mottled appearance, used in the 
manufacture of the best sword and 
scimitar blades. Damaskeening is the 
art of adorning steel or iion with inlaid 
gold or silver, chiefly used for sword- 
blades or locks of pistols. 

DANAE. A planet first observed by 
Gcldsmidt in 1860. 

DATHOLITE. A vitreous mineral 
composed of silica, lime and boracic 
acid, not transparent, whence its name. 

DATUM. A thing given in logical and 
mathematical premises: a proposition 
or truth granted or admitted. Datum¬ 
line, in civil engineering, is the base or 
horizontal line ot a section, from which 
heights and depths are calculated. 

DAVYNE. A yellowish transparent 
mineral ejected from Vesuvius; its con¬ 
stituents being silica, alumina, lime, 
iron, and water; sp. gr. 2*4. 


highly*enamelled shells, of which the 

Cypreaea is the type. 

CYPRESS. A genus of plants or trees 
valued for the durability of their wood; 
the emblem of mourning for the dead, 
cypress branches having been anciently 
used at funerals. 

CYTOBLAST. In botany, the nucleus 
cellule, or assimilative force from which 
the organic cell is developed. These 
nuclei appear like dark spots, which 
may be seen in the fluids of the growing 
parts of all plants. 

CYTOBLASTEMA. In physiology, the 
viscid fluid in which animal and vege¬ 
table cells are produced, and by which 
they are held together. 

CYTOGENESIS. In physiology, the 
development of cells in animal and veg¬ 
etable structures. 


DAY. An astronomical period, which 
depends upon the interval between two 
transits over the meridian of any point 
in the heavens, real or imaginary. But 
the only days distinguished by that 
name in astronomy are the sidereal day, 
the real solar day, and the mean solar 
day. The sidereal day is the interval 
between two transits of the same fixed 
star, which is divided into twenty-four 
sidereal hours. The real solar day is 
the interval between two moons or 
transits of the sun over the meridian. 
The mean solar day is the average of all 
the real solar days. The Babylonians 
commenced the day at sun-rising, the 
Jews at sun-setting, and the Egyptians 
at midnight, as do many modern na¬ 
tions; the British, French, Spanish, 
Americans, &c. In the computation of 
time, the civil or mean solar day is the 
time employed by the earth in revolving 
on its axis, 365-2425 of such revolutions 
constituting a mean Gregorian year; with 
most of the modern nations it com¬ 
mences at midnight, and consists of 24h. 
3m. 56s., 55 of sidereal time. Solar days 
are not always of equal length: 1st, 
from the unequal velocity of the earth 
in its orbit, that velocity being greater 
in winter than in summer; and 2d, from 
the obliquity of the ecliptic. A side¬ 
real day, the day universally adopted by 
astronomers in their observations, is the 
time that elapses between two success¬ 
ive culminations of the same star. 

DAY FLY. A kind of insect, so called 
because it lives only a day. 











.» DEC 

DEAD EYE. A sea term for a aorl of 
flat block. 

DEAD LANGUAGES. Those languages 
which have ceased to be ppoken by any 
nation, as the Greek and Latin. 

DEAD NETTLE. A sort of nettle 
without stings. 

DEAD RECKONING. The account 
kept of a ship’s course by the log, without 
any observation of the 6un, moon, or 
stars. 

DEAF AND DUMB. Those who have 
the misfortune to be born, without the fa¬ 
culties of hearing or speaking. Means 
have been successfully employed to supply 
these defects in charitable institutions, for 
the benefit of these unhappy objects, where 
the young are taught to communicate their 
thoughts by the help of signs, particularly 
by the language of the fingers, which, 
hough before but a childish amusement, 
;s now tamed to a useful purpose. The 
first establishment of this kind in America 
was that at Hartford, which was founded 
chiefly through the instrumentality of 
Mr. Gallaudet. 

DEAL. The wood of the fir tree cut up 
for building. 

DEAN. In England, a dignified clergy¬ 
man who is at the head of a chapter. 

DEATH WATCH. A little insect inha¬ 
biting old wooden furniture, which makes 
a ticking noise in such a manner, by a 
certain number of distinct strokes, as for¬ 
merly to be considered ominous to the 
family where it was heard. This circum¬ 
stance gave rise to its vulgar name. 



DEBENTURE (in Law). A sort ot bill 
drawn upon the Government. Custom 
House debentures entitle the bearer to re¬ 
ceive a drawback on the exportation of 
goods, which were before imported. 

DEBIT. A term used in book-keeping 
to express the left hand page of the ledger, 
to which all articles are carried that are 
charged to an account. 

DEBT tin Commerce). A sum of money 
due from one person to another. 

DEBT (in Law). An action which lieth 
where a man oweth another a certain sum 
of money. 

DEC. An abbreviation for December. 

DECADE The number or space often 


DEC 

days, which formed the third part of th* 
Attic month; also the number of ten books 
which was formerly the division of some 
volumes, as the Decades of Livy. 

DECAGON. A plane geometrical figure 
consisting of ten sides and ten angles. 

DECALOGUE. The Ten Command¬ 
ments delivered by God from Mount Sinai 
to Moses. 

DECAMERON. A volume of ten books, 
such as the Decameron or novels of Boc- 
cacio. 

DECANDRIA. One of the artificial 
classes of Linnteus, comprehending those 
plants which have ten stamens in the 
flower. 



DECANTER. A glass bottle made so 
as to hold the wine for immediate use. 

DECEMBER. The last month in the 
year, when the sun enters the tropic of 
Capricorn, making the winter solstice. 

DECEMVIRS. Extraordinary magis 
trates among the Romans, chosen for the 
particular purpose of collecting the laws 
of the twelve tables, which they gathered 
from the writings of Solon. 

DECIDUOUS PLANTS. Plants which 
cast their leaves in winter. 

DECIMAL. An epithet for what con 
sists of the number of ten; as, Decimal 
Arithmetic, a mode of computation that 
proceeds on the scale of ten figures; De 
cimal Fractions, such as have 10, 100,1000, 
&c. for their denominator, and marked 
with a point thus .5 for five-tenths. 

DECIMATION. A military punishment 
among the Romans, inflicted on every 
tenth man of the company who had be¬ 
haved themselves ill. 

DECK. The floor of a ship. The decks 
may be either first, second, or third; 
where there are more than one, beginning 
from the lowest upwards. 

DECLARATION (in Law). A state¬ 
ment of the cause of action by a plaintiff 
against a defendant. 

DECLENSION. The different inflexions 
of nouns throughout their cases. 

DECLINATION. The distance of any 
star or point of the heavens from the 
equator, either nortn or south. The jjrtai 






DEF 


est declination is 23 degrees and a half. 

DECOCTION. A medicinal liquor. 

DECOMPOSITION (in Chemistry!. 
The reduction of a body to the parts of 
which it is composed. 

DECORATIONS. Any ornaments or 
embellishments, such as prints to a book, 
or the mouldings, and other carved works 
in buildings. 

DECOY. A sea term for a stratagem 
employed by ships of war, to draw any 
vessel of inferior force into an incautious 
pursuit, until she comes within gun-shot. 

DECOY (among Sportsmen). A place 
for catching wild fowl. 

DECOY-DUCK. A wild duck trained 
to decoy others into the decoy, or place 
where they may be caught. 

DEED (in Law). A written contract, 
signed, sealed, and delivered. It is par¬ 
ticularly applied to instruments for con¬ 
veying land. 

DEEP-SEA-LINE. A sea term for a 
small line to sound with. 

DEER. An animal which in England is 
kept in parks, either for ornament or for 
the chase; the flesh of which is called ven¬ 
ison. In North America, we have five 
animals of the deer kind, the Moose or 
Elk of Europe; the American Elk, a stately 
animal, whose branching horns are some¬ 
times five feet in length; the common fal¬ 
low, or Virginia deer; the mule, or black 
tailed deer of the Rocky mountains ; and 
the Rein-deer. The male of the fallow 
deer, is called Buck, the female, Hind. 
The stag, Hart, or Red Deer of Europe, the 
female of which is called Hind, is not 
found in this country. It is a characteris¬ 
tic of all these animals,that they shed their 
norns once a year. 

D. F. Defensor Fidei, Defender of the 
Faith. 

DE FACTO. In deed or fact. 

DEFALCATION. A falling off or a 
failure in any public accounts. 

DEFAMATION (in Law). Slanderous 
words spoken or written against any one. 

DEFAULT (in Law). A nonappearance 
in court without sufficient cause. 

DEFAULTER. One who is deficient in 
his accounts. 

DEFECTION. The falling off from a 
government or state. 

DEFENCE (in Law). The reply which 
the defendant makes after the declaration 
is produced; in Military Affairs, any work 
that covers or defends the opposite posts, 
as flanks, parapets. 

DEFENDANT (in Law). One who is 
sued in an action. 

DEFENDER OF THE FAITH. A title 
11 


DEL > 121 

given by Pope Leo X. to Henry V III. foi 
writing against Luther. 

DEFILE. A narrow lane or passage 
through which a company of soldiers can 
pass only in tile. 

DEFINITION. The determining the 
nature of things by words, or explaining 
the signification of a word. 

DEFLAGRATION. The burning in a 
crucible of any mineral body. 

DEFLEXION. The turning of any thing 
out of its true course. 

DEFLUXION (in Surgery). The falling 
of a humour in the body, from a superior 
upon an inferior part. 

DEGRADATION (in Ecclesiastical Af¬ 
fairs in England). The depriving a persor 
of his dignity .and degree, as the degrada¬ 
tion of a clergyman, by depriving him of 
holy orders. 

DEGRADATION (in Military Affairs) 
The depriving an officer of his commission 

DEGREE (in Mathematics). The 360tl 
part of the circumference of a circle 
marked thus (°). 

DEGREE (in Law). An interval of 
relationship between persons, more or less 
nearly allied. 

DEGREES (in a University). Titles of 
honour, conferred on persons for their 
merit in the arts and sciences. 

DEINORNIS, also DINORNIS. A gi¬ 
gantic bird found in a sub-fossil state in 
New Zealand, having been a wingless 
bird of great size and strength—called 
the Moa by the natives. 

DEINOSAURIANS. An order of fossil 
reptiles found in the Upper Secondary 
Formations, of great size, and fitted for 

f ppppafpial 11 fV* 

DEINOTHERIUM. A gigantic fossil 
mammal furnished with a short prob¬ 
oscis, and armed with two enormous 
tusks, turned downwards, and slightly 
curved inwai’ds. 

DEIPNOSOPHIST. One of an ancient 
$ect of philosophers, who wei’e famous 
for their learned conversation at meals. 

DELFT WARE. A kind of potter’s 
ware, originally made at Delft in Holland; 
it is covered with an enamel, or white 
glazing, in imitation of porcelain. 

DELiaUIUM, or DELIQUESCENCE. 
A spontaneous solution of some salts by 
exposure to the air. 

DELIVERY, or GAOL DELIVERY 
(in Law). A term applied to the sessions 
at the Old Baily, &c. in London, by which 
the gaol is delivered or cleared of prisoners 

DELIVERY (in the Mint). The quan 
tity of moneys coined within a given 
period. 

DELIVERY (in Oratory). Themanne! 




122 


DEP 


DET 


«f pronouncing an address, as regards the 
voice and utterance of the speal •. 

DEMESNE LANDS. In Engli. J,lands,, 
which the lord of a manor has in his own 
hands. 

DEMI. A half-fellow at Magdalen Col¬ 
lege at Oxford England; also a term in 
composition signifying half, as, demigod, 
a hero who was enrolled among the gods. 

DEMOCRACY. A form of government 
where the supreme power is lodged in the 
people at large, or in persons chosen by 
Jiem. 

DEMONSTRATION. A proof or chain 
of arguments, serving to prove the truth. 

DEMURRER (in Law). A pause or 
stop in a suit upon some difficulty. 

DEMY. A sort of paper much used in 
printing. 

DENIER. One of the earliest French 
coins, answering nearly to the English 
penny. 

DENIZEN. An alien who is naturalized. 

DENOMINATOR. That part of a frac¬ 
tion which stands below the line, as 10 in 
the fraction j| 

DENOUEMENT. The developement of 
the plot in a play. 

DE NOVO. Afresh, or from the be¬ 
ginning. 

DENSITY. The property of bodies, of 
containing a certain quantity of matter 
under a certain bulk. 

DENTIST. One who draws teeth, and 
* prescribes for tneir diseases. 

DEODAND. A thing as it were forfeited 
to God, to atone for the violent death of a 
mar by misadventure. 

DEPARTURE. The easting or westing 
of a ship, in respect to the meridian it de¬ 
part* i from. 

DE PHLEGM ATION. The depriving 
any 'ryuid of its superfluous water. 

DEIONENT. One who gives informa¬ 
tion on oath before a magistrate. 

DEP* »RT ATION. The banishment of a 
person, among the Romans, to some dis¬ 
tant irl.ind. 

DEP< ‘SITION. The testimony of a 
witness taken upon oath. 

DEP< *T. A place where military stores 
are dep >sited. 

DFPB ESSION. The distance of a star 
from the horizon below. 

DEPRESSION OF THE POLE. Is 
said of a person sailing from the pole to 
the equator. 

DEPRESSION OF THE VISIBLE 
HORIZON, or. Dip of the Horizon. 
Its dipping or sinking below the true ho¬ 
rizontal plane, by the observer’s eye being 
abftve the surfar- of the s . 


DEPRIVATION. In England, a taking 
away, as when a parson or vicar is de¬ 
prived of his preferment. 

DEPUTY. A person appointed by coo 
mission to act for another. 

DERELICT. Forsaken, left; as derelict 
lands, lands which the sea has left; dere 
lict ships, vessels left at sea, &c. 

DERIVATIVE (in Grammar). Any 
word which is derived from another. 

DERMESTES. An insect, called in 
vulgar language the Leather-eater. 

DERNIER. Last, as a tribunal of der¬ 
nier resort, the last or highest court of 
appeal. 

DERVISE. An order of religious per 
sons in Mahometan countries, who prac¬ 
tise great-austerities on themselves. 

DESCENSION. An arc of the equate; 
which descends or sets with any sign or 
point in the zodiac. Descension is eithei 
right or oblique, according as it takes 
place in a right or oblique sphere. 

DESCENSIONAL DIFFERENCE. The 
difference between the right and oblique 
descension of a star, &.C. 

DESCENT. In general, the tendency 
of heavy bodies towards the earth. 

DESCENT (in Law). Hereditary suc¬ 
cession to an estate. 

DESCENT (in Military Affairs). Land 
ing in a country for the purpose of in 
vasion. 

DESCRIPTION. An imperfect kind 
of definition, that includes many accidents 
and circumstances peculiar to an object, 
without defining its nature precisely. 

DESERTER. A soldier who runs away 
from his colours, or goes over to the 
enemy. 

DESIDERATUM (in Literature). What 
is wanted or inquired after. A work is a 
desideratum, which, though wanted, is not 
executed. 

DESIGN. The first draught, or sketch 
of any picture. 

DESPOTISM. A form of government 
where the monarch rules by his sole and 
sovereign authority. 

DESUNT CA2TERA. The rest wanting: 
words put at the end of any chasm or 
deficiency, in an imperfect or mutilated 
work. 

DETACHMENT (in Military Affairs j. 
A certain number of men selected for a 
particular expedition or service. 

DETAINER. A writ for holding any 
one in custody 

DETENTS. The stops in clock-work 
which, by being 'ifted up or let dowu 
lock or un'oek the cloc(s 'king. 




D1 As 


D 1A 


12? 


DETERGENTS. Medicines which re¬ 
move viscid humours 

DETERMINATE PROBLEM That 
which has one, or a limited number of 
answers 

DETONATION The noise and explo¬ 
sion, which some substances make upon 
the application of fire to them, a? gun¬ 
powder, <fcc. 

DETONATING POWDER, or Ful¬ 
minating) Powder. A preparation of 
nitre, sulphur, &c. 

DETRITUS. That which is washed 
down from the mountains, and forms a 
new soil. 

DEUCALION. The son of Prometheus, 
who, with his wife Pyrrha, were saved 
during a deluge, in a ship on Mount Par¬ 
nassus 

DEVISE. A gift of lands by last will 
and testament. 

DEUTERONOMY. The fourth book of 
Moses. 

DEW. The moisture, which is first ex¬ 
haled from the earth by the sun, and then 
falls again upon the earth in gentle drops 
during the night. 

DEWLAP. The loose skin that hangs 
down under the throat of an ox, cow, 
&c. 

DEXTER. The right, or on the right 
hand or side, as the dexter point; in He¬ 
raldry, the right-hand side of the es¬ 
cutcheon. 

DEY. The supreme governor of Algiers. 

DIABETES (in Medicine). An exces¬ 
sive discharge of crude urine. 

DIACOUSTICS. The science of re¬ 
fracted sounds. 

DIADELPHIA (in Botany). One of 
the Linmean classes, comprehending such 
plan's as bear hermaphrodite flowers with 
two mu of united stamens. 


r* 



DIADEM A headband or fillet, an¬ 
ciently worn by kings as an emblem of 
dignity. 

DIAERESIS (in Grammar). The divi¬ 
sion of one syllable into two, marked 
tlms (••). 


DIAGNOSTIC SIGNS. Signs by which 
diseases are distinguished from each other. 

DIAGONAL. A straight line drawn from 
one angle of a figure to another 
DIAGRAM. A scheme drawn by waj 
of illustrating any thing. 

DIAL A plate marked with lines, fot 
showing the hour of the day by the shadow 
of a gnomon, style, or pin when the sun 
shines. The diversity of sun-dials arises 
from the different situation of tbe plane, 
and from the different figure of the sur 
faces upon which they are described. The 
subjoined figure represents an horizonta 
dial. 



DIALECT. A manner of speech peca 
liar to any parts of a country. The dialects 
of Greece were admitted to form a part of 
their language, as the Attic dialect, spoken 
by the Athenians; so the Ionic, Poetic, 
AEolic, and Doric dialects. 

DIALECTICS. The art oflogic. 

DIALLING. The art of drawing dials 
on any surface. 

DIALL1ST One who constructs sun¬ 
dials 

DIALOGUE. A written discourse be¬ 
tween two or more persons. 

DIALYSIS. A mark or character, con¬ 
sisting of two points placed over two vow¬ 
els, as poemata, to show that they must 
be sounded distinctly. 

DIAMETER. A right line passing 
through the centre of a circle, or anv 
curved figure. 

DIALLAGE. A mineral of a brilliant 
green color, with a silky or pearly lustre. 
It consists of silica, alumina, lime, mag¬ 
nesia, oxide of chrome, and oxide ofiron. 

DIAMAGNETIC. A term applied by 
Farraday to a class of substances which, 
under the influence of magnetism, take 
a position, when freely suspended, at 
right angles to the magnetic meridian. 




















m 


DI A 


DIF 


DIAMOND. The most valuable and 
the hardest of all precious stones or 
gems. It is pure carbon; and its prim¬ 
itive crystals are the regular octahed¬ 
ron, which reflects all the light falling 
on its posterior surface at an angle of 
incidence greater than 24° 13, whence 
its great brilliancy is derived. The 
diamond has various tints of color; 
sometimes of a yellowish, bluish, or 
rose-red tinge, though sometimes per¬ 
fectly colorless. The largest diamond 
known is said to have belonged to the 
Emperor of Brazil; but the celebrated 
Koh-i-noor diamond, which passed from 
the hands of the Mogul princes to the 
possession of Queen Victoria, is among 
the most valuable in Europe. In geom¬ 
etry, diamond is the name of a quad¬ 
rangular or rhomboidal figure. 

DIAPHONIES. The doctrine of refract¬ 
ed sound. 

DIANA. The goddess of hunting, the 
daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and twin 
sister of Apollo; she is commonly repre¬ 
sented with a bow and arrow 



DIANDRIA (in Botany). One of the 
classes in the LinnEean system, consisting 
of such plants as have hermaphrodite flow¬ 
ers with two stamens, as the olive, the 
privet, the nightshade, <fcc 



DIAPASON (in Ancient Music). The 
Interval of an octave; among Musical In¬ 
strument Makers, the diapason is a scale 
ar measure. 

DIAPER. A hind of linen for the table, 
wrought with flowers 


\ 

DIAPHANOUS. Transparent like glass 

DIAPHON1A. The precepts forinerlj 
taugnt for the use of the organ. 

DIAPHORETICS. Medicines which 
promote perspiration 

DIAPHRAGM. A muscular membrane 
which divides the thorax from the abdo 
men 

DIARRHCEA A disorder which con 
sists in the frequent discharge, by stool, of 
a bilious humour from the intestines. 

DIARY. An account of what passes ii 
the course of a day 

DIATESSERON (in Music). An inter 
val composed of a greater and less tone. 

DIATESSERON (in Theology). The 
four Gospels. 

DIATRIBE. A disputation or contro¬ 
versial discourse 

DIBBLE. A pointed tool for making 
holes to plant in. 

DICE. Pieces of bone or ivory, of a 
cubical form, and marked with dots on 
each of their faces from one to six. 

DICTATOR. An extraordinary magis¬ 
trate aAiong the Romans, chosen upon par¬ 
ticular occasions; and invested with abso¬ 
lute power. He laid down his office, as 
soon as the occasion ceased, for which he 
had been appointed. 

DICTIONARY. A collection of the 
words of a language, explained in alpha¬ 
betical order. 

DICTUM. The positive opinion pro¬ 
nounced by an individual. 

DIDAOTIVE. An epithet for what 
serves to teach or explain the nature of 
things, as didactic pieces. 

DIDYNAMIA (in Botany). One of tnc 
Linnaean classes, including such plants as 
have flowers with four stamens in two 
pairs of different lengths. 

DIE. The stamp used in coining. 

DIE (in Architecture). The middle of 
the pedestal. 

DIER One who follows the trade of 
dyeing. 

DIER’S BROOM. A shrub so called 
from its flowers, which yield a colour used 
by diers in dyeing wool green. 

DIES NON; that is, Dies non juridici. 
Days on which no pleas are held, in any 
court of justice. 

DIET. Food regulated by the rules of 
medicine. 

DIETETICS. That branch of the medi 
cal science, which treats of the diet oi 
food suited to particular cases. 

DIEU ET MON DROIT; that is, God 
and my right. The motto on the arms of 
the King of England. 

DIFFERENCE fin A r ithmetic). The 











DIM 


DIP 


129 


emair ier, whem one number has been 
subtracted from another. 

DIFFERENCE (in Heraldry). What 
is added in coats of arms, as a mark to dis¬ 
tinguish younger families from the elder. 

DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE (in 
Astronomy). An arc of the equator, com¬ 
prehended between the meridians of two 
places on the earth. 

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS A 
method of finding a differential, or that 
infinitely small quantity, which taken an 
infinite number of times, is equal to a given 
quantity. 

DIGESTER. An apparatus for reducing 
substances to a pulp or jelly. 

DIGESTION. The dissolving or con¬ 
cocting food in the stomach, so that its 
various parts may be applied to their 
proper uses. 

DIGESTION (in Chemistry). The con¬ 
tinual soaking of a solid substance in a 
liquid, so that by the application of heat, 
it may be reduced to a soft substance. 

DIGESTION (in Surgery). The dis¬ 
posing a wound to suppurate or discharge 
good pus. 

DIGESTIVES. Medicines which help 
digestion. 

DIGESTS. The first volume of the civil 

law. 

DIGIT. A measure equal to three quar¬ 
ters of an inch-, also a character denoting 
a figure, as 1, for one; 2, for two, &c. 

DIGIT (in Astronomy). The twelfth 
part of a diameter of the sun or moon. 

DIGIT.\LIS, or Foxglove. A kind of 
plant which is for the most part herba¬ 
ceous, with a root that is either biennial 
or perennial. The stalk of this plant rises 
two or three feet high, and bears spikes of 
iron coloured, or purple flowers. The pur¬ 
ple foxglove is a native of England, and 
is much used in medicine. 

DIGNITY (in Law). Honour and au¬ 
thority. 

DIGYNIA (in Botany). An order in the 
Linncean system, consisting of plants that 
have two pistils. 

DILAPIDATION (in Law). The ruin 
or iamage which accrues to a house, in 
consequence of neglect. 

DTLEMMA. An argument which cannot 
be denied in any way, without involving 
the party denying in contradictions. 

DI LETT A NT E. A lover ofthe fine arts- 

DIMENSION The measure or compass 
of a thing; a line has one dimension, 
namely, length; a surface two, namely, 
length and breadth; a solid three, namely, 
length, breadth, and thickness. 

DIMINIPTIVE (in Grammar; A word 
11 * 


or ending, which lessens the meaning ef 
the original word; as, rivulet, a small 
river. 

DIOCESAN. A bishop who has charge 
of a particular diocese. 

DiOCESE. The district or circuit of « 
bishop’s jurisdiction. 

DIOEC1A (in Botany). A class in the 
Linmean system, comprehending such 
plants as have no hermaphrodite flowers, 
but the males and females on distinct in¬ 
dividuals, as the poplar, aspen, amber tree, 
willow, ozier, &c. 


DIOPTRICS. That branch of optics, 
which considers the different refractions 
of light in its passing through different 
mediums, as air, water, glass, <fcc. 

DIP OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE. 
The property of the needle, when rubbed 
with the loadstone, of inclining the north 
end below the level of the horizon. 

DIP OF THE HORIZON See De¬ 
pression. 

DIPHTHONG. Two vowels sounded as 
one; as, ae. 

DIPLOMA. A license or certificate 
given by colleges, &c. to a clergyman, to 
exercise the ministerial functions, or to a 
physician, to practice physic. 

DIPLOMACY. The functions of an 
ambassador residing at a foreign court. 

DIPPING NEEDLE. The magneticnl 
needle so duly poised about an horizontfe 
axis, that, besides its direction towards the 
pole, it will always point to a determined 
degree below the horizon. The dipping 
needle was invented by Robert Norman, 
a compass maker at Ratcliffe, about the 
year 1580, and arose, according to his owe 
account of the matter, from the following 
circumstance. It was his custom to finish 
and hang the needles of his compasses 
before he touched them, and he always 
found, after the touch, the north point 
would dip or decline downward, pointing 
in a direction under the horizon; so that 
to balance the needle again,he was always 
forced to put a piece of wax on the south 
end, as a counterpoise After having ob¬ 
served this effect frequently, he was at 
length led to mark the quantity of the 
dip, or to measure the greatest angle which 
the dip would mak * with the horizon; he 
found at London it was 71° 50', Hit by 







126 


DIS 


DIS 


subsequent experiments the dip is found 
to decrease about 1' 4" every year. 

DIPTERA (in Entomology). An order 
in the Ltunaian system, comprehending in¬ 
sects that have two wings, with a poiser, 
as the fly, the gnat, &.c. 

DIRECTION (in Astronomy). The 
motion and other phenomena of a planet 
when it is direct, or going forward in the 
zodiac according to the natural order of 
the signs. 

DIRECTION, LINE OF (in Gunnery). 
The direct line in which a piece is pointed. 

DIRECTION OF A LETTER. The 
superscription or address. 

DIRECTION POST. A post set up in 
roads, to direct the traveller to particular 
places. 

DIRECTION WORD (in Printing). 
The word which begins the next page, 
which used to be set at the bottom of the 
page preceding. 

DIRECTORY - (in England). A form of 
prayer set forth by the assembly of divines, 
and used by order of the Long Parliament, 
instead of the Common Prayer. The 
word is applied in the United States to 
books in the large cities which po-int out 
the names and residences of the inhabi¬ 
tants. 

DIRGE. A song of lamentation at fune¬ 
rals. 

DIRK. A kind of dagger. 

DISBANDED. An epithet used for a 
regiment discharged from service. 

DISC. The body or face of the sun or 
moon as it appears to us 

DISC (in Optics). The magnitude of a 
telescope glass, or the width of its aper¬ 
ture. 

DISCHARGE (in Law). A release from 
confinement. 

DISCHARGE (in Military Affairs). A 
remission of service for the time that a 
soldier has been engaged. 

DISCHARGER, or DISCHARGING 
ROD. An instrument made of glass or 
baked wool, by the help of which an 
electric i,ar is discharged 



DISCLAIMER (in Law). A plea con¬ 
taining an express denial. 

DISCIPLINE. In general, a rule or 
method of government. 

DISCIPLINE (in Military Affairs). The 
training up soldiers for service. 

DISCORD. An inharmonious combina- 
kui of sounds. 


DISCOVERY (in Law). The disclosinj 
or revealing any thing by a defendant, in 
his answer to a bill, filed against him in a 
court of equity. 

DISCOUNT (in Commerce;. An allow¬ 
ance made on a bill, or any other debt mot 
yet become due, in consideration of imme¬ 
diate payment. 

DISEASE. Tha. state of a living body 
which interrupts any of its { inctions. 

DISEMBOGUING. A term applied to 
rivers, which discharge themselves into 
the sea. 

DISJUNCTIVE. An epithet for con¬ 
junctions, which separate the sense, as 
but, nor, &c. 

DISLOCATION. The putting a bone 
out of its place. 

DISPATCHES. Letters sent to, or from 
government, on public business. 

DISPENSARY. A charitable institu 
tion, where medicine and advice are giver 
gratis to the poor. 

DISPENSATION (in Law). In Eng¬ 
land, kn exclusive privilege, to do any 
thing that is otherwise prohibited by 
law, granted by the King in council. 

DISPENSATION (in Ecclesiastical 
Affairs). An indulgence granted by the 
Pope, to do what is otherwise forbidden 
by the church, as the marriage of first 
cousins, &c. 

DISPENSATORY, or Phakmacopceia. 
A book which directs apothecaries, in the 
compounding or making up medicines. 

DISPERSION (in Optics). The diverg 
ency of the rays of light. 

DISPOSITION (in Military Affairs 
The placing an army ready for attack oj 
defence. 

DISPOSITION (in Architecture). The 
just placing all the several parts of a 
building. 

DISSECTION. The cutting asunder 
animal bodies, in order to come at the 
knowledge of their parts. 

DISSEISIN (in Law). The wrongful 
putting out of one, that is seised of his 
freehold. 

DISSENTER. One who dissents ur 
departs from the forms of the Church, as 
established in England. 

DISSIPATION (in Medicine). An in¬ 
sensible loss or consumption of the minute 
parts of a body. 

DISSIPATION (in Optics). The Circle 
of Dissipation is that circular space upon 
the retina, which is taken up by the rays 
of each pencil in indistinct vision. 

DISSOLVENT. A liquor proper fci 
reducing a solid body to the state of t 
fluid 






I) I V 


DISSOLUTION. The reducing of a 
solid body into a fluid state, by the action 
of some menstruum or dissolvent. 

DISSONANCE (in Music). A disagree¬ 
able interval between two sounds, which 
being continued together, offends the ear. 

DISTAFF. An instrument anciently 
used in spinning. 

DISTEMPER (in Painting). Colours 
not mixed with oil or water, but with size, 
whites of eggs, &c. 

DISTEMPER (in Farriery). A disease 
incident to dogs, horses, and other domes¬ 
tic animals. 

DISTICH. A couplet or couple of 
verses in poetry, making complete sense. 

DISTILLATION. A chemical process 
of drawing out the humid, spirituous, 
oleaginous, or saline parts of mixed bodies, 
by means of heat, these parts being first 
resolved into a gas or vapour, and then 
recondensed into a fluid, by means of 
cold. 

DISTILLER. One who follows the trade 
of distilling. The distillers are one of the 
city companies in London, incorporated in 
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 

DISTRESS (in Law). The distraining 
it seizing upon a person’s goods, for the 
payment of rent or taxes, &c. 

DISTRIBUTION (in Printing). The 
taking a form asunder, so as to separate 
the letters. 

DISTRIBUTION (in Medicine). The 
circulation of the chyle with the blood. 

DISTRIBUTION (in Logic). The dis¬ 
tinguishing a whole, into its several con¬ 
stituent parts. 

DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE. Justice 
administered by a judge, so as to give 
every man his due. 

DISTRIBUTIVE NOUNS. Words 
which serve to distribute things into their 
several orders, as each, either, every, &c. 

DISTRICT (in Law). That circuit or 
territory, within which a man may be 
forced to make his appearance. 

DITCH, A trench cut in the ground 
about a field. 

DITCHER. A labourer who makes 
ditches. 

DITHYRAMBIC. A sort of hymn an¬ 
ciently sung in honour of Bacchus; any 
poem written with wildness. 

DITTO, abbreviated Do. The same as 
the aforesaid; a term used in accounts. 

DIVAN. A council of state among the 
Turks; also a court of justice. 

DIVER. A waterfowl that frequents 
lakes, and goes with difficulty on land. 

DIVERGENT, or DIVERGING An 


D1 V 12? 

epithet for several things which have the 
property of divergency. 

DIVERGING RAYS (in Optics). Those 
which, issuing from a radiant point, con¬ 
tinually recede from each other. 

DIVERGING SERIES (in Mathema¬ 
tics). A series, the terms of which always 
become larger, the farther they are con¬ 
tinued. 

DIVIDEND(in Arithmetic). The num¬ 
ber to be divided. 

DIVIDEND (in Commerce). The share 
of profit in a joint stock, which is to be 
divided among the shareholders; also that 
part of a debtor’s effects, which is to be 
divided among the creditors. 

DIVINATION. A practice among the 
heathens of foretelling future events, by 
the flight of birds or other signs. 

DIVINE. A minister of the gospel; a 
clergyman. 

DIVINER. One who professes the art 
of divination; a conjuror. 

DIVING, 'i’he art of descending under 
water to a considerable depth, and remain 
ing there for a length of time, as occasion 
may require.' The practice of diving is 
resorted to, for the recovery of things that 
are sunk, &c. 

DIVING-BELL. A contrivance, by 
which persons may descend below the 
water, and remain for some time without 
inconvenience. It is used for the recovery 
of property, that is sunk in wrecks. 



DIVISION. One of the four first rules 
or operations in arithmetic, by which we 
find how often one quantity is contained 
in another. There are three numbers con¬ 
tained in this operation, namely, the divi¬ 
dend, or nuinberto be divided; the divisor, 
or that by which one divides; and the 
quotient, or that number which shows, how 
often the second is contained in the first 











28 


DOG 


DOM 


DIVISION (in Military Affairs) A 
Body of men commanded by a particular 
officer. 

DI VISION (in Music). That part into 
which an octave is divided, as quavers, &c. 

DIVISION (in Printing). A mark to 
divide compound words, as (-) in May-pole. 

DIVORCE (in Law). A lawful separa¬ 
tion of man and wife, pronounced by a 
competent judge, on cognizance had of the 
cause. 

DIURETICS. Medicines which promote 
the urinary discharge 

D. M. Doctor Medicins, Doctor of Me¬ 
dicine. 

DOCK (in Shipbuilding). A trench near 
a harbour, fitted for the building and re¬ 
pairing of ships 

DOCK (in Botany). A plant which grows 
wild, and infects corn fields; some species 
of it have medicinal virtues. 

DOCK (in Farriery). The stump of a 
horse’s tail. 

DOCKET (in Commerce). A bill with 
a direction tied to goods. 

DOCKET (in Law). A small piece of 
paper or parchment, containing the heads 
of a large writing; also a subscription at 
the foot of letters patent. ‘ To strike a 
docket,’ is the same, as to make a man a 
bankrupt by process of law. 

DOCKING. Cutting off a horse’s tail to 
the stump. 

DOCTOR. Literally, a teacher; the 
highest degree in any faculty in a univer¬ 
sity, as D. D. Doctor of Divinity, M. D. 
Doctor of Medicine, D. Mus. Doctor of 
Music, LL. D. Doctor of Laws. 

DOCTOR’S COMMONS. In England, a 
college of civilians 

DODECAHEDRON (in Geometry). A 
solid bounded by twelve equal and equi¬ 
lateral pentagons. 

DODECANDRIA. One of the Linnsean 
classes, comprehending those plants which 
have flowers with twelve stamens and up¬ 
wards, as far as nineteen inclusive, as 
dyer’s weed, purslane, houseleek, &c. 



DODO; the Monk Swan. A species of 
large birds now extinct. At the discov¬ 
ery of the island of Mauritius, in 1598, 
the Dodo was very abundant there. 

DOG. A domestic, faithful and valuable. 


animal, of which the most remarkable va 
rieties are the mastiff, bulldog, hound 
greyhound, spaniel, terrier, pointer, &c 
The Monks of St. Bernard on the Alps, 
have a peculiarly sagacious breed of the 
spaniel, one of which saved the life of a 
boy, whose mother was frozen to death in 
the snow 



DOG-DAYS. Certain days in the month 
of Jutland August, which are usually very 
hot, owing, as is supposed, to the influence 
of the Dogstar, which then rises and sets 
with the sun. 

DOGE. The chief magistrate in the re¬ 
publics of Venice and Genoa. 

DOGFISH. A fish of the shark kind. 

DOGGB.EL. An irregular kind of versi¬ 
fication. 

DOGMATIC SECT. An ancient sect of 
physicians,of which Hippocrates and Galen 
were at the head. They supposed princi¬ 
ples, and from them drew inferences appli¬ 
cable to particular cases; they were opposed 
to the empirici, or theorists, answering to 
the quacks of modern days. 

DOGSTAR, or Sirius. A star of the 
greatest magnitude in the constellation 
can is. 

DOLLAR. A silver coin of the United 
States, and also of several other coun¬ 
tries, having an average value of 100 
cents. The U. S. silver dollar contains 
3711A grains of pure silver. 

DOLPHIN. An animal which, though 
commonly reckoned among the fishes, is 
classed by Linnams under the mammalia. 
It has an oblong body, and swims with 
great rapidity. 



DOME. A vaulted roof or tower ©f s 
church. 

DOMESDAY BOOK An ancient r« 























I) O 11 


DOW 


129 


ord, made in the reign of William the Con- 
ueror; or a book of the survey of England, 
ontaining an account of all the demesnes 
if the crown. 

DOMINICAL LETTER. One of the 
first seven letters in the alphabet, with 
which the Sundays throughout the whole 
year are marked in the Almanac. After 
the term of twenty-eight years, the same 
letters return in the same order again. 

DOMINO. A game played by two 01 
four persons, with twenty-eight pieces of 
ivory, called cards. 

DOMINO (in Ecclesiastical Affairs). A 
sort of hood worn by canons of a cathedral. 

DON. A title of honour in Spain, answer¬ 
ing to Dom, or Dominus, Lord. 

DONATIVE (in Law). A benefice given 
to a clerk by the patron, without presenta¬ 
tion to the bishop. 

DONJON (in Fortification). A t:>wer or 
redoubt, where the fortress may retreat in 
case of necessity. 

DORIC ORDER (in Architecture). The 
most ancient of the Grecian orders, made, 
as is said, in imitation of the hovels erected 
by the original inhabitants of Greece 



1 _ I 

DORMER, or DORMENT (in Archi¬ 
tecture;. A window made in the roof of a 
Building. 

DORSAL. An epithet ft r what belongs 
or relates to the back, as trt ‘ dorsal fins of 
the fishes 


DORMOUSE. An animal of the mous* 

kind, which remains torpid during wintei 



DOSE. The quantity of any medicir f 
prescribed by the physician to be taken b\ 
the patient at one time 

DOUAY BIBLE. An English, transla¬ 
tion of the Scriptures sanctioned by the 
Roman Catholic Church, and so called 
from Douay, a town in France. 

DOUBLOON. A Spanish and South' 
American gold coin, which weighs 417-70 
grains troy, of which 365‘49 are pure; 
value, §16.00. There are also half and 
quarter doubloons, of proportionate 
value. 

DOUCHE. The name given to a jet or 
sudden rush of water directed on some 
diseased part of the body, with a view 
to strengthen it. 

DOUCINE. In architecture, an orna¬ 
mental moulding, concave above and 
convex below, being the French term 
for the cyma. 

DOUCEUR A gift made to gain the 
favour or interest of a person. 

DOVE. A wild pigeon, of which there 
are three sorts, namely, the ring dove, the 
largest of the pigeon tribe, so wild that it 
cannot be domesticated ; the stock dove, 
that is migratory ; and the turtle dove, a 
shy and retired bird living in the woods. 
These descriptions apply to the European 
varieties. In America we have several 
kinds of pigeon, of which the passenger 
pigeon is the most remarkable. In the 
western states these birds assemble in such 
countless numbers, as to darken the air by 
their flocks, and desolate the whole coun¬ 
try for miles around their breeding places. 
The turtle dove of America differs in some 
measure, from the turtle dove of Europe. 

DOVE-TAILING. A method ofjoining 
one board into another, by pins in the one 
fitted to holes in the other. 

DOWAGER (in Law). Properly, a 
widow who enjoys a dower, commonly 
applied as a title to the widows of princes 
; and nobility. 

DOWER (in Law). The portion which 
a widow has of her husband’s lands at his 
decease. 

DOWLAS. A sort of linen cloth. 

DOWN. The finest and softest part of 
the feathers of a goose or other water fowl. 

DOWNS. A bank of sand formed by 
the sea along its shores ; also a large ope* 
plain. 





















































I) RE 


130 DRA 

DR. An abbreviation for debtor and 
doctor. 

DRACHM. The eighth part of an 
ounce. 

DRACO. A constellation in the north¬ 
ern hemisphere. 

DRACO VOLANS. A meteor in the 
form of a flying dragon, sometimes visible 
in marshy countries. 

DRAFT (in Commerce). A bill drawn 
by one person upon another for a sum of 
money. 

DRAG. A sort of hook to catch hold of 
things underwater. 

DRAGOMAN. An interpreter in the 
Eastern countries, whose office it is to in¬ 
terpret for the European ambassadors at 
the Ottoman court. 

DRAGON. See Flying Dragon. 

DRAGON FLY. A particularly raven¬ 
ous insect, which hovers over stagnant 
waters. 

DRAGON’S BLOOD. A gum or resin 
of a tree in the Canaries and New Spain, 
formerly called Draco Arbor, now Astra¬ 
galus ; it is hard, compact, moderately 
heavy, and of a dusky red colour, but of a 
bright scarlet when powdered. 

DRAGON’S HEAD. One of the nodes 
of the planets, particularly the moon, as 
distinguished from the dragon’s tail. The 
former, marked thus (&£), is the northward 
point, as she ascends from the south to the 
north ; the latter is the southward point, 
marked (<$). 

DRAGOON. A soldier who fights some¬ 
times on foot and sometimes on horseback. 

DRAGS. Floating pieces of timber, 
joined so that they may carry a load down 
a river. 

DRAIN. A watercourse sunk in the 
ground for the purpose of carrying off the 
water. 

DRAINING, or LAND DRAINING. 
The process of carrying water off from the 
land, sometimes by means of open drains, 
but more commonly by drains made to a 
certain depth under the ground, which are 
filled with bushes so as to admit the water. 

DRAM. See Drachm. 

DRAMA. A play, or any piece fitted 
for theatrical representation. Dramas are 
either tragedies, comedies, operas, or farces. 

DRAMATIS PERSONAL The per¬ 
formers and characters in any particular 
piece 

DRAPER. A seller of cloth ; as a woollen 
draper and a linen draper. The Drapers 
n London, are one of the city companies, 
ncorporated in the reign of He ary VI. 

DRAUGHT, or DRAFT (ip Architec¬ 


ture). The figure of an intended building 
described on paper. 

DRAUGHT (in Navigation!. Thequan- 
tity of water which a ship draws when s>h« 
is afloat. 

DRAUGHT (in Military Affairs). A 
detachment of soldiers drawn off from the 
main army. 

DRAUGHT (in Husbandry). What pet- 
tains to drawing, as draught horses. 

DRAUGHTS. A game played vvitfi 
pieces on a checkered board, like a chess 
board, where by particular movements 
they are enabled to take each other, accord 
ing to certain rules. 

DRAUGHTSMAN. One who follows 
the profession of taking plans and sketch¬ 
es, of buildings and places. 

DRAWBACK (in Commerce). An al 
lowance made to merchants on the expor¬ 
tation of goods which paid duty inwards. 

DRAWBRIDGE. A bridge made s< a* 
to let up and down at pleasure. 



DRAWER A box in a case, from which 

it may be drawn. 

DRAWER OF A BILL. One who 
writes and signs a bill for a sum of money 
to be paid to another. 

DRAWING. The art of representing 
objects on paper, canvass, &c. by means 
of a pencil or a pen ; also the representa¬ 
tions so made, as drawings in India ink, 
pencil drawings, &c. 

DRAWINGROOM. The room in which 
company assemble at court; or to which, 
in common cases, parties withdraw after 
dinner; also the company assembled al 
court, in Europe, to pay their respects to the 
sovereign. 

DRAW-WELL. A deep well, in which 
water is drawn up by means of a wheel, a 
rope, and a bucket. 

DRAY. A brewer’s cart. 

DRAYMAN. The driver of a dray. 

DREAM. The acting of the imagination 
in sleep, which represents objects without 
the help of the senses. 

DREDGE. A kind of net for catching 
oysters 

DREDGING. The process of catching 













DRO 


oysters., by the removing or dragging the 
mud with dredges, &c. 

DRESS. Clothing for the body. 

DRESS (in Husbandry). Any stuff, such 
as loam, sand, &c. which is put on land to 
improve the soil. 

DRESSER. One employed in putting 
on the clothes of another, particularly for 
the purposes of ornament. 

DRESSER (in Military Affairs) One 
who dresses a line of soldiers, or makes 
them stand with an even front. 

DRESSER (in Housewifery). A bench 
on which meat is dressed or prepared for 
the cook. 

DRESSING (in Husbandry). The clean¬ 
ing of hemp, flax, &c. so as to prepare it 
for spinning. 

DRESSING (among Letterfounders). 
The scraping, bearding, &.c. of letters, be¬ 
fore they are used by the printer. 

DRESSING (in the Manege). The clean¬ 
ing and trimming a horse. 

DRIFT. A sea term for any thing that 
floats upon the water; also the course 
which a ship makes when she is driven by 
a storm. 

DRILLING (in Military Affairs). The 
teaching young recruits the first principles 
of military movements. 

DRILLING (in Husbandry). A modern 
mode of putting seed into the ground by a 
machine called a drilling machine, which 
makes channels in the ground, and lets the 
seed into them, so that it comes up in rows 
at regular distances from each other. 

DRINK. A liquid medicine given to a 
horse. 

DRIP. The projecting part of a cornice. 

DROMEDARY. The Arabian camel 
having one bunch, which is said to be very 
swift, and able to travel more than one 
hundred miles in a day, though its com¬ 
mon rate does not exceed 40 miles. See 
Camel 



DROP. An ornament in pillars of the 
Doric order. 

DROPSY. A collection of watery hu¬ 
mour either thr rughout the whole body, 01 


D U C 131 

in some part of it, as the cavity of the 
abdomen. 

DRONE. A large kind of bee or wasp, 
which is without a sting. It is the male 
of this tribe of insects. 



DROVERS. Men employed to drive 
cattle to, or from market. 

DRUGGET. A kind of woollen stuff'. 

DRUGGIST. A dealer in drugs. 

DRUGS. All kinds of simples, which are 
for the most part dry, and fit for medicinal 
uses. 

DRUIDS. A sort of priests among the 
ancient Gauls and Britons. 

DRUM. A musical instrument much 
used in the army, consisting of vellum, 
strained over a wooden cylinder on each 
end, and beaten with sticks. 



DRUM (in Anatomy). A membrane of 

the cavity of the ear- 

DRUMMER (in Military Affairs). A 
soldier who beats the drum. 

DRUM MAJOR. He who has the com 
mand over the other drummers 

DRUPE (in Botany). A pulpy fruit 
containing a nut or stone, with a kerne' 
like the plum. 

DRYADS. Nymphs inhabiting woods 

DUALISM. The doctrine of Manicli 
asism, or the belief in two eternal prin¬ 
ciples, the one good and the other evil, 
to which all the phenomena of nature 
are attributed. 

























132 


DUM 


DUCAL CORONET. A circle of gold 
with eight strawberry or parsley leaves of 
equal height, about the rim. 



DUCATOON A silver coin in Holland, 
worth about $1.25. 

DUCK. A water fowl, both wild and 
.ante. 



DUCK, or RUSSIA DUCK (in Com¬ 
merce). The best sort of canvass. 

DUCKWEED. A plant growing in 
ditches and stagnant waters; it is an an¬ 
nual much liked by ducks. 

DUCT. A channel or passage for any 
fluid in the body. 

DUCTILITY. A property possessed 
by certain bodies, particularly metals, of 
yielding to any pressure, by which their 
parts may be expanded by hammering. 

DUEL (in Law). Originally a combat 
between two persons for the trial of the 
truth ; but now an unlawful battle between 
two persons on some private quarrel, in 
the which, in.England, if death ensue, both 
the principal, and the seconds are guilty 
of murder. In mbst of the United States, 
the laws are similar. 

DUES (in Law). Moneys due to the 
clergy, as Easter offerings, &c. 

DUET. A little song in two parts. 

DUKE. A sovereign prince in Germany; 
the highest title of honour in England 
next to the Prince of Wales. 

DUMQSA2. One of Linnceus’s natural 
orders of plants, < on fisting of shrubs and 
trashes, as laurels, firs. &c 


DYS 

DUNGEON. The darkest, and eloser 
part of a prison. 

DUODECIMALS, or Cross Multipu 
cation. A rule used by workmen and 
artificers, in computing the contents of their 
work. Dimensions are usually taken in 
feet, inches, and parts. 

DUODENARY ARITHMETIC. Thai 
in which the local value of the figures in- 
cre;ises in a twelvefold proportion. 

DUPLICATE. Any manuscript copied 
after another. 

DUPLICATE RATIO (in Geometry) 
The product of a ratio multiplied into 
itself. 

DURA MATER. One of the membranes 
which encloses the brain. 

DURANTE (in Law). During, as Du¬ 
rante bene placito, during pleasure; Du¬ 
rante minore state, during minority. 

DURESS. An unlawful imprisonment. 

DUTCIIY. In England, a seigncry or 
lordship, formerly established by the king, 
with several privileges, honours, &c. 

DUTY- What is paid or due, by way of 
custom on merchandise in general. 

DWARF. A man much below the ordi¬ 
nary size. 

DWARF (in Botany). A term for plants 
that grow low, as distinguished from those 
of the same kind which rise to a consider¬ 
able height. 

DYKE. A bank, mole, or causeway 
raised to stop the floods. 

DYNAMICS. The science of moving 
powers, particularly of the motion of bodies 
mutually acting on one another. It is a 
branch of the science of mechanics, and is 
distinguished from statics in this, that the 
former considers bodies only as regards 
their motion, but the latter considers those 
bodies when in a state of rest, as to theii 
equilibrium. When fluids, instead of 
solids, are the subjects of investigation, 
that which treats of their equilibrium, 
weight, pressure, Sec. is called hydrostatics, 
and that which treats of their motion, 
hydrodynamics. 

DYNASTY A series of princes win 
have reigned successively in any king 
dom, particularly applied to the Egyptiat 
kings. 

DYSENTERY. A difficulty, or disturb 
ance in the intestines, which impedes thet 
fu net tons 










EAR 


E AS 


138 




E. 


E, the fifth letter of the alphabet, stood as 
a numeral for 250; stands as an abbrevi¬ 
ation for est, as i. e. id est; also for east j 
as a sign of particular notes in music. 

EAGLE. A bird of prey, said to be the 
swiftest, strongest, and boldest of all birds. 
It has a long hooked beak, yellow scaly 
iegs, thick crooked talons, a short tail, and 
a very keen sight. The common eagle is 
here represented. 



The eagle, as a bearing in coat armour, 
Is reckoned as honorable among the birds, 
as the lion is among the beasts. The bald 
eagle is the national emblem of the United 
States. 

EAR. The organ of hearing in an animal 
body, which consists of the external ear, 
or all that lies without the external orifice 
of the meatus auditorius, and the internal 
ear, or that which lies within the cavity of 
the os temporis. 

EARL. In England, a title of nobility, 
between a marquis and a viscount, now 
the third degree of rank. 

EARL’S CORONET. Has no flowers 
raised above the circle, like that of a duke 



and a marquis, but only points rising, find 
a pearl on each of t’wun 

19 


EARL MARSHALL (in El g.) Wh« 
has the care and direction of luneral sol 
emnities. This office bel< ngs by hereditary 
right to the Duke of Norfolk. 

EARNEST (in Commerce). Money ad¬ 
vanced to bind the parties to the perform¬ 
ance of a verbal bargain. 

EAR-RING. An ornament hung on the 
ears, particularly of women. 

EARTH (in Mineralogy). A substance 
formerly considered as one of the four 
elements of which the material world is 
composed. The term is now applied to 
such substances as have neither taste nor 
smell, that are incombustible, and nearly 
insoluble in water, the specific gravity be¬ 
ing under five, as lime, barytes, silica, 
clay, <fcc. 

EARTH (in Astronomy). One of the 
primary planets, marked by the character 
©. According t »he Ptolemaic system 
it was supposed to bj immoveable in the 
centre of the universe, but according to that 
of Copernicus, it moves from west to east, 
so as to occasion the succession of day and 
night, and also annually round the sun, so 
as to cause the different seasons. 

EARTH NUTS. A kind of plant, the 
pods or nuts of which ripen under ground 
The nuts yield a quantity of oil. 

EARTHQUAKE. A violent shock or 
concussion of the earth, or some parts of 
it, caused by an accumulation of electrical 
matter within the bowels of the earth 
which fores a passage, and cause much 
destruction of houses, cities, trees, and 
whole tracts of country. In hot countries, 
earthquakes are most frequent. 

EARTHWORM. A worm bred undei 
ground, being the common species 5 ; the 
worm. 

EARWIG. An insect with sheath wings, 
which was formerly imagined to creep into 
the ear, but this idea does not appear to 
be borne out by the fact, no case of the 
kind having yet been witnessed or re¬ 
corded. 

EASEL. A frame on which a paincei 
sets the cloth, &c. to be painted. 

EAST. One of the four cardinal points, 
where the sun rises. 

EASTER. A solemn festival observed 
among Christians, in commemoration of 
the resurrection of our blessed Lord and 
Saviour Jesus Christ. This feast was fixed 
by the council of Nice, in the year 325, to 






134 


ECH 


EDI 


be held on the Sunday which falls upon, 
or immediately afterthe full moon, which 
happens next after the twenty-first of 
March. 

EASTER OFFERINGS. In England, 
money paid at Easter to the parson of the 
parish 

EASTERLING. \ money coined by 
Richard II , which is supposed to have 

ven rise to the name of sterling, as applied 
xi English money. 

EAU DE LUCE. A fragrant liquor, 
made chiefly of mastic dissolved in alcohol. 

EAVES. The edges of the roof of a house, 
which overhang the wall, for the purpose 
of throwing off the water. 

EAVESDROPPER. One who stands 
under the eaves of houses, for the purpose of 
listening to what passes within. Any one 
who listens slily to what is said by others. 

EBB. The retirement or going away of 
.he tide. 

EBONY. A sort of black wood, which 
admits of a fine polish. It is the wood of 
the eben tree, which grows in India, Ethi¬ 
opia, and the Levant. 

EBULLITION. The effervescence 
which arises from the mixture of an acid 
and alkaline liquor. 

ECCE HOMO. A painting which repre¬ 
sents our Saviour in a purple robe, and 
with a crown of thorns on his head. 

ECCENTRIC CIRCLES Circles not 
having the same centre. 

ECCENTRIC CIRCLE, or ECCEN¬ 
TRIC (in Modern Astronomy). The circle 
that circumscribes the elliptical orbit of 
the planet. 

ECCENTRICITY (in Modern Astrono¬ 
my). Is the distance between the sun and 
the centre of the eccentric. 

ECCLESIASTIC. A clergyman ; one 
dedicated to the ministerial office. 

ECHO. A sound reflected, or reverbe¬ 
rated from some body, and thence returned 
or repeated to the ear. Echoing bodies 
may be so contrived, as to repeat the echo 
several times. At Milan there is said to 
he an echo, which reiterates the report of 
a pistol fifty-six times, and if the report be 
exceedingly loud, the reiteration will ex¬ 
ceed that number. The celebrated echo 
at Woodstock, in Oxfordshire, England, 
repeats the same sound fifty times. But 
the most singular echo hitherto spoken of, 
is that near Rosneath, a few miles from 
Glasgow,Scotland. If a person placed at 
a proper distance from this echo, plays 
eight or ten notes of a tune with a trumpet, 
they are correctly repeated by the echo, 
Dot a third lower; after a short pause, 
mother repetition is heard, in a lower 


tone; and then, after another interval, 
third repetition follows in a still lower tone 

ECHO (in Architecture). Any vault 
arch, constructed so as to produce an art! 
ficial echo. These are generally of a para« 
bolic or elliptic form : of this kind is the 
whispering gallery in St. Paul’s Cathedral 
London, and some other large buildings. 
The vault of the Pantheca, Paris, is con¬ 
structed on similar principles. 

ECHO (k Poetry). A sort of verse which 
returns the sound of the last syllable. 

ECHOMETER. A kind of scale or rule 
to measure the duration of sounds. 

ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers,who 
adhered to no sect, but selected what was 
best and most rational. 

ECLIPSE. An obscuration of the sun, 
moon, or any heavenly body. An eclipse 
may be either partial, when only part of 
the body is darkened, or it may be a total 
eclipse, when the whole is darkened. A 
lunar eclipse is the depriving the moon of 
the sun’s light, by the interposition of the 
earth Retween the sun and the moon. A 
solar eclipse is the privation of light which 
the sun suffers in regard to us, by the in¬ 
terposition of the moon between the sun 
and the earth. 

ECLIPTIC. A great circle of the sphere, 
in which the sun performs his apparent 
annual motion. It is supposed to be drawn 
through the middle of the zodiac,and makes 
an angle with the equinoctial of nearly 
23° 30', which is called the obliquity of 
the ecliptic. 

ECLOGUE. A pastoral poem, wherein 
shepherds are introduced discoursing toge¬ 
ther. It is so called after the Eclogues 
of Virgil. 

ECONOMY. In the general sense, the 
regulation of things, or the due distribution 
of means to an endi Political economy 
is a science which treats of the wealth and 
resources of a nation, and the manner in 
which they may be best employed to in 
crease the prosperity of the people. Adam 
Smith has treated at large on this subject 
in his Wealth of Nations. 

E CONTRA. On the contrary. 

ECTIILIPSIS. The cutting off a vowel 
or consonant. 

EDGE. The sharp cutting part of an 
instrument. 

EDGE TOOL. A tool made sharp for 
cutting. 

EDIBLE ROOTS. Roots that are fit 
for food, as trie potatoe, carrot, &c. 

EDICT. A public ordinance or decree 
issued by a prince. 

EDITION. The whole number of books 
of * kind struck off at one time 



EGG 


ilDULCORATION (in Chymistry). The 
washing of things that have been calcined, 
m order to purify them from their salts. 

EDULCORATION (in Pharmacy). The 
sweetening any medicinal preparation. 

EEL. A voracious slimy fish, very similar 
to a lizard, that lurks and feeds in mud. 

EEL POUT. A young eel. 

EEL SPEAR. A forked instrument with 
which eels are caught 



EFFECTIVE (in Military Affairs). A 
term for any body of men that are fit for 
service. 

EFFECTS. The moveables or goods of 
tny merchant, tradesman, &,c. 

EFFERVESCENCE (in Chemistry). 
A violent commotion in the parts of any 
liquor, accompanied with some degree of 
heat. 

EFFICIENT CAUSE. Any cause that 
actually produces an effect. 

EFFIGY. Any representation whatever 
which gives, or is intended to give, the 
figure of a person ; thus, the figure of a man 
dressed up and carried about in derision 
of any one, is called his effigy ; when this 
is burnt, the person is said to be burnt in 
effigy. 

EFFLORESCENCE (in Botany) The 
flowering of plants. 

EFFLORESCENCE (in Chemistry). 
The conversion of any body into a dry 
powder. 

EFFLUVIA. Small particles, perpetu¬ 
ally flowing out of mixed bodies in the 
form of vapours, which are sometimes 
visible, as in the case of smoke or steam ; 
and sometimes not perceptible, as insensi¬ 
ble perspiration. 

EFFUSION. The pouring out a liquor, 
so that the sediment may remain. 

EFFUSION (in Surgery). The natural 
secretion of fluids from the vessels. 

EFT A sort of lizard, which has a body 
covered with scales. 

E. G. An abbreviation for Exempli 
gratia, that is, for example, or by way of 
example. 

EGG. The foetus or production of feather¬ 
ed fowls; that which they lay, and from 
which they hatch their young; also the 
spawn or sperm of other creatures. The 
eggs of birds are composed of the shell, or 
external coating, a thin, white, and strong 


EKE 133 

membrane, the albumen or white, and the 
yo! k. 

EGLANTINE. The wild rose 

EGRET. A bird of the heron tribe. 

EIDER-DUCK. A kind of duck remark 
able for the softness of its down 

EIDOURANION. An exhibition of the 
heavens and the heavenly bodies. 

EJECTMENT. A writ or action which 
lies for the lessee for a term of years, who 
is cast out before his term is expired • also 
the putting any one out of an estate by a 
legal process. 

ELASTICITY. That property of bodies, 
of restoring themselves to their former figure 
after any external pressure. Elasticity is 
increased by augmenting the density of 
bodies; thus metals are rendered more 
elastic by being beaten by a hammer: it 
is also sometimes increased by cold ; thus 
the strings of a violin recover their situa¬ 
tion with less force in hot, than in cold 
weather. 

ELECTION (in Law). The choice of 
two remedies, either of which, when cho¬ 
sen, the party is compelled to abide. 

ELECTION. The choosing of persons 
to a particular office or situation by a ma¬ 
jority of voices, as in England the election 
of parish officers, or the election of mem¬ 
bers of parliament, which takes place eve¬ 
ry seven years. The state elections here, 
are generally annual. The President, 
and Vice President are elected once in four 
years. 

ELECTIVE ATTRACTION. Another 
name for chemical affinities. 

ELECTOR (in Political Affairs). The 
title of such German princes as formerly 
had a voice in the election of the emperor 
of Germany. 

ELECTOR (in English Law). Any one 
who has the right of giving his voice at an 
election, particularly at an election of a 
member of parliament. The term is appli¬ 
ed in America to voters generally. In 
most of the states, those citizens who pay 
taxes are electors. 

ELATERITE. A mineral pitch, a mas¬ 
sive variety of bitumen; also called el¬ 
astic bitumen. 

ELATERIUM. The Squirting Cucum¬ 
ber, of the order Cucurbitacese. Exti'act 
of elaterium is gathered from this plant 
before it ripens, the juice being gently 
expressed, when a green sediment is 
deposited, which is collected and dried; 
one-eighth of a grain operates as a dras¬ 
tic imrge. 

ELATROMETER. In physics, an in¬ 
strument for measuring the degree of 
diversity or rarefaction of air contained 
in the receiver of an air-pump. 



136 


ELE 


ELI 


ELECTRIC;, or ELECTRICAL. Con¬ 
taining electricity, or capable of exhibit¬ 
ing it when excited by friction; derived 
from or produced by electricity; com¬ 
municating a shock like electricity. 
Electric aura is a current of electrified 
air, employed as a mild stimulant in 
electrifying sensitive parts, as the ear 
or the eye. Electric circuit, or Electric 
current, is the transmission of electric¬ 
ity from a body overcharged to one that 
is undercharged, through the agency of 
metallic wires or conductors. Electric 
column is a sort of electric pile invented 
by De Luc, composed of thin plates of 
different metals, with paper interposed 
between them. Electric telegraph is a 
mode of transmitting messages and in¬ 
telligence by means of electricity over 
wires, either for long or short distances. 
Electric wire is the popular name for the 
wires of the magnetic telegraph. 

ELECTRICITY. The subtile agent cal¬ 
led the electric fluid, usually excited by 
friction; the science which unfolds the 
phenomena and laws of the electric 
fluid. It was so called from the Greek 
word for amber., because it was in the 
friction of this substance that it was 
first observed. The phenomena of el¬ 
ectricity are such as attraction and re¬ 
pulsion, heat and light, shocks of the 
animal system, and mechanical violence. 

ELECTRO. A term extensively used 
as a prefix in the composition of words 
appertaining to electricity; as Electro¬ 
biology, the science of electrical forces 
as shown in mesmerism. Electro-chem¬ 
istry, that portion of electric science 
which treats of the agency of electricity 
and galvanism in effecting chemical 
changes. Electro-chemical, that which 
pertains to electro-chemistry. Electro¬ 
dynamics, the phenomena of electricity 
in motion. Electro-gilding, a mode of 
gilding copper or silver by the agency 
of voltaic electricity. Electro-magnetic, 
designating what pertains to magnet¬ 
ism, as connected v r ith electricity, or 
affected by it. Electro-magnetic Tele¬ 
graph, an apparatus for conveying in¬ 
telligence, by means of electricity 
moving between two places on iron 
wires. Electro-magnetism, that science 
which treats of the agency of electricity 
and galvanism in communicating mag¬ 
netic properties. Electro-metallurgy, 
the art of depositing metals held in sol¬ 
ution, as silver, gold, &c., on prepared 
surfaces, through the agency of voltaic 
electricity or galvanism. See Electro¬ 
type. Electro-motion, the motion of el- 
ictricity or galvanism, or the passing of 
it from one metal to another. Electro¬ 
motive, producing electro-motion. El¬ 
ectro-negative, a term denoting the 
natural state of a body, or a particle of 
matter, which makes it tend to the pos¬ 
itive pole of a voltaic battery. Electro- 
polar, a term applied to conductors, one 
enci or surface of which is positive and 
the other negative. Electro-positive, a 
term denoting the natural state of a 


body, or a particle of matter, whicn 
makes it tend to the negative pole of a 
voltaic battery. Electro-telegraphic, 
belonging to the electro-magnetic tele¬ 
graph, or by its means. 

ELECTRODE. A name applied to what 
is called the pole of the voltaic circle. 
The electrodes are the surfaces, air, 
water, metal, &c., which serve to convey 
an electric current into and from the 
liquid to be decomposed. 

ELECTROLYSIS. The act of decom¬ 
posing a compound substance by the 
action of electricity or galvanism. 

ELECTROLYTE. A compound which 
may be directly decomposed by an elec¬ 
tric current. 

ELECTROLYZE. To decompose a com¬ 
pound substance by the direct action of 
electi'icity or galvanism. 

ELECTROMETER. An instrument for 
measuring the quantity or intensity of 
electrici ty, or for indicating the presence 
of electricity; an instrument for dis¬ 
charging electricity from ajar. 

ELECTRON. Amber; also a mixture 
of gold with a fifth part of silver. 

ELECTRO-PLATE. A precipitation of 
silvei; pr gold on a surface of copper, or 
German silver metal. 

ELECTROSCOPE. An instrument for 
rendering electrical excitation apparent 
by it3 effects. 

ELECTRO-TINT. The art or process by 
which an etching is produced through 
the means of galvanism. The plate 
used for the purpose is of mixed metal, 
presenting a white surface, such as 
German silver. The artist sketches his 
design on the dull white surface by 
means of brushes and composition. All 
the parts Avhich are white in the im¬ 
pression are left uncovered by the paint. 
When the picture is finished, it is coated 
with black-lead, and exposed to the 
electro-coppering process, by which a 
plate is produced for working in the 
copper-plate press, having the lines of 
the device marked in intaglio, or sunken. 

ELECTROTYPE. The art of depositing 
metals held in solution, and of executing 
fac-simile representations by galvanism, 
sometimes called Electro-metallurgy. 
Electro-plating, which is effected on 
this principle, is a pi’ocess by which a 
pattern, cast in alloy or white metal, 
composed of copper, nickel, and zinc— 
hard white, and fusible only at a high 
temperature — after being properly 
chased and prepared, and dipped in a 
vessel containing a solution of phos¬ 
phorous, is transferred to a tank or 
trough, and subjected to galvanic 
agency. In the tank is a chemical solu¬ 
tion of silver; and the wires of a galvan¬ 
ic battery are so arranged that the cur¬ 
rent, in completing its circuit, must 
necessarily pass through the solution. 
The result is, the solution is decom¬ 
posed, and a fine film of metallic silver 
is deposited on the surfaces of the ar¬ 
ticles suspended in the trough. 




ELE 


ELECTRO-BALLISTIC APPARA¬ 
TUS. An instrument for determining 
by electricity the velocity of a projec¬ 
tile at any part of its flight. 

ELECTRO-BIOLOGY. A term ap¬ 
plied to ascertain mental phenomena, 
supposed by some to be produced by 
the various applications of mesmerism 
to the human bodv. 

ELECTRO CALICO-PRINTING. 
The art of producing patterns on cloth 
by the chemical action of the voltaic 
current. The process may be thus de¬ 
scribed : if, for instance, a blue pattern 
is to be printed on a white ground, the 
cloth having been wetted with a very 
dilute hydro-chloric acid, is placed on 
a sheet of tin-foil or other conducting 
surface connected with the negative 
electrode of a voltaic battery. AT plate 
of iron upon which the required pattern 
has been painted in varnish, is now 
connected with the positive electrode 
of the apparatus, and applied to the 
cloth. Electro-chemical action is at 
once set up, and the exposed portions 
of the metallic surface are dissolved by 
the acid, and the chloride of iron thus 
formed becomes fixed in the cloth. To 
develop the pattern, the cloth is now 
passed through a bath of prussiate of 
potash, which produces a beautiful blue 
color wherever the iron has touched, 
but which does not affect the parts 
which the varnish has shielded. 

ELECTRICITY, History of. It does 
not appear that the ancients had anything 
more tiian an imperfect and partial know¬ 
ledge of the electric fluid. Thales, the 
Milesian, who lived about six hundred 
years before Christ, was aware of the 
electrical property of amber, that when 
rubbed it would attract light bodies to 
itself; and Theophrastus observed that 
lyncurium or tourmalin possessed the same 
property, but beyond this there is no men¬ 
tion of the subject, either by this or any 
other writer, until the seventeenth century, 
when Dr. William Gilbert, a native of 
Colchester, published his treatise ‘ Do 
Magnete,* in which we find many impor¬ 
tant and interesting particulars. These re¬ 
ceived farther illustration from the experi¬ 
ments of Boyle, Otto Guericke, Dr. Wall, 
and some others, but more especially from 
Mr. Hawksbee, who, in his work on elec¬ 
tricity, first noticed the electrical power in 
glass, and the light proceeding from it. 
He also first heard the snapping noise that 
accompanies excitation, and noticed the 
different phenomena relating to electrical 
attraction and repulsion : besides, by intro¬ 
ducing the glass globe into the electrical 
apparatus, he much facilitated his own 
sxperiments and those of others. After 
an interval of about twenty years, Mr. 
Stephen Grey added very materially to the I 


ELE Ur; 

science of electricity by numerous impor 
tant experiments. He first showed how 
the power of native electrics might be 
communicated to other bodies in which it 
cannot be excited, by supporting them on 
silken lines, hair lines, cakes of resin oi 
glass. He also more accurately distinguish¬ 
ed between electrics and noneleetrics, and 
displayed the effect of electricity on watei 
more clearly than Gilbert had done. 

The experiments of Mr. Grey were 
elucidated and enlarged by M. du Fay, 
member of the Academy of Sciences at 
Paris. He observed that electrical opera 
tions were obstructed by great heat, as 
well as by a moist air; that all bodies, both 
solid and fluid, would receive electricity, 
when placed on warm or dry glass or seal¬ 
ing wax: that those bodies which are nat¬ 
urally the least electric have the greatest 
degree of electricity communicated to them 
by the approach of the excited tube. He 
first observed the electric spark from a 
living body suspended on silken lines, 
and established a principle first suggested 
by Otto Guericke, that all electric bodies 
attract others that are not so, and repel 
them as soon as they are become electric 
by the vicinity or contact of the electric 
body. He likewise distinguished elec¬ 
tricity into two kinds, which he called vit¬ 
reous, as belonging to glass, rock, crystal, 
&c., and resinous, as applied to that of am¬ 
ber. gum, lac, &c.; the former of these 
has since been called positive electricity, 
and the latter negative. 

Air. Grey resumed his experiments in 
1734, the result of which was the discovery 
of conductors. He also concluded from 
several experiments that the electrical 
power was of the same nature as that of 
thunder and lightning. Desaguliers and 
other experimentalists in France, England, 
and Germany, followed up the experiments 
of Mr. Grey with further researches, which 
displayed the power of electricity in new 
forms, particularly by the discovery that 
if electricity be accumulated in a phial, it 
may be discharged again so as to occasion 
the electric shock. Air. Van Kleist, of 
Leyden, first observed the property of the 
phial, and Cunaeus followed it by exhibit¬ 
ing the experiment. Air Muschenbrock, 
who also tried the experiment with a very 
thin bowl, assured M. Reaumur, in a letter, 
that he felt himself struck in his arms, 
shoulder, and breast, so that he lost his 
breath, and was two days before he reco¬ 
vered from the effects of the blow, and 
the terror which this unexpected result 
produced. He added that he would not 
receive a second shock for the whole king 






138 


ELF, 


dom of France. M. Allemand made the 
experiment with a common beer glass, 
from which he found himself powerfully 
affected in his breath, and felt so severe a 
pain all along his right arm, that he appre¬ 
hended serious consequences from it. These 
inconveniences, however, passed off after 
a few days, and others being induced to 
repeat the experiment, the practice of 
electricity became soon after common, and 
was, after a time, also applied to medical 
purposes. Machines of different forms were 
now invented, and the electrical apparatus 
was continually enlarged, by some new 
device, to increase the force or direct the 
operations of the electricity ; among other 
things, when it was ascertained that light¬ 
ning was no other than electrical matter, 
conducting rods began to be employed on 
the tops of buildings and on the masts of 
vessels, for the purpose of saving them 
from the effects of storms. Many important 
treatises on the science of electricity have 
been written within the last century, by 
Adams, Cavallo, Cavendish, Ferguson, 
Galvani, Franklin, Faraday, &c. 

ELECTRIFYING. The communication 
of electric matter to any body; when this 
is effected by means of a charged phial, it 
is called an electric shock. 

ELECTROMETER. An instrument for 
measuring the quantity and determining 
\he quality of the electricity in any electri¬ 
fied body 



ELECTROPHORUS. A machine con¬ 
sisting of two plates, one of which is a 
resinous electric and the other metallic. 
When the former is once excited by a 
peculiar application of the latter, the in¬ 
strument will furnish electricity for a con¬ 
siderable time. This is one of the inge¬ 
nious contrivances devised by Professor 
Volta, about the year 1774, which may 
ser»e as a good substitute for tl e electrical 
machine When pi aperly constructed, it 


ELE 

has been known to retain its electricity ha 
three weeks. 

ELECTUARY (in Pharmacy). A me 
dicinal composition, in which honey ot 
sirup forme a necessary ingredient. 

ELEGIAC VERSE. A sort of verse use£ 
in elegies 

ELEGY. A plaintive kind of poetry, or 
a funeral song 

ELEMENTS (in Chemistry) The first 
principles of which bodies were supposed 
by the ancients to be composed ; these were 
fire, air, earth, and water. In modern 
chemistry no such elementary principles 
are admitted, because it is considered that 
all bodies either are or may be decom 
posed 

ELEMENTS (in Geometry). The infi¬ 
nitely small parts of a right line, curve, or 
solid. 

ELEMENTS (in Science). The first 
principles of any science. 

ELEMENTS (in Divinity), The bread 
and wine prepared for the sacrament of the 
Lord’s Supper. 

ELEMENTS (in Grammar). The letters 
of the alphabet, which are the elements of 
language 

ELEPHANT. The largest, strongest,and 
most sensible of all quadrupeds. It is not 
carnivorous, but feeds on herbs, and all 
sorts of pulse. It is naturally very gentle, 
but when enraged is very terrible. It is 
common in the central and southern parts 
of Africa, and in India. In the latter 
country it is tamed and rendered useful as 
a beast of burden. There is a white spe 
cies, which in the Birman Empire, is re¬ 
verenced by the people. In central Africa 
Major Denham saw a herd of 150 



ELEVATION (in Astronomy). Th 
height of the equator, pole, or star, fee 
above the horizon. 

ELEVATION (in Architecture). + 
draught or description of the face or prin 
cipal side of a building, which in common 
language, is called the upright 









ELxM 


EMB 


138 


ELEVATION (in Gunnery;. The angle 
which the chase of a cannon or mortar 
makes with the place of the horizon. 

ELEVATION OF THE HOST (in the 
Romish Church). That part of the ceremony 
of the mass which consists in the priest’s 
raising the host above his head, for the 
adoration of the people. 

ELF. A wandering spirit supposed to be 
seen in unfrequented places. 

ELGIN MARBLES. Curious marbles 
brought by the Earl of Elgin out of Greece, 
and deposited in the British Museum. 

ELISION (in Grammar). The striking 
out a vowel at the end of a word, as ‘ th’ 
arch,’ for ‘ the arch.’ 

ELIXIR. A very powerful tincture. 
The Grand Elixir is another word for an 
all-powerful medicine. 

ELK. The largest of the deer kind, and 
inhabits the northern parts of both conti¬ 
nents. It is called Moose in America 



ELL. A measure of length, different in 
different countries. The English and Flem¬ 
ish ells are the most used : the former of 
which is three feet nine inches, or one yard 
•’nd a quarter; the latter only three quar- 
i,rs of a yard. 

ELLIPSIS, or ELLIPSE. A curve 
wh ch cuts the cone obliquely through both 
sides It is vulgarly called an oval, as in 


H 



the subjoined figure, A H B 1, where 
A B is tha transverse diameter, H 1 the 
conjugate diameter 


ELM. A sort of tree which grows to a 
very great height, and thrives best in a 
rich black earth. The timber of elm in 
England is next to that of oak for value, 
being particularly useful for mills. 

ELOCUTION (in Rhetoric). The adapt¬ 
ing words and sentences, to the things or 
sentiments to be expressed. It consists in 
apt expressions, the happy order in dis¬ 
posing the words, and a certain musical 
cadence which arises from the whole. 

ELONGATION (in Astronomy). The 
removal of a planet to the farthest distance 
it can be from the sun, as it appears to an 
observer on the earth. 

ELOPEMENT (in Law). The volun 
tary departure of a wife from her husband 
to go and live with an adulterer; in com¬ 
mon acceptation, the secret departure of 
any female with her lover. 

ELVSIAN FIELDS. The paradise of 
the heathens. 

EMANCIPATION. A deliverance from 
slavery or servitude; also the release of 
the Roman Catholics from the disabilities 
which prevented them from filling offices 
of state. 

EMBALMING. The filling a dead body 
with spices, gums, and other antiseptics, to 
prevent it from putrifying. The Egyptians 
practised this art most successfully, so that 
bodies which they embalmed two thousand 
years ago, remain whole to this day. 

EMBARGO (in Commerce). A prohi¬ 
bition issued by authority on all shipping, 
not to leave any port. 

EMBER DAYS. Particular days of fast¬ 
ing and humiliation in the Ember weeks. 

EMBER WEEKS. Four seasons in the 
year, more particularly set apart for prayer 
and fasting, namely, the first week in Lent 
the next after Whitsuntide, the fourteenth 
of September, and the thirteenth of De¬ 
cember. 

EMBEZZLEMENT. The appropriating 
a thing to one’s own use, which has been 
intrusted to one. 

EMBLEM. A kind of painted enigma, 
or certain figures painted or cut metaphor¬ 
ically, expressing some action. 

EMBOSSING. A sort of sculpture or 
carving, where the figure is protuberant, 
and projects from the plane in which it ia 
cut. 

EMBRASURE (in Architecture). An 
enlargement made in a wall. 

EMBRASURE (in Fortification). A 
hole in a parapet for the reception of a gun. 

EMBROCATION A kind of fomenta¬ 
tion. 

EMBROIDERY. Figured work 
wrought on. silk, cloth, or stuffs 







EJN (1 


i40 ENA 

EMBRYO The foetus, or child in the 
womb. 

EMENDATION. An alteration made 
in the text of any book by verbal criticism. 

EMENDATION (in Law). The correc¬ 
tion of abuses. 

EMERALD. A precious stone of a 
green colour, and next in hardness to the 
ruby. 

EMERSION (in Astronomy). The re¬ 
appearance of the sun and moon after they 
have undergone an eclipse ; also of a star 
that emerges from under the rays of the 
sun. 

EMERY. A sort of iron ore, of a gray¬ 
ish-black colour, so very hard as to scratch 
topaz, and not to be frangible. It consists 
^alumina, silica, and iron, and is used in 

' form of a powder for polishing hard 
«rals and metals. 

<TU. A large bird of New Holland, 
•a to the cassowary and ostrich. Its 
\ Jgs, which are useless for flight, serve 

balance the body when running. The 
Ei, ^ wren is also an Australian bird, 
bev ‘ng a close resemblance to the emu. 

EmOLLESCENCE. In metallurgy, the 
softmiing of a metal when beginning to 
meh •. the lowest degree of fusibility. 

EI\ PAISTIC. In the arts, a kind of in¬ 
laid \,cork, which bears some resem¬ 
blance to the modern buhl, and consists 
of inlaid threads or pieces of different 
metals impressed into other metals. 

EMMET. An ant or pismire. 

EMOLL ’ENTS. Softening medicines. 

EMPALl MENT (in Botany). The 
flower cup, r the green leaves which cov¬ 
er the flowe 

EMPANNAL. The writing the names 
of a jury im'o a small pannel or parch¬ 
ment, or maki \g out a list of such as are 
to be summoru 1 to serve on a jury. 

EMPEROR, imong the Romans, im- 
perator, or com wider, a title of political 
dignity assumei y Augustus and his suc¬ 
cessors ; now a s 'ereign prince who bears 
rule over large countries. 

EMPIRIC. Literally, a trier or experi¬ 
menter ; particularly, one who, without 
regard to the rules of science, makes ex¬ 
periments with medicines; a quack. 

EMPORIUM. A common resort of mer¬ 
chants for trade. 

EMPYREUMA The peculiar smell of 
burnt substances in distillation. 

EMULSION. A medicinal drink. 

ENAMEL (in Anatomy). The fine ex¬ 
terior covering of the teeth. 

EN AMEL (in Painting). A composition 
of mineral colours, formed from metallic 
oxide, and used in potteries. 

ENAMELLER. One who professes the 
art of painting with enamel colours. 


ENCAMPMENT. The pitching ol 
tents or disposing an army in an open 
country. 

ENCHANTMENT. Magical charms 
practised for purposes of fraud 

ENCHASING. The beautifying gold 
silver, and other metal works by figures 
It is practised only on hollow thin woiks, 
as watchcases, caneheads, and the like. It 
is performed by punching or driving out 
the metal to form the figure, so as to stand 
out prominent from the surface of the 
metal. 

ENCHYRIDION. A manual or small 
volume. 

ENCLOSING. The parting off of com¬ 
mon grounds, into distinct possessions. 

ENCORE. Literally, again ; to be.re¬ 
peated, as applied to any song or perform¬ 
ance in a theatre. 

ENCROACHMENT (in Law). An un¬ 
lawful gaining upon the rights and posses¬ 
sions of another. 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA. A dictionary which 
professes to explain the whole circle of the 
sciences. 

ENDEMIC. An epithet for disorders to 
which the inhabitants of particular coun¬ 
tries are subject. 

ENDIVE. An herbaceous plant, a sort 
of succory, used as a vegetable for the ta¬ 
ble. 

ENDORSING. Writing on the back of 
a bill of exchange or check. 

ENDOWMENT (in England). The 
giving or assuring a dower to a woman 
also the assigning certain rents and reven¬ 
ues for the maintenance of a vicar, alms¬ 
houses, &c. 

ENFRANCHISEMENT (in Law). The 
making a person a denizen, or free citi¬ 
zen. 

ENGINE (in Mechanics). A compound 
machine, consisting of one or more me¬ 
chanical powers, as of screws, levers, pul- 
lies, &c. in order to raise, cast, or sustain 
any weighty body. 

ENGINEER. One whose office is to 
conduct the attack and defence of all for¬ 
tresses. 

ENGLISH, or the ENGLISH LAN¬ 
GUAGE. A compound of the original 
British or Welsh, the Anglo-Saxon, Nor¬ 
man, French, Latin, and Greek, which is 
now spoken not only in all parts of Great 
Britain, but throughout North America and 
all the English colonies in different parts 
of the habitable globe. 

ENGRAVING. The art of representing 
figures in metal, wood, or stone, by means 
of lines cut thereon. 

ENGRAVING, Histort or. Engrav 



ENGRAVING. 


141 


Ing, at, ..M as rega»„s the representation of 
figures or characters on metal, stone, or 
wood, was one of the first arts on which 
human ingenuity was exercised. Moses 
speaks of the art of engraving as no new 
invention. The tables which God deliver¬ 
ed to Moses are said to be the work of God, 
and the writing was the writing of God 
engraved upon the tables. The first en¬ 
gravings of human workmanship mention¬ 
ed in the Scriptures, were executed by Aho- 
liab and Bezaleel, for the decoration of the 
tabernacle and the ornaments for the dress 
of Aaron. It is also said that the tables of 
Seth contained the astronomical discove¬ 
ries of that patriarch and his sons. Tn 
process of time we find that the clasps, 
buckles, rings, and other ornamental parts 
of dress, as also the cups and other house¬ 
hold furniture, together with the arms of 
military chieftains, were probably enriched 
with the first specimens of engraving. The 
shields of the Carians, as described by 
Herodotus, were ornamented with rude 
portraitures, as were also those of the an¬ 
cient Celtic nations, but the hieroglyphic 
figures of the Egyptians afford the best and 
earliest specimens of engraving properly 
socalled. The Phoenicians probably learn¬ 
ed this art from the Egyptians; and their 
coins, which are looked upon to be among 
the most ancient extant, prove, as Mr. 
Strutt observes, that they were by no means 
indifferent artists. It is, however, gener¬ 
ally supposed, that there are no remains in 
antiquity, either in sculpture, painting, or 
engraving, prior to those of Etruscan orig¬ 
inal. Some of those which are preserved 
in the British Museum are exceedingly 
rude, and evidently executed with the 
graver only upon a flat surface, and if fill¬ 
ed with ink and run through a printing 
press, provided the plate would endure the 
operation, might produce a fair and perfect 
impression. 

The art of engraving on their shields 
was practised by the Saxons, in common 
with the other northern tribes. Alfred the 
Great encouraged this among the other 
arts, and the works of the S&xon artists, 
as their shrines and caskets, rose by his 
encouragement and that of his successors, 
considerably in estimation, not only in 
England but on the continent. Strutt men¬ 
tions a curious remnant of antiquity in the 
Museum at Oxford, namely, a very valu¬ 
able jewel, made of gold, and richly 
aaorned with a kind of work resembling 
filagree, in the midst of which is seen the 
half figure of a man, supposed to be Saint 
Suthbert. The back of this jewel, which 
was engraved by command of Alfred, is 


ornamented vith foliage very skilfully 
executed. Saint Dunstan, the celebrated 
archbishop of Canterbury, who died a. d. 
988, is also noted for his skill in the arts. 
Osborn, his biographer, enumerates among 
his other endowments that he could ‘ scal- 
pello imprimere ex auro, argento, aere, et 
ferro. ’ 

After the Conquest, it appears that en¬ 
graving, which had hitherto been mostly 
followed in conjunction with the sister arts 
of carving and chasing, was now followed 
as a distinct art, and carried to a higher 
state of perfection, as may be learned from 
the brass plates so frequently to be met 
with in the English churches or on the 
tombstones in the fourteenth and following 
centuries. These are usually ornamented 
with the effigies of the person to whose 
memory they are dedicated, and are evi 
dently executed by the graver only; the 
outlines being first made, then the shad¬ 
ows are expressed by strokes strengthened 
in proportion as they required more force, 
and occasionally crossed with other strokes 
a second or third time, precisely in the 
same manner as copperplate is at present 
engraved for printing. Thus we see that 
the art of engraving was for a long time 
practised, before it was made to answer 
the noble purpose, of perpetuating tiie la 
bours of the painter 

That branch of the art of engraving 
which consists in taking impressions on 
paper was, according to Giorgio Vasari, 
first practised by the Italians, and took its 
rise from an accident. One Maso Fini- 
guerra, an ingenious goldsmith and sculp¬ 
tor of Florence in the fifteenth century, 
used to design and emboss figures on gold 
and other metals, and before he inlaid them, 
he used to fill the engraving with earth, 
and cast melted sulphur on it, which gave 
it a sort of olive colour, after which, 
pressing a piece of damp paper on it with 
a smooth wooden roller, the engraving on 
the metal remained imprinted on the paper 
just as if it had been designed with a pen 
in consequence of which And ew Man 
tegna set about making regular prints from 
his engravings. The correctness of this 
story, however, as far as regards the prior 
ity of the discoverer, is disputed by Strut! 
and others. 

It should seem that impressions from 
engravings on wood, had been taken in 
Germany prior to this, and that the brief 
malers, or the makers of playing cards, 
practised the art of card making about th« 
fifteen'll century, and from the making of 
cards were led to the execution of other 
figures of a devout nature, so as t, form a 




142 


ENN 


ENT 


Kind of books confining a history of the 
Old and New Testament, which was 
printed only on one side of the paper. In 
this manner the engraving both in wood 
and brass continued to be followed by the 
same artists, and in their hands made great 
advances to perfection. Martin Schoen, 
of Culmbach, was one of the first who 
distinguished himself in this art. Israel 
von Mecheln, of Mechelen, was the rival of 
of Schoen ; the style of which latter artist 
was flowed by Albert Durer. After this 
arose a succession of distinguished en¬ 
gravers in France, England, and Holland. 

Engraving in chiaro-scuro is justly as¬ 
cribed to the Germans, and was first 
practised by Muir. At what time etching 
was introduced, is not known. One of the 
most early specimens of a print, by Albert 
Durer, is known by the name of the 
Cannon, dated 1518. 

Engraving with dots, called stippling, 
was of Italian invention, and was first 
practistd by Agostino de Musis. The 
method of engraving in mezzotinto was 
'jommenced about the middle of the sev- 
mleenth century. Engraving in aquatinta 
is a recent invention. In modern times, 
every species of engraving lias made great 
advances toward perfection. For mezzo¬ 
tinto and line engraving, steel has been 
.ately brought into use, which not only 
enables the engraver to give greater delica¬ 
cy, and a higher finish to his works, but 
affords ten times as many good impressions. 
Copper is now little used for fine engra¬ 
vings. 

In wood engraving there has bten still 
greater improvement. A few years since 
it was imagined that the birds and beasts 
of Bewick could never be surpassed. 
But Branstone Wright, Thompson and oth¬ 
ers, in England have given a degree of 
spirit, delicacy and beauty to their produc¬ 
tions, of which it was supposed that wood 
engravings were unsusceptible. They 
have shown that the art is one of great 
scope, and is capable of producing ef¬ 
fects superior, in some departments, to line 
engraving. 

ENGROSSING. The writing any thing 
(air in a large band. 

ENLISTING. The entering for a soldier 
Into the military service for a certain stip¬ 
ulated time, as far a term of seven years, 
or during a war &.c. 

ENSIGN The banner under which 
the soldiers are ranged, according to the 
different regiments to which they belong; 
also the officer who carries the ensign or 
colours. 

ENN Cl Listless fatigue. 


ENNEANDR1A (in Botany;. Utte of 
Linmeus’s classes of plants, inc luding such 
as bear hermaphrodite flowers, with nine 
stamens, as the bay, the cashe w nut, the 
flowering rush, &c 



ENTABLATURE. That part of a column 
which is over the capital, comprehending 
the architrave, frize, and cornice. 

ENTAIL. An entailed estate, or an 
estate abridged and limited, by certain 
conditions prescribed by the firsl donor. 

ENTERTAINMENT. A species of the¬ 
atrical representation following a tragedy 
or comedy ; it may be either a farce or a 
pantomime, &c. 

ENTOMOLOGY. The science which 
treats of insects, as to their structure, 
habits, and varieties. The body of an in- 
sectconsistsoffourprincipal parts, namely, 
the head, the trunk, the abdomen, and the 
limbs or extremities. The head is fur¬ 
nished in most insects with eyes, antennae 
or horns, and a mouth. The eyes are 
various, both in colour, shape, and number, 
in different kinds, some being of a different 
colour from that of the head, and some of 
the same colour, some placed close to¬ 
gether, or almost touching each other, some 
having the pupil glassy and transparent, 
others having it scarcely distinguishable 
Many insects have, besides the large eye3, 
also three small spherical bodies placed 
triangularly on the crown of the head, 
called ocelli, or stemmata. The antennae 
are two articulated moveable processes, 
placed on the head, which are also subject 
to great variety in their form and struc¬ 
ture, being setaceous, or bristle shaped 
filiform, or thread-shaped, &c. The mouth 
in most insects is situated in the lower 
part of th# head, and consist of the lips, 
upper and lower; the mandibles, or horny 
substances, one on each side of the mouth; 
the maxillae, or jaws, two membranaceous 
substances, differing in figure from the 
mandibles, under which they are situated; 
the tongue, an involuted tubular organ, 
which constitutes the whole month in some 
insects, as the sphinx ; the rostrum, beak, 
or snout, a moveable articulated member 
in the grasshopper, the aphis, &x ; the 
proboscis, or trunk, which serves as ■ 
mouth in the house fly, bee, and some 






ENTOMOLOGY. 


143 


other insects; the feelers, small moveable 
filiform organs, placed mostly on each side 
the jaw, and resembling the antennae, but 
much smaller; these vary in number from 
two to six in different insects. 

The trunk, which is the second general 
division of which an insect consists, com¬ 
prehends that portion situated between 
the head and the abdomen. This consists 
of the thorax, or upper part of the body, 
to which tiie first pair of legs is attached ; 
the breast, or under part of the thorax, to 
which the four posterior feet are attached; 
the breast bone, a ridge running under the 
ireast, which is conspicuous in some in¬ 
sects ; and the scutellum, or escutcheon, a 
fcbe-like process, situated at the posterior 
oart of the thorax. 

The abdomen, or third principal portion 
of an insect’s body, is composed of annular 
joints, or segments, which vary in form 
tnd number in different insects; this is 
distinguished into the back, or upper pa/t, 
ind the belly, or under part. The motion 
ff the abdomen is most visible in the fly 
ind bee tribes. To this division belong 
ilso the tail and the sting. The tail some¬ 
times spreads like a leaf, as in the cock¬ 
roach ; and in other insects is bristle¬ 
shaped. The sting, which is peculiar to 
insects of the bee tribe and some few 
others, is sometimes simple, having but 
one dart, and sometimes compound, having 
two darts. In bees and wasps the sting is 
retractile, that is, capable of being drawn 
in ; but in other insects it is almost always 
hid in the body, or seldom thrust out. In 
some tribes of insects it exists in the males, 
In others in the females only, but seldom 
in both sexes. 

The members or extremities of insects 
ire the legs and the wings Insects have 
lometiraes six legs, but never more, except 
what are observable in the larvre, which 
ire termed spirious feet. The feet vary in 
their form and use, being formed either 
for running, swimming, or leaping, with 
or without claws or spines, Sc c. The wings 
are mostly two, but sometimes four in 
number; mostly placed on each side the 
insect, so as that each pair should corres¬ 
pond in situation, form, &c.; but where 
the^e is more than one pair, the first are 
m</Stly larger than those behind. The 
wings are greatly diversified as to form, 
figure texture, construction, Sec. To the 
wings belong also the elytra, or wing 
cases, and the lialteres, or poisers. The 
elytra are two coriaceous wings, which 
are expanded in flight, but when at rest 
serve to cover the abdomen and enclose 
their membmnaceous wings, as in insects 


of the beetle tribe; the poisers are two 
globular bodies placed on slender etalka 
behind the wings in the tribe of winged 
insects, so called because they are sup¬ 
posed to keep the insect steady in its 
flight. 

The internal parts of insects are less 
perfect and distinct than those of larger 
animals, and of couise less known. The 
brain of insects is altogether different from 
the substance which bears that name in 
other animals, being little more than gan¬ 
glions of nerves, two in number, that are 
observed in the crab, lobster, &.c. The 
muscles consist of fasciculi of fibres, that 
serve apparently the office of producing 
two motions, namely, that of extending 
and that of bending. Some insects appear 
to be furnished with some floating vessels 
which secrete a fluid varying in colour in 
different tribes, but very similar to saliva 
The oesophagus, or organ of deglutition, is 
a straight short tube, consisting of annulai 
muscular fibres, like the proboscis of the 
common fly. 

The organs of digestion vary very much 
in different tribes of insects. Most have a 
single stomach, but some have it double, 
and others have a manifold stomach. In 
bees the stomach is membranaceous, fitted 
to receive the nectar of flowers: the bug, 
the boat fly, and such as feed on animal 
substances, have a muscular stomach. The 
beetle, ladybird, earwig, and some others 
that feed on other insects, have a double 
stomach, the first of which is muscular, 
after the manner of a gizzard, and the 
second is a membranaceous canal. Insects 
such as the cricket and grasshopper, which 
have many stomachs, seem to employ them 
much after the manner of the ruminating 
animals. 

Instead of organs of respiration, it has 
been found that they have spiracula run¬ 
ning on each side the body that serve for 
the reception of the air, and other vessels 
proceeding from these that serve for the 
exspiration of air. Insects, among the 
ancients, were reckoned to be bloodless 
animals; but it has since been ascertained 
that the process both of circulation and 
secretion goes forward in the bodies of 
insects, although in a different manner. 
The process of secretion is supposed to be 
performed by means of a number of long 
slender vessels, which float in the internal 
cavity of the body, serving to se:rete 
different fluids, according to the nature of 
the animal; thus the bee, wasp, sphinx, 
Sec. have two vessels situated at the bottom 
of the sting, through which they discharge 
an aettd fluid. From the ant is extracted 




144 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


in acid well known to chymists,and other 
insects have other fluids peculiar to them¬ 
selves. As to the process of circulation in 
insects, little more is known at present 
than that a contraction and dilatation of 
'.lie vessels is observable in some kinds, 
particularly in caterpillars; but the fluid 
which is supposed to supply the place of 
blood is not of the same colour. 

The sexes in insects are of three kinds, 
namely, the males, the females, and the 
neuters, which have not the usual marks 
of either sex. The sexes are distinguished 
by the difference of size, brightness of 
colours, form of the antennae, Sec .; the 
male is always smaller than the female, 
and in some cases the female is several 
hundred times bigger than the male; on 
the other hand, the males have brighter 
colours and larger antenme. In many 
cases the females have no wings; and in 
some instances, as that of the bee, the 
female has a sting, but the male none. 

The metamorphoses of insects is one 
characteristic of these animals which dis¬ 
tinguishes them from all others. In most 
insects the egg is the first state ; but there 
are examples of viviparous insects, as in 
the case of the aphis, the fly, Sec. The 
insect in the second or caterpillar state, is 
now called the larva, but formerly the 
eruca. The larvs differ very much in 
different insects ; those of the butterfly and 
moth are properly called caterpillars, those 
of the flies and bees are called maggots. 
The IarviE of the beetle tribe differ from the 
complete insect only by being destitute of 
wings. Butterflies, in their caterpillar 
state, are very voracious, but in their com¬ 
plete state they are satisfied with the 
lightest and most delicate nutriment. The 
third state into which insects transform 
themselves is the pupa, or chrysalis. In 
most of the beetle tribe the pupa is fur¬ 
nished with short legs, but the pupa of 
the butterfly tribe is without legs : that of 
the fly tribe is oval, but that of the bee 
Sribe is very shapeless. The last and per¬ 
fect state of insects is called by Linnaus 
the image, in which state it continues 
until its extinction. The life of insects 
varies as to its duration. Some, as bees 
and spiders, are supposed to live for a 
considerable time; but others will not live 
beyond a year, a day, or some hours, in 
their perfect state, although they will con¬ 
tinue for some time in their larva state. 
Water insects generally live longer than 
land insects. 

As to the classification of insects, it 
suffices here to observe, that Linnsus, 
Whose system is now generally followed, 


has classed them according to iheir winge 
into seven orders, namely, 1. L'oleoptera, 
or such as have shells that cover the wings, 
as the beetle tribe. 2. Ilemiptera, or half 
winged insects, as the cock-roach, locust, 
grasshopper, bug, Sec. 3. Lepidoptera, or 
scaly winged insects, as the butterfly and 
the moth. 4. Neuroptera, or nerve-winged 
or fibre-winged insects, the wings of which 
are furnished with conspicuous nerves, 
fibres, or ramifications, as the dragon fly. 
May fly, troat fly. 5. Hymenoptera, or 
insects with four wings and a sting, as the 
bee, wasp, hornet, terires, or white ant. 
Sec. 6. Diptera, or two-winged insects, 
as the gnat, common fly, musquitto, horse¬ 
leech, &c. 7. Aptera, or insects without 
wings, as the spider, flea, lobster, scorpion, 
&c. 

ENTOMOLOGY, Hjstorv of. There 
are scattered notices respecting insects at 
an early period, from which we may infer 
that they had not escaped the notice of 
inquirers into the animal kingdom. Among 
the books of Solomon now lost to the 
world, it is recorded that he treated on 
insects or creeping things. Hippocrates 
wrote a work on insects, from which Pliny 
has given some few extracts. The labours 
of Aristotle on this subject are still extant, 
and show that he had made insects his 
particular study. What he has written on 
this subject has not been surpassed in 
accuracy by any thing that has followed 
Nicander, Callimachus, and above all The 
ophrastus, are mentioned as writers on in¬ 
sects ; but there is no work extant on that 
subject before the time of the Romans. 
Virgil treats on the subject of bees, which 
were much cultivated in his time. Pliny 
has devoted the eleventh book of his 
Natural History to this subject, and men¬ 
tions several Latin writers who had direct¬ 
ed their attention to it. AKlian, in his work 
on animals, devotes several chapters to 
particular insects, as the spider, scorpion, 
cricket, <fcc. ; besides that, the subject is 
slightly touched upon by the medical 
writers .Etius, Paulus Egineta, Trallian, 
and Oribasius, and also by the Arabian 
authors Rhazes, Avicenna, Avenzoar, ani 
Averrhoes. From the twelfth to the fif¬ 
teenth century no writer of any note occurs 
on the subject of entomology. Albertus 
Magnus has devoted some small part of 
his work De Animalibus to this subject. 
Agricola, in his work De Animantibus 
Subteraneis, which appeared in 1549, has 
given the first systematic arrangement of 
Insects, by dividing them into creeping 
insects, flying Insects, and swimming in¬ 
sects. This work was followed in the 



ENT 


EPH 


same century by Dr. Wotton’s work, De 
Differentiis Animalium, and cursory re¬ 
marks on insects in Rondeletius Libri de 
Piscibus Marinis, and in Conrad Gesner’s 
work De cSerpentium Natura. 

A far more important production on the 
subject of insects appeared in 1(302, from 
the pen of that industrious naturalist Al- 
drovandus, entitled De Animalilbus Insec- 
tis, in which he divided them into two 
classes, terrestria and aquatica, and sub¬ 
divided them into orders, according to the 
number, nature, position, &c of their 
wings. This work was followed by the 
Historia Animalium Sacra of Wolfang 
Frenzius, and other works from the pen of 
Fabius Columna, Hoefnagle, and Archibald 
Simpson. This latter work is entitled to 
notice because it was the first work on en- 
omology that had appeared in Britain. 

The graphic art was also called into aid 
about this period, to illustrate the subject 
of entomology, as appears from the works 
of the celebrated engravers Hoefnagle, 
Robert Aubret, De Bry, Vallet, Robin, 
Jonston, &c. The invention of the micro¬ 
scope also afforded great facilities to the 
Btudy of entomology, and enlarged the 
sphere of observation Very considerably. 
Of these facilities many naturalists amply 
availed themselves, as Hooke, Leuwen- 
hoek, Hartsoeker and others. The latter 
writer discovered the circulation of the flu¬ 
ids iu insects. Christopher Marret publish¬ 
er 1 , in 1667, a work containing an account 
of British insects ; and a particular descrip- 
tii n of the tarantula was published about 
th s same time by Wolferdus Sanguerdius ; 
but the most important work on this sub¬ 
ject was Swammerdam’s General History 
of Insects, which displayed an anatomical 
knowledge of these animals that raised 
the reputation of this writer very high. 
This appeared in 1669, and in 1678 Lis¬ 
ter’s valuable History of English Spiders ; 
the year following the first part of Madame 
Merian’s extensive work on the metamor¬ 
phoses of lepidopterous insects, which was 
followed by other parts in 1683, 1718, and 
1726, which last is a splended performance 
on the insects of Surinam. Leuwenhoek 
also, about the same time, added materially 
to the stock of entomological knowledge, 
by giving an account of the anatomy of 
insects, drawn from microecspical obser¬ 
vations. Ray published, in 1710, his His¬ 
toria Insectorum, which was the joint 
labour of himself and his friend Willough¬ 
by. In this history insects are divided 
into the transmutabilia and intransinuta- 
bilia. The transmutabilia are divided into 
four order* aamely, vaginipennes, tnose 
13 


141 

which have wings covered with a sheath , 
papiliones, the lepidopterous insects ; qua- 
dripennes, four winged insects; and bi- 
pennes, two winged insects: which are 
again subdivided into families. In 1735, 
the system of Linnaeus was published, 
which has since been universally adopted. 
It consisted at first of four orders, which 
he afterwards increased to the number of 
seven. Some writers, as Deger, Reitzius, 
and Fabricius, have attempted to improve 
upon the Linnasan system, but their alter¬ 
ations have not been admitted. 

As to the history of insects, many natu¬ 
ralists since his time have contributed their 
share to the stock of information, either 
by the description of the insects in par 
ticular parts, or by the description of in¬ 
sects generally. In 1753, appealed the 
Entomologia Cainiolica of Scopoli; in 
1769, Birkinfront published Outlines of 
Natural History of Britain ; in Seward’s 
Natural History is given an account of 
many exotic insects. In 1770 were pub¬ 
lished Illustrations of Natural History; in 
1775 Fabricius published his Systema En- 
tomologi® ; and within the last few years 
we have had Donovan’* Natural History 
of British Insects, in 15 vols. ; Lamarck’s 
Systeme des Animaux sans vertebres; 
Marcham’s Entomologia Britannica, and 
Kirby’s Monographia Apiiun Angliae. 

ENTRY (in Commerce). The act of 
setting down in merchant’s account books 
the particulars of trade. 

ENTRY (at the Custom House). The 
passing the bills through the hands of the 
proper officers. 

ENTRY (in Law). The taking posses¬ 
sion of lands. 

ENVELOPE. The cover that encloses 
a letter or note. 

ENVIRONS. The country lying round 
a large town or city. 

ENVOY. A person in degree lower 
than an ambassador, sent on some par¬ 
ticular occasion from one government to 
another. 

EPACT (in Chronology). A number 
arising from the excess of the common 
solar year above the lunar, by which the 
age of the moon may be found every 
year. 

EPAULETTE. The shoulder knot worn 
by a soldier or footman. 

EPAULEMENT. A work raised to 
cover sidewise, made of earth, gabions, 
&c 

EPHEMERAL. Beginning and ending 
in a day; an ephemeral insect lives but 
for a day, as the day fly. 

EPHEMRRIS An astronomical alma 



146 


EPI 


■ack or table, showing the state of the 
aeavens for every day at noon. 

EPliOD. A garment worn by the priests 
of the Jews. 

EPIC POEM. A narrative poem formed 
upon a story, partly real and partly ficti¬ 
tious, the subject of which, is always some 
hero or distinguished person. 

EPICENE (in Grammar). An epithet 
for the gender of such words as are com¬ 
mon to both sexes, as in the Latin, hie et 
hasc parens. 

EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY The 
doctrine taught by Epicurus, that the uni¬ 
verse consisted of atoms or corpuscles of 
various forms, magnitudes, and weights, 
which, having been dispersed at random 
through the immense space, fortuitously 
concurred into innumerable systems. To 
this scheme of infidelity he added the notion 
that happiness consisted in sensual indul¬ 
gence, particularly in the pleasures of the 
table 

EPICUREANISM, or EPICURISM. 
The doctrine of Epicurus: the practice of 
an epicurean or epicure, or of one who is 
addicted to his sensual gratifications. 

EPICYCLE. A little circle that is in 
the centre of a greater circle. 

EPIDEMIC DISEASES. Such as pre¬ 
vail at particular seasons, an d spread among 
the inhabitants of a country. 

EPIDERMIS (in Anatomy). The cuticle 
or scarf skin, that which rises in a blaster 

EPIGRAM. A short, witty, pointed 
poem. 

EPIGRAPHE. An inscription on a 
building, stone, &x. 

EPILEPSY, or the Falling Sickness. 
A convulsion of the whole body, with a 
privation of sense. 

EPILOGUE (in Dramatic Poetry). A 
speech addressed to the audience when 
vhe play is ended. 

EPILOGUE (in Rhetoric). The conclu¬ 
sion of a speech, a recapitulation of the 
whole. 

EPIPHANY, vulgarly called Twelfth 
Day. A festival celebrated on the twelfth 
day after Christmas by 'some Christians, 
in commemoration of the manifestation 
made to the Gentiles of our Saviour’s na¬ 
tivity. 

EPISCOPACY. A form of church go¬ 
vernment by bishops. 

EPISTILBITE. A crystallized min¬ 
eral, consisting of soda, silica, alumina, 
lime, and water; sp. gr. 2-2. 

EPIZOANS. In zoology, a class of par¬ 
asitic animals which infest fishes, &c. 

EPISODE, in poetry, a separate inci¬ 
dent, which the poet introduces. 


EQU 

into his narrative as connected with the 
princinal action. 

EPITAPH. An inscription on a tomb¬ 
stone. 

EP1THALAMIUM. A song sung at 
weddings. 

EPITHET. A word expressive of a 
quality. 

EPITOME. An abridgment or short 
draught of a book. 

EPOCH, or EPOCHA. A term or fixed 
point of time, whence years are num¬ 
bered, such as the Creation, 4004 b. c. , 
the Taking of Troy, 1184 b. c. ; the Build 
ing of Rome, 753 b. c. ; the Birth of our 
Saviour, the commencement of the Chris¬ 
tian era, and the Hegira, or the flight of 
Mahomet from Mecca, a. u. 022 

EPODE (in Lyric Poetry) The third 
or last part of the ode. 

EPOPCEIA (in Poetry). The fable or 
subject of an epic poem. 

EPSOM SALTS. Sulphate of magnesia 
formerly procured by boiling down the 
mineral water from the spring at Epsom, 
but now prepared from sea water. They 
are used as an aperient. 

EQUABLE. An epithet for uniform 
motion, &c. 

EQUALITY. A term of relation be¬ 
tween things the same in magnitude, quan¬ 
tity, or quality. 

EQUATION (in Algebra). An expres¬ 
sion in which two quantities differentlj 
represented are put equal to each other 
by means of the sign of equality, as 

7ai-\-3z=zl>. 

EQUATION, or the EQUATION 01 
TIME (in Astronomy,!. The difference be¬ 
tween mean and apparent time, or the 
reduction of the apparent unequal time oi 
motion of the sun, &,c. to equable time or 
motion. 

EQUATION, or EQUATION OF PAY¬ 
MENTS (in Arithmetic). A rule for find¬ 
ing a time when if a sum be paid which 
is equal to the sum of several others due 
at different times, no loss will be sustained 
by either party. 

EQUATOR. A great circle on the ter¬ 
restrial sphere, equidistant from the pole. 

EQUATORIAL, or Portable Observa¬ 
tory. An instrument by which most of 
the problems in astronomy may be per 
formed. 

EQUERRY. Tn England, an officer who 
has the care of the king’s horses. 

EQUES AURATUS. A knight, so called 
because none but knights were allowed ts 
gild their armour 

EQUESTRIAN One on horse -ck 




ERI 


ESC 


147 


EQUESTRIAN ORDER. The secoud 
irank in Rome, next to the senators. 

EQUESTRIAN STATUE. The repre¬ 
sentation of a person mounted on a horse. 

EQUIANGULAR. Having equal an¬ 
gles. 

EQUIDISTANT At an equal distance. 

EQUILATERAL. Having equal sides. 

EQUILIBRIUM An equal balance or 
equality of weight and poise, as when two 
ends of a lever hang so even, as to poise 
neither way 

EQUIMULTIPLES (in Arithmetic or 
Geometry) Numbers and quantities multi¬ 
plied by one and the same number and 
quantity, as 12 and 6, which are equi¬ 
multiples of 4 and 2. called their sub- 
multiples. 

EQUINOCTIAL, or EQUINOCTIAL 
GIN E. A great circle of the celestial globe, 
answering to the equator on the terrestrial 
globe. Whenever the sun comes to this 
circle the days and nights are equal all 
over the globe. 

EQUINOXES. The times when the suu 
enters the first points of Aries and Libra, 
that is, about the twenty-first of March and 
the twenty-first of September, when the 
days and nights are equal all over the 
world. 

EQUIPAGE (among Travellers). What¬ 
ever is necessary for a voyage or journey, 
as horses, attendants, attire, &c. 

EQUIPAGE (in Military Affairs). What¬ 
ever is necessary for an army on its march, 
as tents, baggage, kitchen furniture, &c. 

EQUIPOLLENCE. Equality of force 
and power; as equipollent propositions, 
such as have the same meaning, though 
differently expressed. 

EQUITY (in Law). A correction of the 
common law wherein it is deficient. 

EQUITY, Court of. A title given by 
way of distinction to the Court of Chan¬ 
cery, in which the rigour of other courts is 
moderated, and controversies are supposed 
to be determined, according to the exact 
rules of equity and conscience. 

EQUIVOCAL. An epithet for words 
which have a double meaning, and may 
be applied equally well in both. 

EQUIVOCATION. The use of equivocal 
lerms. which nr.ay'be understood by the 
hearer in a different sense from that in 
which they are taken by the speaker. 

EQUULEUS. An old constellation, 
havir.g from four to six stars. 

ERA. See A3ra. 

ERIDANUS. A constellation in the 
southern hemisphere, containing, accord¬ 
ing to different authors, from nineteen to 
eighty-four stars. 


ERMINE. A little animal about the size 
of a squirrel, the fur of which, bearing the 
same name, is very valuable. This animal 
is white all over, except the tip of the taii 
which is black. The common weasel o/ 
the United States, which in winter is white 
is an ermine. In some parts of the coun 
try it is sometimes called Stoat. 



ERMINE (in Heraldry). A fur used in 
coat armour, and supposed to represent th» 
linings and doublings of mantles and robes 
It is represented by a white field pow 
dered or seme with black spots. 

f T F 

4 <-f‘ 9 


| 4 * % & 

% t % 

a • 

* ■!> 

^ A /S 



ERRATUM. An error of the press; ii 
the plural, Errata, errors of the press. 

ERRATIC. Wandering, not fixed. 

ERUPTION (in Medicine). A breaking 
forth in a morbid manner, as spots on the 
skin. 

ERUPTION (in Mineralogy). The 
breaking forth of fire, ashes, stones, &c 
from a volcano. 

ERYSTPELAS, vulgarly called Saint 
Anthony’s Fire. A disorder in the skin, 
which consists in a swelling, with redness 
heat, and pain. 

ESCALADE. An attack of a fortified 
place by scaling the walls with ladders, 
without breaking ground or carrying on 
a regular siege. 

ESCALOP SHELLS. The shells of 
escalops, a sort of fish, which are regularly 
indented. 

ESCAPE (in Law). A violent or privy 
evasion out of some lawful restraint. 

ESCAPEMENT. See Scapement. 

EFDARBUNCLE See Carbuncle. 













148 


EST 


EUD 


ESCHEAT. In England, lands or profits 
diat fall to a lord within his manor, either 
by forfeiture or the death of the tenant. 

ESCHEATOR. In England, an officer 
formerly appointed to make inquests of 
titles by escheats. 

ESCORT. A company of armed men, 
attending by way of distinction or pro¬ 
tection. 

ESCUAGE. A kind of knight’s service. 

ESCULENT A plant that may be 
eaten. 

ESCUTCHEON, or Shield. The repre¬ 
sentation of the ancient shields used in 
war, on which armorial bearings are 
jainted. 

ESPALIER. A low branching fruit 
tree, having the branches trained to a 
frame 

ESPIONAGE. A system of employing 
spies either in military or political affairs. 

ESPLANADE (in Fortification). The 
eloping of the parapet of the covered way 
towards the campaign. 

ESQUIRE. In England, anciently, the 
person that attended a knight in time of 
war, and carried his shield; now, a title of 
honour given to the sons of knights, or 
those who serve the king in any worship¬ 
ful calling, as officers of the king’s courts, 
counsellors at law, Ac. In the United 
States this title is given to iawyers, and by 
courtesy to many other persons. 

ESSAY. A short discourse or treatise 
on some subject. 

ESSAYIST. A writer of essays, of which 
there have been many in England, as 
Addison, Steele, Swift, Pope, Johnson, 
Hawkesworth, Goldsmith, Mackenzie, 
Ac. whose works have been collected un¬ 
der the name of the British Essayists 

ESSENCE (in Chemistry) The purest 
and subtlest parts of a body, drawn by 
means of fire, Ac 

ESSENTIAL OILS. Acrid, volatile 
oils, having a strong aromatic smell, which 
are drawn from plants by distillation, in 
distinction from native oils procured by 
eoction. 

ESSOIN (in Law). An excuse by rea¬ 
son of sickness or any other just cause, for 
one that is summoned to appear and answer 
an action, Ac. 

ESTABLISHMENT (in Military Af¬ 
fairs). The quota of officers and men in 
»n army. 

ESTABLISHMENT (in Trade). The 
stock, capital, Ac. which are essential for 
carrying on a business. 

ESTAFETTE. A military courier, sent 
from one part of an army to another. 


ESTATE (in Law). The title or inte m 
a man has in lands or tenements 

ESTATES OF THE REALM. In Eu 
rope, the distinct parts of any state nr 
government, as the King, Lords, and Com¬ 
mons in England. 

ESTIMATE. A calculation of the ex¬ 
penses of any undertaking, made accoiding 
to the regular charges of trade, as the 
estimate of builders, engineers, printers, 
publishers, Ac 

ESTOPPEL. An impediment or bar to 
an action. 

ESTRAY. A tame beast found without 
any owner known 

ESTREAT (in Law). The copy of an 
original writing, particularly of the penal¬ 
ties or fines, to be levied by the bailiff or 
other officer, of every man for his offe nce. 

ESTUARY. The mouth of a lake or 
river, or any place where the tide comes. 

ETC. or Ac. i. e. Et C jetera. Literally, 
And other things not mentioned. 

ETCHING..A method of engraving, in 
which the lines and strokes are eaten in 
with aquafortis 

ETHER. A very volatile fluid, produced 
by the distillation of alcohol with an 
acid. 

ETHICS. The science of moral duties, 
showing the rules and measures of human 
conduct which tend to happiness 

ETIQUETTE. Rulesand ceremonies of 
good manners, observed either at court or 
in genteel life. 

ETYMOLOGY. A branch of grammar, 
which teaches the original and derivation 
of words. 

ETYMOLOGIST One who traces 
words from their original sources 

EVACUATION (in Medicine). Tliedis- 
charge of superfluous humours or excre¬ 
ments out of the body. 

EVACUATION (in Military Affairs). 
The leaving a town, fortress, or any place 
which has been occupied as a military 
post or position 

EVANGELIST. Literally, the bringer 
of good tidings; particularly, the writers 
ofour Saviour’s history, as Matthew,Mark, 
Luke, and John. 

EVAPORATION (in Chemistry). A 
process in which the superfluous moisture 
of any liquid substance is dispersed by 
means of fire. 

EUCHARIST. The sacrament of the 
Lord’s Supper, so called, because the death 
of our Redeemer is thereby commemorated 
with thankful remembrance. 

EUDIOMETER. An instrument foi 
ascertaining the purity of air, or the Tran 


» 



EXE 


14 * 


EXC 

tlty of oxygen and nitrogen in atmospheri¬ 
cal air. 

EVERGREEN (ir. Gardening) A spe¬ 
cies of perennials which preserve their 
verdure all the year round, such as hollies, 
laurustinus, bays, pines, firs, &c. 

EVERLASTING PEA. A perennial of 
the vetch kind, which grows naturally in 
some places, and may be cultivated with 
advantage as food for cattle. 

EVIDENCE (in Law). The testimony 
adduced in a court, which may either be 
written, as by deeds, bonds, and other 
documents, or verbal, by witnesses ex¬ 
amined viva voce. 

EULOGY Praise or commendation of 
a person. 

EVOLUTION (in Arithmetic). The ex¬ 
traction of the roots of any power. 

EVOLUTION (in Military Tactics). 
The complicated movement of a body of 
nen when they change their position. 

EVOLUTION (in Geometry). The un¬ 
folding of a curve. 

EVOLUTION (in Botany). The expan¬ 
sion or opening of the bud 

EUPHONY (in Grammar). Good sound 
in pronouncing a word. It is properly a 
figure, whereby a letter that is too harsh 
is converted into a smoother, contrary to 
the ordinary rules, for the purpose of pro¬ 
moting smoothness and elegance in pro¬ 
nunciation. 

EURITHMY (in Painting, Architec¬ 
ture, and Sculpture). A certain majesty 
and elegance of appearance in the compo¬ 
sition of diverse parts of a body, painting, 
or piece of sculpture. Vitruvius, who 
ranks eurithmy amowg the essentials in 
architecture, makes it to consist in the 
beauty of the construction or assemblage 
of the several parts of the work 

EWE. The female of the sheep 

EX (in Composition). Now signifies 
late, as the ex-minister, the late minister. 

EXACTION (in Law). Injury done by 
an officer, or one who, under colour of his 
office, takes more than what the law 
allows. 

EXAGGERATION. The making things 
appear, more than they really are. 

EXALTATION (in Chemistry). The 
raising a thing to a higher degree of virtue, 
or increasing the principal property in a 
body. 

EXAMINATION (in Law). The ex¬ 
amining of witnesses by questions. 

EXAMINERS (in Law). Two officers 
in the Court of Chancery, in England, ap¬ 
pointed to examine witnesses. 

EXCELLENCY In England, the title 
given to ambassadors, commanders, and 
13 * 


others not entitled to that of highness In 
America the title is given to the Presi 
dent, to ambassadors, and governors of 
states 

EXCENTRICITY. See Ecckntbicitt 

EXCEPTION (in Law). A stop or stay 
to any action, which consists either of a 
denial of the matter alleged in bar to th« 
action, or, in the Court of Chancery, it i» 
what is alleged against the sufficiency 01 
an answer. 

EXCHANGE (in Commerce). The 
trucking or bartering one thing for ano 
ther; also the place where merchants meet 
for the purpose of transacting business- 
and likewise the giving a sum of money 
in one place for a bill, ordering the pay 
ment of it in another place. 

EXCHANGE (in Arithmetic). The re 
ducing of moneys of different denomina 
tions from one to another, or the method 
of finding what quantity of the money of 
one place is equal to a given sum of ano¬ 
ther, according to a certain course of 
exchange 

EXCHANGE (in Law). A mutual grant 
of equal interests, the one in consideration 
of the other. 

EXCHANGE BROKERS. Men who 
give the merchants information how the 
exchange goes. 

EXCHEQUER (in Law). In England 
the office or place, where the king’s cash 
is kept and paid. 

EXCHEQUER COURT. In England, 
a court in which all causes relating to the 
revenue are tried; also the Prerogative 
Court of the Archbishop of York. 

EXCHEQUERED. Summoned before 
the Exchequer, in England, to answer any 
charge of defrauding the revenue, &c. 

EXCISE DUTIES. Inland taxes on 
commodities of general consumption. 

EXCOMMUNICATION. An eccLsi 
astical censure, whereby a person is ex 
eluded from communion with the church, 
and in England deprived of some civil 
rights. 

EXCORIATION. The rubbing or peel¬ 
ing away the cuticle or external skin. 

EXCORTICATION The stripping a 
tree of its bark 

EXCRESCENCE (in Surgery). Any 
preternatural formation of flesh on any 
part of the body, as wart* wens, &c. 

EXECUTION (in Law). A judicial writ 
granted on the judgment of the court 
whence ft issues. 

EXECUTION (in Military Affairs). The 
plundering and wasting a country in time 
of war. 

EXECUTIVE (in Law). That branch 





EXP 


EXT 


15* 


of the government, which executes the 
functions of governing the state. 

EXECUTOR (in Law). One appointed 
by a testator to see that his will is exe¬ 
cuted. 


EXECUTRIX. A female executor. 


EXEMPLIFICATION. A duplicate of 


letters patent. 

EXERCISE (in Military Tactics). The 
practice of all military movements. 

EXHALATION. A fume or vapour 
rising from the earth. 

EXHIBITION. A public display of 
whatever is interesting, either as a matter 


of art, or a natural curiosity. 

EXERGUE. In numismatics, the place 
on a medal or coin around and without 
the type or figure, which has generally 
the date or other particular inscription. 

EXHUMATION. The act of digging up 


a body that has been interred. 


EXIGENT (in Law). A writ or part of 
the process of outlawry. 

EXILE (in Law). A person sent into 
some place distant from his native country, 
under a penalty not to return within a 
certain period. 

EXIT (in Theatricals). Going off the 
stage. 

EX OFFICIO. By virtue of one’s office, 
as, in England, ex officio informations, 
prosecutions commenced by the king’s at¬ 
torney general by virtue of his office, with¬ 
out applying to the court for permission. 

EXORCIST. One, who by prayers and 
incantations, professes to cast out evil 
spirits. 


EXORDIUM. The commencement of a 
speech, serving to prepare the audience. 

EXOTIC PLANTS. Plants of foreign 
growth, which in this climate require a 
hothouse and every kind of nurture. 

EXPANSION. An increase of the bulk 
of any body by a power acting within, 
particularly by the action of heat 

EX PARTE (in Law). On one side, 
•s exparte statements, a partial statement, 
or that which is made on one side only. 

EXPECTATION. Ii the doctrine of 
chances, is applied to any contingent e vent, 
upon the happening of which, some bene¬ 
fit is expected. 

EXPECTORANTS Medicines which 
promote expectoration, or a discharge of 
mucus from the breast. 

EXPERIMENT. Atrial of the results 
in certain applications and motions of natu¬ 
ral bodies, in order to discover something 
if their laws, nature, &c. 

EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 
That philosophy, which deduces the laws 
*f nature, from sensible experiments and 
rbservatians 


i EXPERIMENTUM CRUCIS A lead 
ing or decisive experiment. 

EXPIRATION. A breathing out ail 
from the lungs. 

EXPLOSION. A sudden and violent 
expansion of an aerial or elastic fluid, ac 
companied with a noise. 

EXPONENT (in Algebra). The numbei 
or quantity expressing the degree oreleva 
tion of a power, as, in x‘2,2 is the exponent 
of the square number. 

EXPORTS (in Commerce). Goods ex 
ported or sent out of one’s own country t« 
a foreign land. 

EXPOSITOR. One who explains the 
writings of others, particularly one who 
professes to expound the Scriptures. 

EX POST FACTO. Literally,, from 
something done afterwards, as an ex post 
facto law, a law which operates upon a 
subject not liable to it at the time the law 
was made. 

EXPRESS. A messenger sent with di 
rect and specific instructions. 

EXPRESSED OILS. Oils obtained 
from bodies by pressing. 

EXPRESSION (in Chemistry or Phar¬ 
macy). The pressing of the oils orjuicee 
of vegetables. 

EXPRESSION (in Painting). The dis¬ 
tinct exhibition of character or of senti 
ment, in the characters represented. 

EXTEMPORE, or EXTEMPORANE¬ 
OUSLY Without preparation or premed 
Ration. 

EXTENSION. One of the essential pro 
perties of a body, to occupy some space 

EXTENT (in Law). A writ of execu 
tion for valuing lands and tenements. 

EXTENT (in Music). The compass of a 
voice or instrument. 

EXTENT IN AID. In England, a seiz¬ 
ure made by the crown, when a public 
accountant becomes a defaulter. 

EXTINGUISHMENT (in Law). The 
annihilation of an estate, &c. by means of 
its being merged or consolidated with 
another. 

EXTIRPATION (in Surgery). The com¬ 
plete removal or destruction of any part, 
either by excision or by means of caustics 

EXTORTION The unlawful act of an 
officer who, by colour of his office, takes 
money or any other thing n hen none at. 
all is due. 

EXTRACT (in Cnemlstry;. The purer 
parts of any substance extras ted from its 
grosser parts by means of dt eoction, and 
formerly also by distillation, until they 
were of the consistence of pac, or honey 

EXTRACT (in Literature), Ni me select 
matter or sentences taken froh> -i book. 




FAC 

EXTRACT (in Law). A draught or copy 
a writing. 

EXTRACTION (in Surgery). Thedraw- 
I g any foreign matter out of the body. 

EXTRACTION (in Arithmetic). The 
unding out the true root of any number or 
uantity. 

EXTRACTION (in Genealogy). The 
ine, stem, or branch of a family from 
which a person is descended 
EXTRACTOR (in Surgery). An instru- 
nent for drawing the stone from the 
body. 

EXTRAORDINARY. Out of the com¬ 
mon course; as an Extraordinary Courier, 
one sent on an urgent occasion; Extraor¬ 
dinary Gazette, one published to announce 
some particular event. 

EXTRAVASATION. The state of the 
rluids when they are out of their proper 
vessels, as when by the breaking of a blood 
/essel in the dura mater, the blood is effus- 
3d in tlie ventricles of the brain. 

EXTREME UNCTION. A solemn 
mointing of any person in the Romish 
htirch, who is at the point of death. 
EXUDATION. The emitting of moisture 


FAC lftl 

through the pores, as the ext dation of gums 
through the bark of trees 

EXUVIAE The slough or cast off cover 
ings of animals, particularly those of th» 
snake kind. 

EYE (in Anatomy). The organ of sight, 
whereby visible objects are represented t« 
the mind. The external parts of the eyt 
are the eyebrows, eyelashes, eyelids, th< 
lachrymal ducts, &c.; the internal parts or 
the eye, which compose the ball or globe ol 
the eye, consist of membranes, chambers 
and humours. 

EYE. A term applied to different ob 
jects from some supposed resemblance ti 
the natural eye. 

EYE (in Architecture). The aperture al 
the top of a dome, and to the centre of a 
volute. 

EYE (in Botany). That part of a potatoe 
and other things where the bud put* 
forth. 

EYE (in Printing). The graving in re 
lievo, on the top or face of the letter. 

EYEGLASS. A glass put close to th 
eye, for the purpose of bringing object* 
nearer. 


F, the sixth letter in the alphabet, stood 
as a numeral for 40, and with a dash over 
it, for 40,000; it now stands for one of the 
Dominical or Sunday letters, and also, in 
Music, for the fourth note in the diatonic 
scale. 

FA (in Music) The fourth note of the 
modern scale, which is either fiat or sharp; 
the flat is marked thus [), and the sharp 
thus 

FABLE. A tale or fictitious narration 
intended to instruct or convey a moral, as 
the Fables of Alsop; also the principal 
part of an epic or dramatic piece. 

FABRIC (in Commerce). The same as 
manufacture; lace of the fabric of Brus¬ 
sels, &c. 

FACADE. The front or the principal 
side of a building. 

FACE (in Anatomy). The lower and 
anterior part of the skull; in general, the 
fore part of any thing, as the face of a 
Btone, anvil, &c. 

FACE (in Fortification). The face of a 
bastion, the most advanced part towards 
the field. 

FACE (in Gunnery). The metal at the 
extremity of the muzzle of a gun. 

FACE (in Military Tactics). The side 
it a battalion formed into a square. 

FA 3ET. The small side of a diamond 


FAC SIMILE. The copy of a person’s 
writing, as of a letter in imitation of hi 
own handwriting. 

FACTITIOUS. Made by art, as facti¬ 
tious cinnabar; in distinction from that 
procured naturally 

FACTOR (in Commerce). An agent 
commissioned by merchants to buy or 
sell goods on their account. 

FACTORS (in Arithmetic). The two 
numbers that are multiplied together. 

FACTORY. A place in a distant coun 
try, where factors reside for purposes of 
trade; also the trades themselves collec¬ 
tively. 

FACULA3 (in Astronomy). Bright spots 
on the surface of the sun. 

FACULTIES, Court of. In England, 
a court under the archbishop of Canterbu¬ 
ry for granting faculties or privileges. 

FACULTIES (in the Universities). The 
divisions under which the arts and sciences 
are classed, and degrees granted. These 
are for the most part four, as 1. Arts, in¬ 
cluding Humanity and Philosophy; 2. The¬ 
ology; 3. Physic; and 4. Civil Law. 

FACULTY (in Law) A dispensation 
or privilege. 

FACULTY (in Physics). That power 
by which a living creature moves and acts. 
This may be either an animal, or corporeal 





FAL 


FAR 


162 

faculty Lelonging to the body, or a rational 
faculty belonging to the mind. 

FA2CES. The dregs or gross substances 
which settle after fermentation. 

FASCULvE. Small dregs or lees 

FAGG. A sea term, for the end of the 
strands which do not go through the tops 
when a cable or rope is closed. 

FAINTS (in Chemistry). The weakspi- 
rituous liquor that runs off from the still 
after the proof spirit is taken away. 

FAIR. A larger kind of market, held 
once, twice, or oftuner in the year, ac¬ 
cording to the charter granted to any par¬ 
ticular place. 

FAIR MAID OF FRANCE. A plant 
of the ranunculus tribe, bearing an ex¬ 
ceedingly white flower 

FAIRY. A kind of genii or imaginary 
spirits of a diminutive size, and fabled to 
haunt houses and revel in meadows du¬ 
ring night, &c. 

FAIRY CIRCLE or RING. A pheno¬ 
menon frequently seen in the fields, con¬ 
sisting of a round bare path with grass in 
the middle, formerly ascribed to the dances 
of the fairies. It is supposed by some to 
be a fungus which eats away the grass in 
this circular form, or by others the effect 
of lightning. 

FAIRY TALES. Eastern tales of the 
wonderful proceedings wrought by fairies. 

FAKIR. A sort of dervises or Maho¬ 
metan moaks. Religious devotees of Hin- 
dostan 

FALCHION. A kind of sword turned 
up somewhat like a hook. 

FALCON. A bird of the hawk tribe, 
about the size of a raven, and capable of 
being trained for sport, in which it was 
formerly much employed. It is usually 
represented in coats of arms with bells on 
Us legs, and also decorated with a hood, 
virols, rings, &c. The falcon gentil is 
Gere represented 



FALCONER, One who looks after, and 

'.rains hawks. 


FALL (in Physics). The descent or a» 
tural motion of bodies towards the earth 

FALL (in Military Affairs). The sur¬ 
render of a town; among Seamen, th« 
loose end of a tackle. 

FALL (in Husbandry). The descent of 
ground which serves to carry off the water. 

FALLACY. A logical artifice, or an 
argument framed so as to deceive; a so¬ 
phism 

FALLING SICKNESS. See Efilxfit. 

FALLOW. Land laid up and left with¬ 
out a crop for a year, in order to give the 
soil time to recover itself; the act of so 
doing is called fallowing. 

FALLOW-DEER. The common deer 
seen in the parks of England. The Vir¬ 
ginia deer of America. 

~ FALLOW-FINCH A bird, otherwise 
named Wheat Ear. 

FALSE. An epithet used in Law, as 
False Imprisonment, the trespass of im¬ 
prisoning a man without lawful cause; in 
Mineralogy, as False Diamond, a diamond 
counterfeited with glass. 

FALSE FLOWER (in Botany). A 
flower which does not seem to produce 
any fruit. 

FALSE ROOF (in Carpentry). That 
part of a house which is between the roof 
and the covering. 

FALSIFYING (in Law). Provmg a 
thing to be false, as falsifying records 

FAMILY (in Law). All living in one 
house under one head; also the kindred 
or lineage of a person. 

FAMILY (in Natural History). Any 
order of animals, or other natural produc¬ 
tion of the same class. 

FAN. A sort of basket in which the 
corn is winnowed, to separate the chaff 
from it. 

FANDANGO. A dance much used in 
Spain 

FAR. An abbreviation for farthing. 

FARCE. A sort of mock comedy, in 
which there is much grimace and buf¬ 
foonery. 

FARCY. A sort of leprosy in horses. 

FARE. Money paid for the passage of 
a person in any vehicle, either by land or 
by water. 

FARINA. The pulverulent and gluti¬ 
nous part of wheat and other seeds, ob¬ 
tained by grinding. 

FARM. In England, part of an estate in 
land employed in husbandry, and let to a 
tenant on condition of paying rent to the 
owner thereof. In the United States, the 
term is applied to any estate in lane 
whether rented or cultivated by the pro 
prietor. 






FAT FEL 151 


PARMER. Properly, one who occupies 
and cultivates a farm or hired ground; a 
cultivator of ground generally. In Eng¬ 
land the fanners are not proprietors of the 
lands which usually belong to rich pep- 
sons, who let them to tenants. 

FARMING. The cultivating of land for 
the purposes of profit. 

FARRAGO. A mixture of several sorts 
of seed sown in the same plot of ground. 

FARRIER. One who shoes horses, and 
also cures their diseases. In London, the 
farriers are one of the oldest of the city 
companies. As farriers worked most in 
iron, they were originally called ferrers or 
ferriers, from ferrum, iron 

FARRIERY. The art of shoeing and 
managing a horse altogether, including also 
the cure of his diseases. On tne application 
of science to this art, it rose in importance 
and estimation; a college was formed some 
years ago in England for practitioners in 
animal medicine and surgery, which, in 
imitation of the French, was called the 
Veterinary College, and the art itself the 
Veterinary Art 

FARTHING. The fourth part of a penny. 

F. A. S. i. e. Fraternitas Antiquariorum 
Socius, or Fellow of the Antiquarian So¬ 
ciety in England. 

FASCES. Bundles of rods bound round 
the helves of hatchets, which were carried 
before the Roman consuls as insignia of 
their office. 

FASCETS. Irons used in a glass manu¬ 
factory. 

FASCINES (in Fortification). Small 
branches of trees bound ud in bundles for 
filling ditches, &c 



FAST. An abstinence from food on a 
religious account. 

FASTI. The Roman calendar, in which 
were set down the feasts, games, cere¬ 
monies, &c. 

FAT. A concrete oily matter contained 
in the cellular membrane of animals. 

FATES. The destinies; according to 
the poets, the three fata, sisters, Clotho, 
Lachesis, and Atropos, who determined 
the duration of life. 

FATHER LASHER. A voracious fish 
inhabiting the shores of Greenland and 
Newfoundland. 

FATHER LONG-LEGS. A harmless 
Insect, with a small tody and exceedingly 
ong legs. 

FATHOM. A long measure of six feet. 


FAUNS. Rural deities having horns on 
t aeir heads, with pointed ears and tails 

FAWN. A young deer; a buck or doe 
of the first year. 

F. E. An abbreviation for Flemish Ells. 

FEASTS. Anniversary times of feasting 
and thanksgiving, such as Christmas and 
Easter, &c. Some feasts are moveable, 
that is, not confined to any particular day, 
as Easter and all that are governed by it; 
others, as Christmas, &c. are immoveable, 
that is, fixed to a day , 

FEATHER. That which forms the co¬ 
vering of birds The constituent parts of 
feathers are, for the most part, albumen 
witn a little gelatin 

FEATHER (in the Manege). A row of 
hair turned back and raised on the neck 
of a horse. 

FEATHER-EDGED BOARDS. Board# 
having one edge thinner than the other 

FEATHERS. The finest kind of feathers, 
as Ostrich Feathers, which are used for 
ornament. The Prince’s Feathers are those 
which adorn the cognizance of the Prince 
of Wales. 

FEB. Aji abbreviation for February. 

FEBRIFUGE. A sort of medicines 
which abate the violence of fever 

FEDERAL. United by a compact as 
Federal States 

FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. The 
constitution of the United States in whien 
the several states are united, or federated 
under one general government. 

FEE. An estate of inheritance, or the 
interest which a man has in land or some 
other immoveable: this is called a fee 
simple when it is unconditional, and a 
fee tail, when limited to certain heirs ac¬ 
cording to the will of the first donor 

FEED. What is given to a horse at one 
time, either of hay or corn. 

FEEDER. A sort of drain which carries 
the water into other drains. 

FEELERS. Organs fixed to the mouth 
of insects, which are vulgarly called horns: 
the feelers are, however, smaller than the 
antennae, or horns, in some insects. 

FEELING. One ofthe five senses, which 
acts by means of the nerves, that are dis¬ 
tributed in all parts of the body. 

FEES. Perquisites allowed to officers 
in the administration of justice. 

FEIGNED ACTION. An action which 
is brought simply to try the merits of a 
question. 

FEINT (in Military Tactics). A mock 
attack, made to conceal the true one. 

FELLOES. The pieces of wood which 
form the circumference or circular pan ot 
he wheel. 











164 


FE O 


FET 


FELSPAR. A mineral occurring in 
crystals and crystalline masses, which, 
next to quartz, is the most abundant in 
nature. It is somewhat vitreous in 
lustre, and breaks rather easily in two 
directions with smooth surfaces. Its 
color is usually white or flesh-red, some¬ 
times bluish or greenish. It consists of 
silica, alumina, and potash, and is a 
constituent part of granite, gneiss, mica 
slate,porphyry,and most volcanic rocks. | 

FELLAHS. The peasants or laboring j 
classes in Egypt. 

FELONY. In common law, any crime 
which incurs the forfeiture of lands or 
goods, and to which capital or other 
punishment is superadded, according 
to the degree of guilt. 

FELT-GRAIN. The grain of cut timber ' 
that runs transversely to the annular rings 
or plates. 

FELTING. The process of working felt 
into hats. 

FELTING (in Carpentry). The splitting 
of timber by the felt-grain. 

FELUCCA. A light open vessel with six 
ours, much used in the Mediterranean. Its 
helm may be used either at the head or 
he stern. 

FEMALE FLOWER. A flower having 
istils or stigmas without stamens. 

FEMALE SCREW. A screw, the spiral 
thread of which is cut in the cavity of the 
ylinder. 

FEME COVERT (in Law). A married 
woman. 

FEME SOLE. A single woman. 

FEMININE GENDER (in Grammar). 
Nouns which, by their ending, denote the 
female sex. 

FEN. A place overflowed with water, 
and abounding in bogs. 

FENCE (in Husbandry). A hedge, wall, 
or ditch, &c. made to part off a field or 
garden. 

FENCING. The art of using the sword, 
either in attack or defence. In the exer¬ 
cise of this art, foils or thin swords are 
used, which, being blunted at the points 
and bending readily, are perfectly harm¬ 
less. 

FENDER. An iron plate to keep the 
fire and ashes from ;he room. 

FENDERS. A 93 a term for pieces of 
old cable, &c. humg over the sides of a ship 
to keep off other ships. 

FENNEC. An animal found in Africa 
resembling a dog. 

FEOFFEE (in Law). He to whom a 
feoffment is made. 

FEOFFMENT (in Lawj. The gift oc 
grant of any hereditament to another in 
fee simple. 

FEOFFOR. He who makes ateoffment. 


FERA3. The third order of animals ^ 
the Linr.ecan system, including such a* 
have from six to ten conic fore teeth and 
one tusk, as the seal, the dog, the wolf, 
the hyaena, the jackal, the lynx, the tiger, 
the panther, Sec. 

FERMENT. Any substance which has 
the property of causing fermentation in 
another body, as the acid in jeaven. 

FERMENTATION. The intestine com 
motion in the small insensible particles ol 
a mixed body, usually caused by the ope 
ration of acid matter. When animal liquids 
alone, or mixed with vegetable, become 
sour, this is called acetous fermentation, 
and the product is, generally speaking, 
acetic acid or vinegar. When saccharine 
matter, or the sweet juices of fruits, 
undergo this intestine change, it is called 
vinous fermentation, and the result is an 
intoxicating liquor, as wine or beer, &c. 

FERN. A weed, very common in dry 
and barren places, which is very injurious 
to the land in which it has once taken 
root. 

FERRET. An animal of the weasel tribe, 
with red eyes and a long snout; it is much 
used in Europe, in catching rabbits and rats 



FERRUGINOUS. An epithet for any 
thing partaking of iron, or containing any 
particles of that metal. 

FERRY. A vessel employed for con¬ 
veying persons and goods over a narrow 
piece of water. 

FERRYMAN. One who keeps a ferry 

FERULA. An instrument of correction 
in schools, with which boys are beaten on 
the hand. 

FERULA (in Botany). A plant, other¬ 
wise called Fennel Giant, which » an 
herbaceous perennial 

FESCUE-GRASS. A sort of grass cul 
tivated as food for cattle. 

FESTOON. An ornament of carved 
wood, in manner of wreaths or garland* 
hanging down. 

FETLOCK A tuft of hair ifcat grows 







FIE F1G I S3 


Behind the pastern join in the feet of 
Many horses. 

FESSE (in Heraldry). One of the hon¬ 
ourable ordinaries, which occupies the 
third part and the middle of the field. 



FETTERS (in Law). A soil of irons 
put on the legs of malefactors. 

FEUD. In England, the right which the 
vassal or tenant had in lands and other 
Immoveable things of his lord’s, to use 
the same and take the profits thereof, ren¬ 
dering unto his lord such duties and services 
as belonged to military tenure, the property 
of the soil, &c. always remaining to the 
ord. The laws respecting these feuds, 
which are comprehended under the name 
of the Feudal System, regulated all the 
principles of landed property in that king¬ 
dom until the reign of Charles II. ; and 
vestiges of this system are still to be seen 
in the modern tenures, particularly in 
copyholds. 

FEVER. A disease characterized by an 
increase of heat, an accelerated pulse, a 
foul tongue, and an impaired state of se¬ 
veral functions. 

FIAT, i. e. Let it be done. In Eng. 
A short order or warrant of some judge, 
for making out and allowing certain pro¬ 
cesses. 

FIBRE (in Anatomy). Asimple filament, 
serving to form other parts, as the muscles, 
nerves, <fcc. 

FIBRE (in Botany). Threads or hair-like 
strings in plants, roots, &c.; the first con¬ 
stituent parts of bodies. 

FIBRIL. A small fibre. 

FIBRINA (in Chemistry). That sub¬ 
stance which constitutes the fibrous part 
cf muscles. It is of a white colour, with¬ 
out taste or smell, and not soluble in alco¬ 
hol or water. 

FIBROLITE. A mineral consisting of 
alumina, silica, and iron. 

FIBULA (in Anatomy). The lesser and 
outer bone of the leg. 

FICTION (in Law). A supposition that 
a thing is true, so that it may have effect 
•f truth as far as is consistent with equity. 

FIELD. Arable land, or any plot of 
ground parted off for cultivation. 


FIELD (in Heraldry). The whots sur 
face of the shield or escutcheon. 

FIELD (in Military Tactics). Tho ground 
chosen for any battle. 

FIELD (in Painting). The ground or 
blank space on which any thing may De 
drawn. 

FIELD-BED (in Military Affairs). A 
folding bed used by officers in their tents 

FIELDFARE. A migratory bird of the 
thrush tribe, that visits England about 
Michaelmas and leaves it in March. 

FIELD-OFFICERS. Those who com¬ 
mand a whole regimejt. 

FIELD-PIECE. A sort of cannons, con¬ 
sisting of eighteen-pounders and less. 

FIELD-WORKS (in Fortification). 
Works thrown up by an army in be 
sieging a fortress. 

FIERI FACIAS. A writ commanding 
a sheriff to levy the debt or damages on 
the goods of one, against whom judgment 
has been had in an action of debt. 

FIFE. A shrill wind instrument of the 
martial kind, consisting of a short narrow 
tube, with holes disposed along the side 
for the regulation of its tones. 

FIFER. One who plays on the fife in 
the army. 

FIG. A tree, with an upright stenc. 
branching fifteen or twenty feet high, w'th 
large palmated or hand-shaped leaves. If 
flourishes in warm climates, and bears a 
fruit as represented underneath, which, 
when dried, is remarkable for its luscious 
sweetness. 



FIG (in Farriery). A kind of wart on 

the flesh of a horse, that is often filled 
with foul humours. 

FIGHTS. Waste clothes hung round a 
ship in battle, to prevent the men from 
being seen. 

FIGURE (in Painting). The lines and 
colours which form the representation of 
an object. 

FIGURE (in Geometry). A space ter 
minated on all parts by lines curved or 
straight. 

FIGURE (in Arithmetic). One of the 
nine digits, as 1, 2, 3, <fcc. 

FIGURE (in Grammar and Rhetoric) 
A word or form of expression which de 














FIR 


i m fin 

Titles from the common and natural 
meaning. 

FILACER. In England, an officer of 
the Court of Common Pleas who files the 
writs, whereon he makes out process. 

FILAGREE, or FILIGRANE. An or¬ 
namental work in which fiowers or other 
figures are wrought with gold or silver 
threads. 

FILAMENT (in Botany). The thread¬ 
like part of the stamen, which supports 
the anther. 

FILBERT. A sort of nut tree cultivated 
in gardens, the fruit of which is larger and 
finer than the common wild nut. 

FILE (in Trade and Law). A wire or 
thread on which loose papers are filed up 
together. 

FILE (among Mechanics). A tool of 
steel, with which iron or any other metal is 
polished. Files a;., cut in little furrows in 
a certain direction, and of a certain depth, 
according to the grain or touch required. 
Files are either cut by the hand with a 
chisel and mallet, or by means of a ma¬ 
chine ; but the latter mode is not so good. 

FILE (in Military Tactics). A straight 
line or row formed by soldiers. 

FILICES. An order of plants of the 
class cryptogamia in the Linnaean system, 
including the fern, horse-tail, adder’s 
tongue, maiden-hair, spleenwort, polypo¬ 
dy, &c. 

FILLET (in Heraldry). Akindofbor- 
dure. 

FILLET (in Architecture). A little 
member that connects the other members. 

FILLET (in Painting). A little ringlet 
of leaf gold. 

FILM (in Surgery). A thin skin that 
covers the eye. 

FILM (in Botany). The thin woody skin 
that separates the seed in the pod. 

FILTER (in Chemistry). A strainer 
through which any fluid is passed so as to 
separate the grosser particles from it. 

FILTERING PAPER. Paper without 
§ize, that may be used in filtering. 

FILTERING-STONE. A sort of stone 
»r basin which is sometimes used for puri¬ 
fying water. It is artificial as well as 
natural, and has been variously constructed 
to answer the purpose. 

FIN. The membrane in fishes by which 
they perform their movements in the wa¬ 
ter. 

FINAL. The tast or concluding. Final 
letters are those which are used only at 
the end of words, as in the Hebrew and 
»ther oriental languages. 

FINAL (in Music) The last sound of a 
rerse in a chant 


FINALE. The last piece inn concert, & i 

FINANCES (in Political Economy) 
The treasures or revenue of the country. 

FINANCIER. An officer who manages 
the finances of the country. 

FINE (in Law). A penalty or nmeads 
made in money for an offence ; also money- 
paid for the renewal of a tease, and a con 
veyance of lands or tenements in order U. 
cut off all controversies. 

FINE-DRAWING. Sewing up the rents 
in woollen cloths so finely that they can 
not be seen. 

FINERS OF GOLD AND SILVER 
Those who separate the metals from 
coarser ores. 

FINERY. The furnace in which met¬ 
als are refined, that is, hammered and 
fashioned into what is called a bloom or 
square bar. 

FIN-FISH. A smaller sort of whale. 

FIR, or FIR TREE. A tree valuable 
for the timber, pitch tar, &c. which it 
yields in abundance. The sorts most 
esteemed in England, are the Scotch fir, 
Norway fir, Spruce fir, and Canada fir. 
In the United States, the white and yellow 
pine, are the most valued. 

FIRE (in Chemistry). Was formerly 
reckoned one of the *bur elements ; but it 
is now a matter of dispute whether it be 
a distinct substance, or whether it arises 
solely from the intestine and violent mo 
tion of the parts of bodies. 

FIRE-ENGINE. An engine for the 
extinguishing of fire, which consists of twc 
forcing pumps so combined that their joint 
action produces a constant and powerful 
stream of water, which, by means of a pipe, 
may be directed at pleasure to any point. 


-A 



FIREBALLS. Luminous bodies usually 
appearing at a great height. 

FIREBRAND. A piece of burning 
wood taken out of the fire 
FIRE-DAMPS. See Damps. 
FIRE-FLY. A species of flies common 
in Guiana, having on each side of the head, 
a globular luminous body, that shines L'ke 
a star. They live in rotten trees in. tlu 
day, and always appear at night. 
































FIX 


FLA 


1M 


FIRE-MAN One who Is employed in 
extinguishing fires. 

FIRE-SHIP. A ship filled with com¬ 
bustibles, to set fire to the vessels of the 
enemy. 

FIRE-WORKS. Compositions of sul¬ 
phur, saltpetre, and charcoal, which exhib¬ 
it a handsome appearance when fired off. 

FIRKIN. An English measure of capa¬ 
city, containing nine gallons of beer. 

FIRMAN. A passport granted in Tur¬ 
key and India for the liberty of trade. 

FIRST-FRUITS (in England.) The 
profits of every spiritual living for one 
year, given to the king. 

FIRSTLING. The young of cattle 
which are first brought forth. 

FISH, or FISHES (in Natural Histo¬ 
ry). Water animals in general; one class 
of the animal kingdom in the Linnsean 
system. 

FISH, or Royal Fi»h (in Law). The 
whale and sturgeon, so denominated in 
England, because the kiug is entitled to 
them whenever they are thrown on shore, 
or caught near the coasts. 

FISH (among Mariners). A machine 
employed to hoist and draw up the Hooks 
of ships’ anchors towards the top of the 
bow. 

FISHERY. The place where fish are 
caught for the purposes of trade. 

FISH-GIG. An instrument for striking 
fish at sea. 

FISHING-FLY A bait used for catch¬ 
ing fish. 

FISHING-HOOK An instrument of 
steel wire, fitted for catching and retaining 
fish. 

FISHING-LINE. A line of twisted 
hair fixed to a rod called the fishing-rod, 
and having at one end the fishing-hook. 

FISHMONGER. A dealer in fish. 
There were formerly two companies of 
fishmongers in London, namely, the stock- 
fishmongers and salt-fishmongers, which 
were united in 1536. 

FISTULA. A long and sinuous ulcer. 

FITC HET. An animal of the weasel or 
ferret kind. 

FIXATION. The making any volatile 
spirituous tody endure the fire. 

FIXED AIR. A name formerly given 
by chemists, to the air which was extri¬ 
cated from lime, magnesia, and alkalies, 
now commonly called, carbonic acid gas. 

FIXED BODIES. Such as neither fire 
nor any corrcsive menstruum, have the 
power of re( ucing to their component 
elements, as ammonia. 

FIXED STARS. Such as do not change 
.heir positions in respect to one another 
14 


FLAG (in Naval or Miltary Affairs) 
The colours or ensign of a ship, or of a 
regiment of land forces. The first flag in 
Great Britain is the standard, only to be 
hoisted when the king or queen is on board 



FLAG (in Botany). A sort of rush with 
a large leaf. It is of different kinds, as the 
common flag, or water iris, that grows in 
rivers and bears a yellow flower; the corn 
flag, or gladiole, a bulbous plant; and the 
sweet flag, a perennial; which two last are 
cultivated in gardens. 

FLAGEOLET. A little flute 

FLAG-OFFICER. An officer command¬ 
ing a squadron. 

FLAGON. A large drinking vessel. 

FLAG-SHIP. A ship commanded hy a 
flag-officer. 

FLAG-STAFF. The staff set on the 
head of the topgallant mast, on which the 
flag is placed. 

FLAGSTONE. A sort of stone used foi 
smooth pavement. 

FLAIL. An instrument used for thresli 
ing corn. 

FLAME. The most subtle part of fire 
which is properly the fume or vapour of 
fire, heated red-hot so as to shine. 

FLAMINGO. A sort of bird in Africa 
and America. 

FLANK. The side of an army, ora bat¬ 
talion encamped on the right and left. 

FLANK (in Fortification). Any part of 
a work that defends another work along 
the outside of its parapet. 

FLANNEL. A slight, loose, woollen 
stuff, woven on a loom with two treadles 
after the manner of baize. It serves to 
keep the body warm, because, from its 
light and spongy texture, it does not ad¬ 
mit of a passage for the heat. 

FLASK. A measure for holding gun¬ 
powder. 

FLAT (in Music). A character marked 
thus [ 7 , which lowers a note one semitone. 

FLAX. A plant, from the fibres of which 
linen thread is made. Common flax, •• 
















FLO 


FLO 


156 

represented underneath, is an annual; but 
the other kinds are perennials. 



FLAX EARTH, or Mountain Flax. 
lee Asbestos. 

FLEA. A little insect of a deep purple 
tolour, remarkable for its agility in leap¬ 
ing, for which it has three pair of legs. 
It sucks the blood of larger animals. 

FLEAM. An instrument for lancing the 
|ums or bleeding cattle. 

FLEECE. A flock of wool, or what 
iomes from a sheep at one shearing. 

FLEET. A number of ships together in 
company or under one commander. 

FLEET. A prison in London, where 
debtors are confined. 

FLESH (in Anatomy). The soft and 
fibrous part of an animal body; also the 
red part of a muscle. 

FLESH (in Botany). The pulpy sub¬ 
stance of any fruit or root. 

FLEUR DE LIS, or Flower de 
Luce (in Heraldry). A bearing in the 
»rms of France, and in other coats of arms. 

FLINT. A semitransparent and hard 
itone, which possesses the property of 
emitting fi»-e when struck. 

FLINT v *mong Gunsmiths). A piece of 
flint, cut so as to go between the jaws of 
the cock of a gun. 

FLOAT. A raft or number of pieces 
of timber, fastened together with rafters 
athwart, to be driven down a river with 
the tide. 

FLOATING BATTERY. Vessels used 
as batteries to cover troops in landing on 
an enemy’s coast. 

FLOCK. A number of sheep m com¬ 
pany; also a lock of wool. 

FLOETZ. Beds or strata of earth, con¬ 
taining the remains of animal or vegetable 
•ubetances, &c 


FLOOKAN. The name of a slimy kind 
of earth. In mining, the deviation or 
shifting of a lode or vein by a cleft, &c. 

FLORA. A catalogue or account of 
flowers or plants; the plants of a par¬ 
ticular country. In mythology, the 
goddess of flowers, in honor ot whom 
the festival Floralia was celebrated. 

FLORIN. A British silver coin, the 
tenth of a pound sterling, and worth 
about 48 cents, first minted in 1849, and 
now in general circulation. It was or¬ 
iginally made at Florence, and now cir¬ 
culates in many European countries, 
ranging in value from 38 to 56 cents to 
two shillings and four pence. 

FLOWER. In botany,’ that part of a 
plant which contains the organs of 
fructation. A flower, when complete, 
is furnished with a calyx, corolla, sta¬ 
mens, and pistils; the stamens carry¬ 
ing the anthers, or male organs of re¬ 
production, and the pistils the stigmas, 
or female organs, by which the pollen, 
or impregnating dust, is conveyed into 
the ovary, or seed-vessel. Flower-stalk 
is the peduncle of a plant, or the stent 
which supports the fructification. 
Flower-head is that mode of inflores¬ 
cence m which all the flowers are ses¬ 
sile, as in the daisy. In pyrotechnics, a 
particular kind of firework,which, when 
ignited, throws out a fountain of vivid 
florescent-looking sparks. 

FLUATES. A kind-of salts formed by 
the combination of fluoric acid with diffe¬ 
rent bases, as the fluate of ammonia. 

FLUE. The small winding chimney in 
a furnace for conveying smoke, air, and 
heat'into a larger chimney; also the down 
or soft liair of rabbits and feathers. 

FLUELLEN. An annual that grows in 
gardens. 

FLUID (in Physiology). A fluid body, 
or one whose parts yield to the smallest 
force impressed, and are easily moved 
among each other. Fluids are either elas¬ 
tic, as the air, or non-elastic, as water 
mercury, &c. 

FLUID (in Anatomy). The fluids of the 
animal body are the humours and juices, 
as the blood, chyle, saliva, &c. 

FLUIDITY. The state of bodies *.vhe» 
their parts are very readily moveable in 
all directions with respect to each other. 
It stands directly opposed to solidity or 
firmness, and is distinguished from liquid¬ 
ity and humidity, inasmuch as the latter 
imply also wetting and adhering. Melted 
metals, air, ether, smoke, and flame are 
fluid but not liquid bodies, their parts being 
dry and leaving no sense of moisture 
Solids are converted into fluids by means 
of heat. 

FLUOR SPAR. A species of salt which 
abounds in nature, and consists of a cal¬ 
careous earth in combination with fluoric 





FLY 


FOL 


acid. It ia called fluor because it melts 
readily; it is called spar because it lias a 
•parry form and fracture; and it is also 
called vitreous spar because it has the ap¬ 
pearance of glass. 

FLUORIC ACID. A gaseous substance 
procured from fluor spar, which is of a 
corroding nature, and will dissolve glass, 
for which reason it has been used for 
etching on glass. This acid gas readily 
combines with water; and when dropped 
in, a hissing noise is produced with much 
heat. 

FLUTE. A wind instrument, and the 
simplest of its kind, with stops for the 
fingers. 

FLUTES. The hollow channels found 
along the surface of a column. 

FLUX (in Physiology). That motion of 
•he water by which it rises 

FLUX (in Chemistry). Any substance 
or mixture added to assist the fusion of 
minerals .and metals. In assaying, alkalies 
are used as fluxes, which render the earthy 
mixtures fusible by connecting them with 
glass. 

FLUXIONS. That branch of algebra 
which treats of the velocities with which 
the fluents or flowing quantities increase 
or decrease. The variable or flowing quan¬ 
tities are represented by the letters v , jo , 
x, y, i; tbe invariable quantities, by the 
.etters a, b, c, d, Sec. The fluxion is re¬ 
presented by a dot thus y, z. 

FLY (in Natural History). A small 
winged insect, that is always flying about 
in houses. 

FLY (among Mechanics). That part of 
a jack which puts the rest of the machine 
in motion. 

FLY (among Mariners). That part of a 
compass on which the thirty-two points 
are described. 

FLY (among Carpenters). Flies or flyers 
are the series of steps xvhich go straight 
forward without winding. 

FLY-BOAT A large vessel with a broad 
how, used in the coasting trade. 

FLY-BLOVV. The deposit of the eggs, 
maggots, or nymph® of flies in meat. 

FLY-CATCHER. A sort of bird inha- 
•iting Asia, Africa, and America, so called 
aecause it ives upon flies. The king bird 
is a well k lown variety in this country. 
FLYING BRIDGE. See Bridge. 
FLYING-FISH. A fish inhabiting the 
European and American seas, which, by 
Ihe help of its long pectoral fins, is ena- 
aled to raise itself out of the water and to 
fly a short distance when pursued by other j 
flsh. 

FLYING SaUIRREL. A beantifiil 


m 

American Squirrel, which by the use of 
membranes attached to its legs sails from 
the tops of trees to a great distance. 

FLYING DRAGON. A four-footed rep¬ 
tile of the lizard tribe, inhabiting Africa 
and India, which has a lateral membrane 
serving as a wing. 



FLY-ORCHIS. A plant,so called from the 
resemblance it bears in its figure to a fly. 

FLY-TRAP, or Venus’s Fly-Trap. A 
sensitive plant, the leaves of which consist 
of two lobes, that close when they are 
irritated within, and consequently entrap 
any insect that lights upon them. 

FOAL. The young of a horse, or ass. 

FOCUS (in Optics). The point of con¬ 
vergence or concourse, where all the rays 
meet after passing through a convex lens. 

FOCUS (in Geometry and Conic Sec¬ 
tions). A certain point in the parabola 
and ellipses, &.c. where the rays reflected 
from all parts of these curves concur. 

FODDER. Dry food for cattle. 

FODDER (in England). The prerogative 
of the king formerly, to be provid&d with 
fodder for his horses in any warlike ex¬ 
pedition. 

FOG, or Mist. A meteor consisting of 
condensed vapours floating near the surface 
of the earth. 

FOIL (in Fencing). An instrument with¬ 
out a point, to fence with by way of exer 
cise. 

FOTL (among Glass-grinders). A sheet 
of tin laid on tbe back of a looking-glass, 
to make it reflect. 

FOIL (among Jewellers). A thin leaf 
of metal plaeed under a precious stone, to 
increase its brilliancy. 

FOLD. An enclosed place in which 
sheep are confined. 

FOLIAGE. A cluster or assemblage of 
the leaves of trees. 

FOLIAGE (in Architecture). Ornaments 
representing leaves, used in cornices, &.c. 

FOLIATING. Spreading the plates of 
glass over with the foil, in order to make 
them reflect. 

FOLIO. The ftill size of paper as it 
comes from the manufacturer; also book* 
printed on paper of that size. 





160 


FOR 


FOR 


FOLIO (in Merchants’ Accounts). The 
page, including the rignt and left hand 
page, in a merchant’s ledger, which are 
numbered by the same figure, so that they 
may correspond. 

FOMENTATION. The bathing any part 
of the body with a decoction of herbs, &c. 
A similar application with bags of herbs 
and other ingredients, is called a dry fo¬ 
mentation. 

FOOT. A measure of length consisting 
of twelve inches. 

FOOT (in Poetry). A certain number 
of syllaW.es which serve for measuring the 
verse. 

FOOT (in Military Tactics'). Soldiers who 
serve on foot. 

FORAGE. Provender for horses in an 
army. 

FORCE (in Physiology). Whatever is 
or may be made, the primary cause of 
motion in bodies. 

FORCE (in Law). Unlawful violence 

FORCE fin Military Affairs). Any body 
of men that may be employed in action. 

FORCEPS. A surgeon’s tongs, pin¬ 
cers, &c. 

FORCER, or FORCING-PUMP. A 
pump with a forcer or piston without a 
valve. 

FORCING (among Gardeners). A me¬ 
thod of obtaining fruits and flowers before 
their season, by the application of heat. 

FORCING (in Commerce). The fining 
down wines so as to render them fit for 
immediate use. 

FORE. A sea term for near the stem; 
as ‘ fore and aft,’ that is, from stem to stern. 

FORECASTLE. A short deck in the 
fore part of the ship. 

FORECLOSED (in Law). Excluded or 
barred the equity of redemption on mort¬ 
gages, 4c c. 

FOREIGN ATTACHMENT (in Law), 
an attachment of foreigners’ goods. 

FORENSIC. Belonging to the bar or 
courts of law. 

FORESHORTENING (in Painting). 
The making a head or face in a drawing 
appear shorter before. 

FOREST. In England, a large wood 
privileged to hold the king’s game of all 
kinds. 

FORESTALLING. The buying or bar¬ 
gaining for com or other merchandise, be¬ 
fore it comes into tfc e market. 

FORESTER. In England, the keeper 
of a forest. 

FORFEITURE (in Law). The loss of 
gooas, lands,or employments, &c. for neg¬ 
lecting to do one’s duty, or for some crime 
committed 


FORGE A furnace, in which smithi 
heat their metals red-hot, or in which ths 
ore taken out of the mine is melted down 

FORGERY (in Law). The fraudulen- 
making or altering any record, deed, or 
writing, &c. to the prejudice of another 
man’s right, particularly the counterfeiting 
the signature of another with intent to de¬ 
fraud. 

FORMATION. In geology, any assem¬ 
blage of rocks, alluvial deposits, or sedi¬ 
mentary strata referred to a common 
origin or period. The term properly 
signifies a series of rocks, usually pass¬ 
ing gradually into each other, and the 
whole being considered as belonging to 
a certain period of geological time. A 
geological formation may consist of 
rocks entirely dissimilar, as the coal, 
shale, ironstone, and sandstone of the 
coal formation; or the chalk, flints, and 
sands of the chalk formation. 

FORM (among Printers) The chase or 
frame filled with type or letter the size 
and form of a page, made ready for the 
press. This form will be quarto if the 
sheet consist of 8 pages, octavo if it con¬ 
sist of 16 pages, and duodecimo if it con¬ 
sist of 24 pages 

FORMA PAUPERIS, i. e. In the 
Form of a Pauper. In England, a form 
in which any one may sue who swears 
that he is not worth five pounds, and brings 
a certificate from some lawyer that he has 
just cause of suit. In that case he has 
counsel assigned, and is released from 
costs of suit, &c. 

FORMIC ACID. The acid of ants, which 
is obtained chiefly from the red ant. 

FORMULA (in Mathematics). A general 
theorem or literal expression, for resolving 
any part of a problem. 

FORMULA (in Theology). A profession 
of faith. 

FORMULARY A book of forms and 
precedents for law matters. 

FORT. A small castle or strong hold, 
a place of small extent, fortified either by 
art or nature, being encompassed with a 
moat, rampart, and parapet, as represented 
underneath, to secure some high ground, 
or the passage of a river 



FORT1FIC ATION. The Mlenee of mili¬ 
tary architecture, which teaches the bes\ 
mode of putting a city ft>wn, or any other 






FOR 

place, into a state of defence by making 
works around it. A fortification is either 
regular or irregular: a regular fortification 
is built in a regular polygon, as in the 
subjoined figure; an irregular fortification 
is where the sides and angles are not 
uniform. A temporary fortification is that 
which is raised for any particular emer¬ 
gency, as fieldworks, &.c. This is distin¬ 
guished from a durable fortification, which 
serves as a permanent defence of a place. 
A defensive fortification is that by whicli 
a town is defended in case of a siege, in 
distinction from an offensive fortification, 
which is raised by besiegers for the attack 
of a place. The works of a place are those 
about the place, in distinction from the 
outworks, which are constructed before 
the body of the place. The principal works 
belonging to a fortification are, the ditch 
or trench made round each work; the 
rampart, or elevation of earth, raised along 
the faces of any work, to cover the inner 
part; the parapet, or that part of a rampart 
which serves to cover the troops planted 
there; the bastion, that part of the inner 
enclosure of a fortification making an angle 
towards the field; the counterscarp, the 
slope of the ditch facing the body of the 
place; the covert way, the space extending 
round the counterscarp; the glacis, the part 
beyond the covert way, to which it serves 
as a parapet; the curtain, the front of a 
wall between two bastions; the flank, any 
part of a work which defends another; 
the gorge, that part next to the body of 
the place where there is no rampart: the 
epaule, the shoulder of the bastion; besides 
the barriers, palisades, portcullis, place of 
arms, &c 



FORTIORI, or A FORTIORI. A term 
«ed m reasoning, for anv conclusion or 
14 * 


F O U 161 

inference that is much stronger than an 
other. 

FORUM. A putiic place in Rome, where 
causes were tried and business transacted. 

FOSS (in Fortification). A Ik flow ditch, 
commonly full of water, lying between the 
scarp and the counterscarp. 

FOSS AN. An animal of the weasel kind, 
found in the Asiatic islands, about the 
size of the ferret. 

FOSSILS. All manner of things dug 
out of the earth, whether they be native 
fossils growing in and of the earth, as 
metals, stones, salts, earths, and other min¬ 
erals; or whether they be foreign substan 
ces, as the exuviae of sea and land animals 
namely, shells, bones, teeth, &c.; or whe¬ 
ther they be vegetables, as leaves, wood, 
&x. which have lain long buried in the 
earth. 

FOUL. A sea term for the running of 
one ship against another. 

FOUNDATION (in Architecture). That 
part of a building which is under ground. 

FOUNDATION (in Law). A donation 
in money or lands for the maintenance 
and support of some community, as an 
hospital, a school, &c. 

FOUNDER (in Law). One who founds 
and endows a church, school, college, &c. 

FOUNDER (in Trade). One who casts 
metals in various forms, as gun-founders, 
bell-founders, &c. The company of foun¬ 
ders was incorporated in London, in 1614 

FOUNDRY. The art of casting metals 
in various forms; also the place where 
this business is done. Small works are 
cast in sand, which, being duly prepared, 
is put into a wooden frame; then wooden 
or metal models of what is intended to be 
cast are put into the sand so as to leave 
their impression; and along the middle of 
the mould is laid a smail brass cylinder to 
form a chief canal for the metal to run 
through, from which canal run others ex¬ 
tending to each model or pattern placed 
in the frame. When the moulds are full.; 
prepared, the fused metal is poured out of 
the crucible intc the chief canal, and thence 
conveyed to each pattern. After the whole 
has been set to cool, the cast work is taken 
out of the sand. The mould for very large 
articles is made of wet tempered loam 
built up by degrees in a pit, into which 
the melted metal is made to run along a 
channel on the ground to the mould. The 
composition used in casting bells is termed 
bell metal. 

FOUNT, or FONT A set or certain 
quantity of letters cast at one time by a 
letter-founder for the use of a print«*r 











[62 


FOU 


FRA 


FOUGADE, or FOUGASS. In the mili¬ 
tary art, a little mine, dug to defend or 
destroy a fortification by its explosion. 

FOULARD. A kind of silk material for 
ladies’dresses; a silk kerchief. 

FOURCHETTE. In ornithology, the 
bone formed by the junction of the 
clavicles; commonly called the merry¬ 
thought. 

FOURNEAU. In military engineering, 
the chamber of a mine in which the 
powder is lodged. 

FOURTH. In music, an interval enu¬ 
merated among the discords. The minor 
or lesser fourth consists of five semi¬ 
tones; but the fourth sharp, or greater, 
consists of six semitones. In anatomy, 
fourth pair ot nerves is a term apifiied 
to the nervi pathetici. 

FOUNTAIN. A natural spring of water 
rising out of the ground ; also a stream of 
water ejected through a pipe by means of 
a machine contrived for this purpose. Arti¬ 
ficial fountains are various in their forms, 
but they all act on the principle of a pres¬ 
sure, either from a head of water, or arising 
from the spring and elasticity of the air. 
When fountains are formed by the pressure 
of a head of water, or any other fluid of 
the same kind, with the fountain or jet, 
then will this spout up nearly to the same 
height as that head, allowing a little for 
the resistance of the air, with that of the 
adjutage, &c. in the fluid rushing through; 
but when the fountain is produced by any 
other force than the pressure of a column 
of the same fluid as itself, it will rise nearly 
to the altitude of the fluid, whose pressure 
is equal to the given force that produces 
the fountain. The subjoined figure repre¬ 
sents the circulating fountain, 01 the foun¬ 
tain of Hero of Alexandria, so railed be- 
eiuse it was invented by h m, in which 



the air, being compressed by a concealed 
r a!l oi water forms a jet that appears as if i 


U tad a perpetual motion, and that tAc 
same water which fell from the jet roe* 
again; but, in reality, that water does not 
come up again, for, running down through 
a pipe into the bottom box, it drives out 
the air through an ascending pipe into the 
box at the top containing water which, 
being pressed upon, is forced through the 
spout as long as there is any in it 

FOWL. The largest sort of birds, whethe? 
domestic or wild, as geese, pheasants, par 
tridges, &c. ; also a full grown chicken, oi 
young hen. 

FOWLING. The art of taking or killing 
birds, either by means of snares or nets, or 
by various devices, as imitating their voices 
or using decoy birds and the like. 

FOWLINGPIECE. A light gun for 
shooting birds. 

FOX. A crafty, lively animal, nearly 
allied to the dog, which seeks its food by 
night among the poultry, rabbits, and hares. 
The fox is borne in coats of arms, and as 
a charge, is supposed to denote a subtle wit 
by which a man has served his country. 



FOXGLOVE. See Digitalis. 

FOX-TAIL-GRASS. An herbaceous 
plant. 

F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal Society in 
London. 

FRACTURE (in Mineralogy). The break¬ 
ing of minerals, or the manner in which 
they break, which is one of their specific 
characters. 

FRACTURE (in Surgery). The break 
ing of any bone by an external act of 
violence. 

FRvENUM LINGUA (in Anatomy) 
The ligament under the tongue. 

FRAME (with Painters). A kind o< 
square, composed of four long pieces ui 
slips of wood joined together, the inter 
mediate space of which is divided by little 
strings or threads into a great number of 
little squares, like the meshes of a net, 
used in reducing figures from great to 
small or from small to great. 

FRANCHISE. The privilege or right 
of voting in an election. 







FRE 


FRI 


jfti 


FRANK FREE. A term much used in 
the old English law, as Frank pledge free¬ 
men, who used to be pledges or sureties, 
for the good behaviour of those who were 
of their community; in modern law, an 
exemption from paying postage for letters, 
which is enjo' <d by members of parliament 
in England, and members of Congress to a 
certain extent. 

FRANK. A French coin, worth twenty 
vols, or about eighteen cents and 3-4. 

FRANKINCENSE. An odoriferous, 
dry, resinous substance, procured from the 
juniper ir3e in Turkey and the East In¬ 
dies. 

FREEBOOTER. A soldier that serves 
for plunder, without pay. 

FREEHOLD. That land or tenement 
which a man holds in fee simple, fee tail, 
or for term of life. 

FREEHOLDERS. Possessore a free¬ 
hold estate. 

FREEMAN(in Ancient Law). In Eng. 
one free from servitude, as distinguished 
from a villain or bondsman ; also one who 
enjoys the freedom of a city or bou tgh. 
A freeman in the United States, i& one 
who has a right to vote 

FREE SCHOOL. An endowed schnol, 
where children are taught free of expense. 

FREESTONE. A sort of stone used in 
building, that may be cut freely in any 
manner. 

FREIGHT (in Commerce). The sum of 
money agreed to be paid for the burden 
of a ship: also the burden itself, or the 
cargo of a ship. 

FRENCH HORN. A musical instru¬ 
ment, bent into a circle, and going two or 
three times round. It grows gradually 
larger and wider towards the end, and in 
some horns is nine or ten inches over 



F.tEEZTNG (ir. Physiology). The fixing 
« fluid body into a firx and solid mass by 
the action of cold. The process of freezing 
may be artificially produced by means of 
'be air pump, and sometimes by certain 


freezing mixtures, or compositions of such 
ingredients as when mixed with other 
bodies, cause them to congeal; such as 
snow and common salt, or muriate of am¬ 
monia, nitre and water, &c. 

FRESCO. A method of painting in 
relievo on walls, so as to endure the 
weather; it is performed with watercolours 
on fresh plaster, so that the colours incor¬ 
porate with the mortar. 

FRESHES. A sea term for an impetu¬ 
ous ebb tide increased by heavy rains. 

FRET (in Architecture). An ornament 
consisting of small fillets interlaced, that 
were used by the ancients on flat in«m 
bers. 



FRET (in Music). A kind of stop on 
some instruments, particularly bass viols 
and lutes. 

FRICTION (in Mechanics). The rub 
bing of the parts of engines and machines 
against each other, by which means a great 
part of their effect is destroyed. 

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. In England, 
associations chiefly among the lower clas¬ 
ses, for affording relief to each other in 
time of sickness, or to the widows and 
childivn at their death. 

FI I wATE. A light bailt ship of war 
from tv »nty to fifty gans fitted for fast 
sailing. 



FRIGID ZONES. The two zones « 
divisions of the eaiih, comprehended be¬ 
tween the poles and the polar circles 
They are the north frigid zone, at the north 
pole, and the south frigid zone, at the sout‘ 
pole. 
















































164 


FRU 


* UL 


FRIT, or FRITT (in the Glass Manu¬ 
facture). The matter or ingredients of which 
glass is to be made, after they have been 
ralcined or baked in a furnace. It is of 
different kinds, according to the quality of 
the glass. Crystal frit, for the best kind, 
is made with salt of pulverine and sand. 
The ordinary or common glass is made of 
the bare ashes of pulverine, or barilla, 
without extracting the salt from them ; this 
is the second kind of frit. The third kind 
of frit, for green glass, is made of common 
ashes, without any preparation. 

FRITH (in Geography). An arm of the 
sea, as the Frith of Forth, or of Edinburgh, 
the Frith of Clyde, <fcc. 

FRIZING CLOTH. A process in the 
woollen manufacture, of forming the nap 
of cloth or stuff into a number of little 
hard burrs or prominences, so as to cover 
almost the whole ground. This process is 
now performed by machinery. 

FROG. An amphibious animal, having 
a smooth body, and longer legs than the 
toad. 



FROG (In Farriery). The hard project¬ 
ing substance in the hollow of a horse’s 
foot. 

FROG-FISH, or Fishing Frog. A kind 
of fish resembling a frog in the tadpole 
state, that puts forth its slender horns and 
entices the little fish to itself, in order to 
seize them. 

FRONT. The principal face or side of 
a building. 

FRONTIER. The boundary of a king¬ 
dom, which separates it from another king¬ 
dom on the land side. 

FRONTISPIECE. The ornament or 
picture which faces the title page in a 
book. 

FRONTLET. A band worn on the 
forehead. 

FRUCTIFICATION (in Botany). The 
temporary part of vegetables, appropriated 
to their propagation, consisting of the flow¬ 
er and the fruit. 

FRUIT (in Botany). That which suc¬ 
ceeds the flower; it may either be seed 


only, or it may be an esculent pulpy su 
stance, as the apple or the pear; or it may 
be hard, like the nut, pea, &.c. 

FRUITERER. One who deals in fruit 
The company of fruiterers in London, was 
incorporated in 1604. 

FRUSH. The tender part of a horse’s 
heel, next the hoof. 

FRUSTUM (in Mathematics). A part 
of some solid body separated from the rest 

FRUSTUM OF A CONE. The part ol 
a cone that remains when the top is cut 
off by a plane parallel to the base; it is 
otherwise called a truncated cone. 

FRUSTUM of a GLOBE or SPHERE. 
Any part of it cut off by a plane. 

F. S. A. An abbreviation for Fellow of 
the Society of Arts. 

FUCI. A genus of plants in the Linnte- 
an system, comprehending most of those 
which are commonly called seaweeds, 
from which, when burnt, an impure alkai 
is procured called kelp. 



FUCUS. The name given by the an 
cients to a sea plant, from which a dye 
was procured, for dyeing woollen and lin 
en cloths of that colour. 

FUGITIVE PIECES Little pieces of 
composition of temporary interest. 

FUGITIVE’S GOODS (in Law). The 
goods of one who flies upon felony. 

FUGUE (in Music). A species of com 
position, in which the different parts follow 
each other, each repeating in order what 
the first had performed. 

FULCRUM (in Mechanics). The prop 
or support by which a lever is sustained. 

FULLER. One who cleans and scours 
cloth. 

FULLER’S EARTH. A species of clay 
remarkable for the property of absorbing 






FUN 


FUS 


•il, wherefore it is used by fullers to take 
grease out of cloth. 

FULLING. Theart of cleansing, scour¬ 
ing, and pressing cloths, to make them 
stronger, closer, and firmer, which is done 
by means of a water mill, called a fulling 
or scouring mill. These mills are nearly 
the same as corn mills, except in the mill¬ 
stones and the hopper. In France, corn 
is ground and cloth is fulled by the motion 
of the same wheel: cloths and woollen 
■tuffs are sometimes fulled by means of 
soap, in the following manner the cloth is 
laid in the trough of the fulling mill, and 
then the soap dissolved in pails of river 
or spring water is to be poured upon it 
by little and little. The cloth, after lying 
two hours in the soap, is taken out, stretch¬ 
ed, and then returned to the trough. Up¬ 
on being taken out a second time, the 
grease and filth is then wrung out. This 
process is afterwards repeated, and when 
the cloth has thus been brought to the 
quality and thickness required, it is scour¬ 
ed in hot water until it is quite clean. 

FULMINATION. The noise which 
some minerals or metals make when heat¬ 
ed in a crucible; as fulminating powder, 
which is made of nitre, potash, and the 
flowers of sulphur, triturated in a warm 
mortar. If this powder be fused in a ladle, 
and then set on fire, it will explode with a 
noise like thunder. If a solution of gold 
be precipitated by ammonia, the product 
will be fulminating gold, a grain of which, 
if held over a flame, will explode wit a a 
■harp load noise. 

FUMIGATION. A process by means of 
which the nitrous and other mineral acids, 
in a state of vapour, are dispersed through 
any place. 

FUNCTION The performance of any 
duty. 

FUNCTION (in Physiology). The ex¬ 
ercise of any faculty or power, as the vital 
functions, or those which are necessary to 
life. 

FUNCTION (in Algebra). An algebra¬ 
ical expression of a certain letter or quan¬ 
tity. 

FUND (in Commerce). The capital or 
■tock of a public company. 

FUNDAMENTAL NOTE (in Music). 
The lowest note of the chord, to which all 
the rest are in some measure adapted, and 
by which they are regulated ; it is other¬ 
wise called the key to the song. 

FUNDS, PUBLIC FUNDS, or 
STOCKS. 'ITie national debt formed into 
different capitals, upon which interest is 
payable. 

FUNGI. The fourth order of the class 


lea 

Cryptogamia in the Linna;an system, con 
sisting of funguses, mushrooms, truffles, 
&c. A fungus of this order is represented 
underneath. 



FURLONG. A measure of length, con¬ 
sisting of forty poles. 

FURLOUGH. Leave of absence given 
to a soldier, or noncommissioned officer. 

FURNACE. A fire place for melting, 
distilling, and other chemical processes, sc 
built as to cause the fire to bum vehe¬ 
mently. 



FUR. The coat or covering of some 
animals, as sables, beavers, martens, 
squirrels, &c. which is used in various ar¬ 
ticles of dress, either for ornament or 
warmth. 

FURS. Tinctures in coats of arms, 
which are supposed to represent the furs 
of animals. 

FURRIER. One who deals in furs, and 
prepares them for the manufacturer. 

FURRING (in Carpentry). The fixing 
thin scantlings or laths on the edges of 
timbers, to bring them to the even surface 
they were intended to form 

FURRINGS (in Carpentry) The pie¬ 
ces of timber employed in making an even 
surface. 

FURROW. A small trench cast up by 
the plough between tbo lamia. 

FUSEE (in Clockwork"!. \ *>*‘r w «aicaJ 
contrivance for equalizing the power of 











160 


GAG 


GAL 


the main spring of a watch. The fusee on 
which the chain or catgut is wound, is 
made somewhat conical, so that its radius 
at every point may correspond with the 
strength of the spring, being greater and 
greater as the action of the spring becomes 
more and more weakened by unbending. 

FUSEE (in Gunnery). The tube fixed 
into a bomb or grenade shell, which is 
filled with combustible materials, and fur¬ 
nished with a quick match on the top of 
it. When it is used it is driven into the 
bemb, being cut to a length proportioned 
to rhe distance that the bomb is to be 
thrown, that it may be spent and the bomb 
break when it fails 


FUSIL. A small ligl t musket 

FUSIL (in Heraldry). An artificial 
charge, representing a spindle. It is of 
the same shape a<* the lozenge, but it is 
longer. 

FUSION. The artof reducing bodies to 
a fluid state by the artificial application of 
heat; as in the case of metals, glass, and 
similar bodies. Those substances which 
admit of being fused are termed fusible, 
but those which resist the action of fire or 
heat are termed refractory. 

FUST. The shaft of a column. 

FUSTIAN. A sort of nappy cotton. 

FUSTIC. A dyeing wood brought from 
the West Indies 


G. 


G, the seventh letvei in the alphabet, as a 
numeral, formerly sv^ed for 400; as a sign, 
it stands for the treble cliff, or the highest 
of the three cliffs ; as an abbreviation, for 
grand, as G. C. B. Xnighi Giand Cross of 
the Bath. 

GABEL. Formerly an excise in France 
on salt; in old English records, a roU, cus¬ 
tom, or duty due to the lord. 

GABIONS. Baskets of willow filled *rth 
earth to make a parapet or cover. 



GABLE END The triangular end of a 
house, from the cornice or eaves to the 
top 

GADFLY. An insect which has a face 
resembling that of an ape. It deposits its 
eggs on the backs of horses and other 
cattle. 



QAGE. or GAUGE. An instrument for 
ascertaining measures of different kinds, as 
ror measuring the state of rarefaction in 
vie air pump, or determining the variations I 


in the barometer, or for measuring the 
force of the winds, &c. 

GAL. An abbreviation for gallon or 
Galatians. 

GALAXY, or Milky Wat. A long 
white luminous tract which seems to en¬ 
compass the heavens like a girdle, formed 
by innumerable stars. 

GALBANUM A resinous substance 
like frankincense. 

GALE (among Mariners). A storm or 
violent wind. 

GALL Another name for the bile 

GALL BLADDER. An oblong mem¬ 
braneous receptacle for the bile. 

GALLERY A passage leading to sev¬ 
eral apartments. 



GALLERY (among Miners). A long 
narrow passage under ground. 

GALLERY (in Fortification). A covered 
walk across a ditch in a besieged town, 
made of strong planks and covered with 
earth. It was formerly used for carrying 
a mine to the foot of the ramparts. It 
ought to be eight feet higli and ten or 
twelve feet wide. The beams ought to b# 
half a foot thick, and planks nailed on eac. 
i sia 







































































GALLEY (in Printing). A frame into 
which the compositor empties his stick as 
often as it is filled. 

GALLEY (in Shipbuilding). A low 
built vessel, much used in the Mediterra¬ 
nean 





GALLEY-SLAVE. One condemned 
Dy way of punishment to work at the oar, 
to which he is chained, on board of a gal¬ 
ley. 

GALL-FLY. An insect which produces 
the galls or excrescences on the branches 
and leaves of trees. 

GALLICISM. A form of expression 
peculiar to the French. 

GALL NUTS, or GALLS. Excrescen¬ 
ces on trees, which are occasioned by the 
gall-flies. Those which come on the oak, 
vulgarly called oak apples, are used in 
making ink, dyeing, and dressing leather. 
They are represented underneath. 



GALlOWAY. A kind of Scotch horse 
not mere than fourteen hands high. 

GALVANIC BATTERY. An appara¬ 
tus which is employed in accumulating the 
electricity of galvanism by the mutual 
agencies of certain metallic and carbona¬ 
ceous substances and peculiar fluids. See 
Galvasism. This battery, as represented 



nnderneath, consists of pieces of zinc, sil¬ 
ver, and wet cloth, disposed in threes al¬ 


ternately, to the number of twenty or thir¬ 
ty triplicates, as may be thought proper. 

GALVANISM. A branch ofthe science 
of electricity, first discovered accidentally 
by Galvani, a professor of Bologna, from 
whom it derives its name. This science 
treats of the effects of applying metals to 
the nerves and muscles of dead animals, 
which has been found to produce strong 
contractions and convulsions. The first 
observation on this extraordinary effect of 
electricity was made in the laboratory of 
M. Galvani, when one of his assistants 
happened to bring the point of his scalpel 
to the crural nerves of a skinned frog lying 
near the conductor, upon which the mus¬ 
cles of the limb were agitated with strong 
convulsions. Madame Galvani, who was 
present at the time, was struck with the 
circumstance, and communicated it in¬ 
stantly to M. Galvani, who repeated the 
experiment, and found that the convulsion 
only took place when a spark was drawn 
from the conductor at the time the scalpel 
was in contact with the nerve. After this, 
Galvani continued his experiments in vari¬ 
ous ways, and ascertained that the mere 
agency of metallic substances, provided 
they were dissimilar metals, would produce 
such convulsions. This subject engaged 
the attention of experimentalists both be¬ 
fore and after the death of M. Galvani, 
which happened in 1798; but none added 
any thing materially to his discovery ex¬ 
cept M. Volta, who repeated the experi¬ 
ments of the former, and found that when 
two pieces of metal of different kinds were 
placed in different parts of an animal, and 
were either brought into contact or into 
connexion by means of a metallic arc, con¬ 
vulsions ensued every tin e, and that this 
effect was strongest when the metals were 
zinc and silver, particularly when several 
pairs of metals were employed, having 
pieces of moist cloth between them. This 
led him to the idea of constructing a batte¬ 
ry, for the purpose of accumulating elec¬ 
tricity, which has since beeD called the 
galvanic battery, or Voltaic pile 
The apparatus first made bj Volta, in 
1800, consisted of a certain number of pah s 
of zinc and silver plates, separated from 
each other by pieces of wet cloth, in the 
order of zinc, silver, wet cloth, zinc, sil¬ 
ver, wet cloth, in regular succession. The 
silver plates were chiefly pieces of coins, 
the plates of zinc and the pieces of wet 
cloth being of the same size. He found 
this much more powerful when the pieces 
of cloth were moistened with a solution o. 
common salt instead of pure water, and 
an apparatus thus prepared was found U 






























168 


GAN 


GAR 


possess the power of giving a very smart 
shock, similar to that of a small electric 
jar; and this effect took place as often as 
a communication was made between each 
end of the pile, and as long as the pieces 
of cloth remained moist: an improvement 
was made on this apparatus by Mr. Cruick- 
sliank, of Woolwich, whicli was denomi¬ 
nated a galvanic trough, and consists of a 
box of baked wood, in which plates of 
copper, or of silver and zinc, soldered to¬ 
gether at their edges, are cemented in such 
a manner as to leave a number of water¬ 
tight cells, corresponding to the number of 
the series; this serves to remedy the defect 
of the Voltaic pile, which, on account of 
the loss of moisture, loses its electrical 
action in a few days ; but by Mr. Cruick- 
sliank’s contrivance its activity may be 
renewed by filling the cells with the proper 
saline Muid. 

GAMBOGE. A yellow resinous sub¬ 
stance used by painters. It is the produce 
of a tree native of Cambogia or Cambaja, 
in the East Indies. 

GAME. All sorts of birds and beasts 
that are objects of the chase. The laws 
which in England particularly protect this 
sort of property, are known by the name 
of the Game Laws By these laws certain 
qualifications of property are required, to 
give a person the privilege of being allowed 
to kill game ; and penalties are imposed on 
all persons who kill game, either without 
such qualification or at improper seasons; 
likewise the sale of game is prohibited un¬ 
der every circumstance. Attempts have 
been repeatedly made in parliament to 
procure a repeal, either wholly or in part, 
of these laws, which are thought to be 
oppressive in their operation. 

GAME. Any sport or amusement which 
affords a subject of contest, and a display 
of skill or superiority. 

GAMECOCK. A cock bred to fight. 

GAMESTER. One who is viciously 
addicted to playing at games. 

GAMING. The wanton and extravagant 
playing at games for purposes of gain. 

GAMUT (in Music). The table or scale 
of notes laid down by Guido, and marked 
by the monosyllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la ; 
also the first note in the scale. 

GANG (among Mariners). A select num¬ 
ber of a ship’s crew, appointed on any 
particular service. 

GANG. A number of persons who go or 
herd together for wicked purposes. 

GANGLIONS. Small, hard, knotty tu¬ 
mours, formed on the nervous and tendi¬ 
nous parts 


GANGRENE. A mortification in Its 
first beginning. 

GANGWAY (among Mariners). The 
name of several ways or passages from one 
i part of a ship to another. 

GANNET. A large water bird, common 
on the coasts of Scotland. 

GANTLOPE, or GANTLET (in Mili¬ 
tary Affairs). An old punishment in which 
the criminal, running between the ranks, 
receives a lash from every man. 

GANNET. The solan goose, a northern 
sea-fowl, allied to the pelican, aud be¬ 
longing to the same genus with the 
booby. 

GANOIDIANS. An order of fishes 
having angular scales, covered with 
bright enamel, as the sturgeon. 

GANGUE. The mineral substance 
which encloses any metallic ore in the 
vein; protogene granite. 

GARAGAY. A rapacious bird of Mexico. 

GARANCINE. An extract of madder 
by means of sulphuric acid. 

GARDEN. A plot of ground enclosed 
and cultivated with extraordinary care, 
and furnished with the fine kinds of 
plants and flowers, for pleasure and use. 

GARDENING. The process of tilling 
a garden and keeping it in order. 

GARDENING, History of. Gardening 
is one of those domestic arts so essentially 
connected with the refined enjoyments ol 
mankind, that with a garden has ever been 
associated every idea of cultivation and 
pure pleasure. From Holy Writ we learn 
that our first parents, before their fall, 
passed their lives in a garden, and their 
posterity, although, according to the denun¬ 
ciation of their Maker, doomed to till the 
ground with the sweat of their brow, never¬ 
theless have at all times endeavoured to 
sweeten their labour by bringing home to 
themselves the enjoyments of cultivation 
within the narrow circle of their own 
habitation. The accounts of gardens among 
the ancients are confined to those of princes 
or great men, as the garden of Solomon 
and the garden of Alcinous the Pliceacian 
king, which is minutely described by 
Homer in his Odyssey. The hanging gar¬ 
dens of Babylon, particularly spoken of 
by Diodorus and Strabo, may be reckoned 
among the wonders of art. Each side ex¬ 
tended four hundred feet, so that the area 
of the base was nearly an acre. They rose 
with terraces, constructed one above ano¬ 
ther, and supported with pillars to tne 
height of four hundred feet. These ter¬ 
races were formed of stone, covered with 
reeds, and cemented with bitumen, over 
which was laid a double row si bricky 





GAK 


GAS 


xml then a layer of earth of sufficient 
''eptli for plants to grow in it. The Per- 
•ian kings also displayed their magnifi¬ 
cence in their gardens, which they took 
care should contain all that was useful as 
veil as beautiful. Their trees were ranged 
in straight lines and regular figures, and 
the margins of the walks were lined with 
of roses, violets, and other odoriferous 
lowers. Firs and planes were their fa¬ 
vourite trees. 

The Greeks appear to have derived their 
ideas of gardening from the Persians, if 
we may judge from the allusions of writers 
to this subject. Xenophon particularly 
admires the garden of Cyrus at Sardis. 
The narcissus, the violet, the rose, the ivy, 
the pines, and other plants chosen by the 
Persians, either for their beauty or their 
fragrance, were the theme of praise among 
the Grecian poets and philosophers. They 
also consulted shade, fresh breezes, and the 
beauties of verdant scenery, as we learn 
from the vale of Tempe described by 
/Elian, and the shady groves of Athens 
described by Plutarch. With the beauties 
af nature they also associated those of art, 
particularly such as derived an interest 
from their religious or social attachments. 
Hence we find that their gardens were 
decorated with temples or altars dedicated 
to thei.* gods, or the tombs of their ances¬ 
tors or of great men whose memory they 
held dear. Their favourite fruits were the 
vine, the fig, the pomegranate, and the 
melon. 

The first garden mentioned among the 
Romans is that of Tarquinius Superbus, 
w%ich abounded with flowers, chiefly roses 
and poppies. As the Roman people exten¬ 
ded their conquests, and their intercourse 
with other nations became more frequent, 
they increased in luxurious and expensive 
indulgences, which they displayed in the 
decorations of their gardens. Lucullus, the 
conqueror of Mithridates, who introduced 
from Asia the cherry, the peach, and the 
apricot, first gave the Romans a specimen 
of Asiatic grandeur, in his garden near 
Bake, in Naples, which was remarkable 
for prodigious works of art, as artificial 
mountains, immense pieces of water, and 
numerous costly embellishments. This 
gave that tone of artificiality to the Roman 
gardens which was for so many centuries 
after retained in Europe. Slopes, terraces, 
a wilderness, shrubs methodically trimmed 
or cut into certain shapes, a marble basin, 
artificial fountains, or a cascade falling into 
the basin, bay trees alternately planted 
with planes, a straight walk, from which 
issued others, parted off bv hedges of box, 
15 


16k) 

and apple trees, with obelisks placed be¬ 
tween every two; these were the ingredi¬ 
ents of a Roman garden, as described bv 
Pliny the younger, in which was wanted 
nothing but the decoration of a parterre tc 
make a garden in the reign of Trajan to 
serve for a description of one in the seven¬ 
teenth century. A more correct taste in 
the art of gardening has obtained within 
the last century. Nature now derives 
every possible assistance from art, without 
losing any thing of her simplicity 

GARLAND. An ornament of floweia 
made for the head or other purposes. 

GARLAND (among Mariners). A collar 
of rope wound up sbout the head of a 
main mast, to k'<-p the shrouds from 
galling. 

GARLIC. A bulbous root, consisting of 
many small tubercles included in its coats 
It has a strong smell and an acrid taste, 
but is much used for food. 

GARNET. A sort of carbuncle, so called 
from its red colour, resembling the seed of 
a pomegranate. 

GARNISHMENT (in Law). A warning 
given to any one for his appearance in 
court. 

GARRET. The uppermost floor in a 
house. 

GARRISON. A place of defence occu¬ 
pied by troops; also the troops themselves 

GARTER. A bandage for the leg. 

GARTER (in Heraldry). The principal 
badge of the highest order of knighthood 
in England called the most Noble 
Order of the Garter. 

GARTER KING AT ARMS. The chief 
of the three kings at arms. 

GARTER, Order of the. In England, 
an order of knights instituted by Edward 
III. which consists of twenty-six knights 
companions. The habit and ensigns of 
this order are the garter, mantle, cap, and 
collar. The badge of the order is the im¬ 
age of Saint George, called the George. 

GAS. A chemical term derived from 
the German geist, spirit, denoting an elas¬ 
tic aerial fluid, of which there are different 
kinds, some being acid, as carbonic acid ; 
some alkalies, as ammonia, &c. 

GAS LIGHT. Light produced by gas 
burning in lamps, &c. This gas, which is 
a combination of oxygen and hydrogen, is 
carried away by pipes and burnt at the 
orifice of escape. It is produced either 
from pit coal or whale oil. The process 
for producing coal gas is as follows. The 
coal, being broken to a convenient size, is 
placed in oblong cast iron retorts, ranged 
in furnaces to keep them at a red heat, 
and all the volatile produets are conveyed 





170 


G A T 


GEM 


by a common tube into a condensing 
vessel, which is kept cool by being im¬ 
mersed in water. In the condenser are 
retained the water, tar, and other con¬ 
densible vapours, while the gaseous pro¬ 
ducts, namely, the carburetted hydrogen, 
the sulphuretted hydrogen,and the carbonic 
oxyde and acid are passed through strata 
of slaked lime, by which the sulphuretted 
hydrogen and carbonic gases are absorbed, 
and the carburetted hydrogen and hydro¬ 
gen gases in their purified state are trans¬ 
mitted into the gasometers, from which the 
several pipes are supplied that convey the 
gas to the lamps. The best kind of coal 
for distillation is that which contains most 
bitumen and least sulphur. 

After the discovery of obtaining gas from 
coal, attempts were made to extract it 
from other substances. The method of pro¬ 
curing it from oil is said to have originated 
in an attempt made in 1814 to convert coal 
tar into gas. Since that period,numerous 
works have been constructed for the man¬ 
ufacture of oil gas, which, in the opinion 
«f many, is preferable to the coal gas. 

GASOMETER, or GAZOMETER. A 
reservoir holding a considerable quan¬ 
tity of gas. It is made of thin tinned iron 
plate, and mostly provided with some 
contrivance for measuring the quantity of 
gas it contains. 



GASTRIC JUICE. A fluid separated 
oy the capillary vessels of the stomach, 
and serving as the principal solvent of the 
food. This juice in a healthy subject is 
inodorous, of a saltish taste, and limpid 
like water. 

GATE. A moveable part of a fence, 
made of wood or iron. Gates with five 
»r six bars, large enough to admit of carts 


passing through, are most commonly em¬ 
ployed in fences for parting off fields. 


GAVELKIND. A tenure or custom la 
Kent in England, whereby the lands of 
the father were divided equally at his 
death among his sons. 

GAUGING. The art of measuring the 
capacities of all kinds of vessels. 

GAUNTLET. An iron glove for the 
hand, which was formerly used in single 
combat. It is borne in coat armour, as ia 
the annexed figure. 



GAUZE. A very thin sort off silk 

GAZELLE. A beautiful species of the 
Antelope frequently alluded to, in Persian 
poetry. 

GAZETTE. A newspaper; particularly 
that published by authority. The firs 
Gazette in England was published in 1665 
at Oxford, where the court then was 

GAZETTEER. A writer or publishe 
of a Gazette; also the title of a geographi 
cal dictionary. 

GELATINE, or Jelly. An animal sub 
stance, soluble in water, and capable of 
assuming an elastic or tremulous consist¬ 
ence when cooled, and liquifying again 
by the application of heat. 

GEM. A precious stone; or a sort of 
siliceous earth, consisting of silica and 
alumina, with a small portion of lime and 
oxyde of iron. The gem is remarkable 
for its hardness and internal lustre. Under 
this name is comprehended the diamond, 
ruby, sapphire, hyacinth, beryl, garnet, 
chrysolite, &.c. To these have been added 
rock crystals, the finer flints of pebbles, th* 
cat’s eye, the oculus mundi, the chalcedo¬ 
ny, the moon stones, the onyx, the corne¬ 
lian, the sardonyx, agate, &c. 

The imitation of antique gems, by taking 
the impressions and figures upon them, in 
glass of the colour of the original gem, or 
on sealing wax or brimstone, has bees 
practised at different times by persons who, 
in respect to the first method of taking 
them on glass, have kept the art to them¬ 
selves, and suffered it to die with them. 
But the process adopted by Mr. Homberg, 
which has also been communicated by hip 
to the world, is highly esteemed for the 
perfection to which he has brought the art 
From the engraved gems of the king’ 
cabinet, he took such exact resemblances 
of tb* originals as sometimes to deceive 




























































GEN 


GEO 


171 


the nicest judges, who mistook them for the 
true antique stones. His method consists 
in taking the impression of the gem in a 
very fine earth, and then conveying the 
impression from the earth t* a piece of 
half melted glass. 

GEMINI, the Twins. A constellation, 
and sign in the zodiac, marked thus u. 

GEN. An abbreviation for General and 
Genesis. 

GENDARMES, or GENS D’ARMES. 
A select body of soldiers in the French 
*rmy, who are now much employed by 
the police. 

GENDER (in Grammar). A distinction 
in nouns to mark the sexes-, genders are 
either masculine, for the male sex; femi¬ 
nine, for the female sex; or neuter, for 
those which are of neither sex. 

GENEALOGY. A series or succession 
of ancestors; also an account of the rela¬ 
tions and alliances of any person or family. 

GENERAL (in Military Affairs). An 
officer in chief, to whom the command of 
troops is in.rusted; also a particular beat 
of drum in the morning, to give notice to 
the foot to march. 

GENERALISSIMO. The supreme gene¬ 
ral or commander in chief of an army. 

GENERAL ISSUE (in Law). That plea 
which traverses or denies at once the whole 
declaration or indictment. 

GENERAL OFFICERS. All officers 
above the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the 
line. 

GENERATING (in Geometry). A term 
for a line or figure, which by its motion 
produces any other figure. 

GENERIC CHARACTER (in Natural 
History). The character which distin¬ 
guishes the genera or general kinds of 
plants, animals, &c. from each other. 
This character belongs to all the species 
of the same genus or kind. 

GENERIC NAME (in Natural History). 
The name of any genus or kind of animal, 
plant, or mineral. This name can be de¬ 
scribed only by describing the generic 
character. 

GENET. An animal of the weasel kind, 
resembling the civet cat in its musk smell. 

GENEVA. See Gin. 

GENITIVE CASE. The second case in 
Latin and Greek nouns, which denote pos¬ 
session. It is marked in English by s with 
an apostrophe, thus (’s). 

GENII. Good or evil spirits, much 
thought of in the eastern nations. The 
Tales of the Genii profess to give an ac¬ 
count of their proceedings and dealings 
with mankind. 

GENTILES. A name given by the Jews i 


to an who were not of the twelve tribes of 
Israel; among Christians, it is the name of 
all heathens who did not embrace tht 
Christian faith. 

GENTLEMAN. Anciently, one above 
the state of a yeoman. 

GENTRY (in Law). The order and rank 
of gentlemen,descended from ancient fami 
lies, that had always borne coat armour. 

GENTOO. A native of Hindostan. 

GE^US tin Natural History). A sub 
iivibuUt of a class or order of natural ob 
jects animal, vegetable, or mineral, an* 
havhig under it different species or variety 

GENUS (among Logicians). That which 
is common to a number of individuals; tho 
summum genus, or highest genus, is t lat 
which appertains to the greatest number 
of individuals, as substance, which belongs 
to all material. 

GEOCENTRIC. Being concentric with 
the earth, er having the earth for its centre; 
a term applied to a planet in its orbit. 

GEOGRAPHICAL MILE. The 60th 
part of a degree. 

GEOGRAPHY. The science which 
treats of the earth as an habitable world, 
comprehending a description of the whole 
globe, together with an account of all its 
parts, limits, inhabitants, &c. Geography 
is either general or particular. General 
geography comprehends the knowledge of 
the earth in general, and the affections 
common to the whole globe, as its figure, 
magnitude, motions, circles, winds, tides, 
meteors, divisions into land and water 
&c. Particular geography has respect to 
particular countries, showing their boun¬ 
daries, figure, climate,seasons,inhabitants, 
arts, customs,language, history, &c. When 
it respects regions, districts, or parts of 
countries, it is called chorography, and 
when particular cities, towns, or villages,. 
&c. it is called topography. Particulai 
geography is also distinguished into ancient 
geography, when it treats of the countries 
and places existing among the ancients; 
modern geography, when it treats of mo 
dern places; the geography of the middle 
ages, which treats of places that flourished 
in the middle ages ; and lastly, sacred 
geography, which treats of places men¬ 
tioned in the Bible. 

The earth, considered as a planet, is 
supposed to be marked by circles corres¬ 
ponding to those which the sun apparently 
describes in the heavens, as the horizon, 
which divides the sphere into two parts 
or hemispheres, the one upper and visible 
the other lower and invisible; the equator 
which is equidistant from both the poles, 
and divides the globe into northern and 




172 


GEOGRAPHY. 


southern hemispheres} the azimuth, or ver¬ 
tical circles, which intersect each other at 
the zenith and nadir} the meridian, which 
crosses the equator at right angles, and 
from which the distance of places east and 
west is reckoned } the parallels of latitude, 
small circles supposed to be parallel to 
the equator, which show the latitude of 
places, or their distance north and south 
from the equator ; the arctic and antarctic 
cirsles, two circles at the distance of twen¬ 
ty three degrees and a half from the north 
and south poles} the two tropics, namely, 
the tropic of Cancer and the tropic of 
Capricorn, the first north and the second 
Bouth, twenty-three degrees and a half dis¬ 
tant from the equator; to these might be 
added the hour circles, or the twenty-four 
circles passing through the equator, and 
corresponding to the twenty-four hours of 
the day 

From the diversity in the length of the 
days and nights, geographers divide the 
globe into certain districts, called climates, 
measured either by hours or half hours ; 
and from the effects of light and heat upon 
the earth in different parts, it is distin¬ 
guished into five zones, namely, one torrid 
or burning zone, between the tropics; two 
temperate, between the polar circles and 
the tropics; two frigid or frozen zones, 
between the polar circles and the poles. 
The inhabitants of the earth, as to their 
relative situation in regard to each other, 
are distinguished into the antipodes, who 
live directly opposite to each other; the 
antoeci, who live under the same meridian, 
but opposite parallels of latitude; the pe- 
rioeci, who live under the same parallels 
of latitude, but opposite meridians. 

The earth is naturally divided into land 
and water, and according to some compu¬ 
tations about three-fourths of it is occupied 
by water, and the remaining fourth by 
land. The land is distinguished into con¬ 
tinents, or large portions not separated by 
any sea, as the four great continents, Eu- 
rope, Asia, Africa, and America, which 
are the four quarters of the world; islands, 
smaller portions, entirely surrounded by 
water, as Great Britain, Inland, &c.; 
peninsulas, or tracts of land almost sur¬ 
rounded by water, as the Morea, in Greece; 
isthmuses, or necks of land joining two 
continents, as the isthmus of S iez, joining 
Africa to Asia; promontories, or capes, 
high portions of land stretching out into 
the sea, as the Cape of Good Hope; moun¬ 
tains, or elevations of the earth’s surface, 
SW& as the Alps and Pyrenees n Europe, 
the Caucasus and Uralian Mountains in 


Asia, and the Andes in America. The 
water is distinguished into oceans, which 
are vast collections which separate the 
continents from each oilier, as the Pacific 
and Atlantic Oceans; seas, or smaller col¬ 
lections of water, as the Indian Sea, Black 
Sea, &c.; gulfs, parts of any sea surrounded 
nearly with land, as the Gulf of Venice, 
if they have a wide entrance they are bays, 
as the Bay of Biscay; straits, narrow pas¬ 
sages joining two seas, as the Strait of 
Gibraltar; lakes, lo ge collections entirely 
surrounded by lanu, as the Lake of Geneva 
rivers, streams of water which have then 
source in some spring, and empty them 
selves into some other river or piece of 
water. The principal rivers, as to theu 
magnitudes, are the Amazon Senegal 
Nile, St. Lawrence, La Plata, Mississippi 
Volga, Oronooko, Ganges, Euphrates, Da¬ 
nube, Don, Indus, Dnieper, and Dwina, 
but if estimated according to the length of 
course which they run, their order will be 
rather different, but the Amazon is the 
largest in every respect. 

The earth is politically divided into 
countries,which, according to their govern¬ 
ment, are distinguished into empires, if 
they are of great extent, as the Russian 
and Austrian empires; or kingdoms, as 

the kingdoms of Great Britain, Spain, 
&c., or Republics as the United States, 
Mexico, France, &c., or States as 
Holland, Netherlands, &c., under 

this head geography treats of the subdi¬ 
visions of each country into provinces, 
cities, towns, &c.; also of the number of 
inhabitants, the nature and produce of the 
soli, the animals peculiar to each place, 
the state of the arts, manufactures, com¬ 
merce, &.c. which constitute the wealth of 
each country, and is comprehended under 
the name of statistics. To all this may be 
added an account of curiosities, natural 
and artificial, as volcanoes,caverns, canals, 
springs, fountains, and the like. Besides 
geography treats not only of the earth’s 
surface, but also of the affections which it 
is exposed to from the waters of the ocean 
which produce the flux and reflux of the 
tide, and the currents belonging to par¬ 
ticular seas, as in the Mediterranean and 
Euxine seas; likewise of the winds which 
blow in particular manners and directions, 
such as the monsoons,or trade winds, which 
blow for some months in the year one 
way and the rest another; and, lastly, the 
meteorological peculiarities of each coun¬ 
try, such as regards the degree of heat and 
cold, the quantity of rain which falls ir 
particular places, v within a given peris I 




GEOGRAPHY 


17S 


the duration of frosts, and other particulars 
respecting the climate, and its effects upon 
the surrounding objects. 

Geographical descriptions are moreover 
>liu8trated by engraved,delineations, which 
when they represent an ocean, sea, or any 
piece of water, is called a chart, but when 
they represent any parts of the earth gene¬ 
rally are termed maps. In all maps the 
north is at the top and the south at the 
bottom, the east on the right and the west 
on the left. Maps are always laid down 
according to a certain scale, taken from 
the degrees of latitude which are marked 
on the east and west side of the map, 
those of longitude being marked on the 
north and south side. As the earth is a 
globe, a map of the whole earth must 
necessarily consist of two parts, both sides 
of the globe not being visible at once; 
accordingly in a universal map the right 
hand circle shows the old world, that is, 
Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the left 
hand circle the new world, or America. 
Upon the general map are marked the 
circles correspondent to those of the sphere, 
as the equator, &c. Particular maps, be¬ 
ing parts of this globe, retain the meridians 
and parallels belonging to the particular 
part, which are made smaller or larger 
according to the size of the map, and the 
distance of the places mentioned are pro¬ 
portioned to the breadth of the parallels as 
nearly as they can be. 

In maps the sea is denoted by an open 
space, the thick shadowing denotes the sea- 
coast, rivers are marked by shadowed ser¬ 
pentine lines, if large by double and treble 
lines made strong and black, r.oads by 
double lines,divisionsofcountries by dotted 
lines, and sometimes distinct colours, those 
for kingdoms and provinces being larger 
than the rest-, forests are represented by 
trees, mountains by rising shadows, sands 
by dotted beds, lakes by shadowed coasts, 
rocks by pointed things sticking up sharp 
in the sea, the course of the winds by 
arrows. The namesot villagesare written 
in a running hand, those ot towns in a 
Roman character, those of cities in small 
capitals, and those of provinces in large 
capitals. Cities or great towns are made 
like small houses, with a little circle in the 
middle of them, but smaller towns or 
villages are marked only with little circles; 
bridges by a double line across the river. 
In some maps, particularly old maps, cities, 
as the sees of bishops, were marked with 
& cross or mitre, and those of archbishops 
with a double cross, universities with a 
star or a caduceus, abbeys with a crook or 
pastoral staff r ortresses with an angle, as 


of a bastion, castles with a little flag, gentle¬ 
men’s seats with a single house only, &x 

The apparatus called the terrestrial globe, 
has a complete map of the earth drawn on 
its surface, with the several imaginary 
circles, and is moreover fitted to illustrate 
the movements of the earth as a planet, 
the latitudes, longitudes, and distances of 
places, the hours of day and night in 
different part, with a number of oilier in¬ 
teresting problems. 

GEOGRAPHY, History of. The study 
of geography, as far as it was connected 
with or depended upon astronomy, in all 
probability began and kept pace with it. 
Thales, the Grecian astronomer, construct¬ 
ed a globe, representing the land and sea 
upon a table, which art he derived from 
the Egyptians, among whom maps were 
in use even as early as the days of Sesostris. 
This conqueror is said to have represented 
in this manner the conquests he made and 
the countries he marched through. That the 
Israelites practised the art of geography at 
an early period is clear from the account 
we have in Scripture of Joshua having 
sent men to walk through the land of 
Canaan, which they described in seven 
parts, in a book. The first map among 
the Greeks on record is that of Anaxi¬ 
mander, which is probably referred to bv 
Hipparchus, under the designation of ‘me 
ancient map. Geographical descrip tions 
were, however, prior to this, for th j works 
of Homer abound with the names of places 
and an account of several particulars re¬ 
specting them. The first professed writer 
on the subject of geography was Scylax, if 
the author of the Periplus now extant be 
the same as the philosopher of that name 
mentioned by Herodotus. Herodotus the 
historian has interspersed his work with a 
minute geographical description of the 
places which occur in the course of his 
narrative; and geographical notices are also 
to be found scattered in the writings of 
Thucydides and Xenophon. The conquests 
of Alexander doubtless increased the de¬ 
sire to know more of the habitable world, 
which that prince encouraged by sending 
Nearchus on a voyage of discovery in the 
Red Sea, a description of which is still 
extant. About the same time flourished 
the geographer Dicearchus, of whose 
works some fragments remain. 

Eratosthenes is said to have been the first 
who attempted to reduce the science of geo¬ 
graphy to a system, by the application of 
astronomical principles. He introduced a 
regular parallel of latitude, which began 
at the Straits of Gibraltar, and proceeded 
through the isle of Rhodes to the mou» 




174 


GEOGRAPHY 


iains of India, noting all the places it 
passed through. He drew this parallel not 
by the sameness of the latitude, but by 
observing where the longest day was four¬ 
teen hours and a half, which Hipparchus 
afterwards found to be thirty-six. Eratos¬ 
thenes also drew maps of the countries 
then known, with as much accuracy as 
his scanty information would enable him, 
but they contained little more than an 
imperfect representation of the states of 
Greece and the dominions of Alexander’s 
successor. He was ignorant, as Strabo 
informs us, of Gaul, Spain, Germany, 
Britain, Italy, and the coast of the Adriatic, 
and had only a faint idea of the western 
parts of Europe. Hipparchus improved 
upon the labours of Eratosthenes, and de¬ 
termined both the latitudes and longitudes 
from celestial observations. 

Under the Roman emperors geography 
acquired an increasing interest, from the 
perpetual accessions which were made by 
conquest to the empire. Accordingly, we 
find the number of geographical writers 
'■o be greatly increased, and their writings 
10 be more correct and particular. Besides 
Pomponius Mela, who, in his Cosmogra- 
phia, has given a neat and comprehensive 
account of the known world, and Diony¬ 
sius Perigetes, who has written a system 
#f geography in verse, Strabo has left a 
work on this subject which, in point of 
methodical arrangement and extent of in¬ 
formation, exceeded any thing that had 
been hitherto published. This was fol¬ 
lowed, after the interval of more than a 
century, by the great work of Ptolemy on 
this subject, in the execution of which he 
took astronomy to his aid for determining 
the situation of places. He fixed the lati¬ 
tudes and longitudes of all the principal 
places in the known world, and expressed 
them in degrees, after the manner of Hip¬ 
parchus, making his calculations from the 
proportions of the gnomon to its shadow, 
as observed by different astronomers at the 
time of the equinoxes and solstices, and 
deduced from these the length of the long¬ 
est days. He also measured and computed 
the distances of the principal roads men¬ 
tioned in the different surveys and itine¬ 
raries which had been made at different 
times by order of the emperors, and com¬ 
pared them with such reports as he could 
gather from travellers. In this manner did 
Ptolemy execute his system of geography, 
which, as a work of science, has deserved¬ 
ly held the first rank among the works of 
the ancients, and, considered as the labour 
of one man, was never surpassed and 
scarcely e^er equalled 


With the exception of the Geographic* 
Dictionary of Stephanus Byzantinus, in 
the fifth and sixth centuries, and the scat 
tered geographical notices interspersed in 
the works of the Byzantine historians, the 
subject of geography was neglected until 
the thirteenth century, when John Sacro 
de Bosco published his treatise on the 
sphere, which contained an account of the 
earth as far as it was connected with the 
doctrine of the sphere. Nothing farther 
was done towards the advancement of this 
science until the discovery of the New 
World, when geographical knowledge re¬ 
ceived continual accessions by new dis¬ 
coveries, and the spirit of investigation and 
research which they awakened. 

During the last twenty-five years, 
many discoveries have been made and 
knowledge accumulated. D’Urville,Ross, 
Kane, Hayes, and others have made 
strenuous efforts to penetrate the polar 
continent, and added largely to our 
knowledge of the arctic regions. The 
travels and explorations of Burton, 
Speke, Livingston and Stanley, in Africa, 
have left little to be known regaining 
this vast Continent. 

GEOCORIS.E. A family of Hymenop- 
terous insects with very long antennas 
inserted between the eyes. 

GEOCRONITE. A lead-grey ore of an¬ 
timony and lead. 

GEOCYCLIC. Encircling the earth 
periodically. 

GEOEE/ln mineralogy, a rounded 
nodule of stone containing a small cav¬ 
ity, lined usually with crystals. 

GEODESY. That part of practical ge¬ 
ometry which has for its object the 
determination of the magnitude and 
figure either of ihe whole earth or of 
any given portion of its surface. 

GEOGNOSY. That part of natural 
history which treats of the structure of 
the earth. The same with geology. 

GEOGONY. The doctrine of the for¬ 
mation of the earth. 

GEOMANCY. A kind of pretended div¬ 
ination by means of figures or lines. 

GEOLOGY. That part of natural phil¬ 
osophy which treats of the formation 
and structure of the earth beneath its 
surface, and the changes it has under¬ 
gone. Geology is the history of the 
primeval conditions of our planet, as 
illustrated in the monuments of change 
which exhibit themselves on and be¬ 
neath the surface of the earth, It is, in 
fact, the great history of Nature, which 
classifies, by means of existing monu¬ 
ments, the various rocks and strata of 
the earth's crust, according to their 
comparative ages, and treats of the dif¬ 
ferent races of animals and plants which 
characterise the mundane formations 
or systems deposited by water during 
the lapse of countless ages. The 
study of geology having been mos4 





GEOLOGf 


171 


effectually pursued by inquiring into the 
structure of mountains, it has been on that 
account likewise designated by the name 
of orychthiology. Mountains have been 
found by geologists to consist, at a consid¬ 
erable depth, of strata regularly disposed, 
which have been classed under the heads 
of granite, gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, 
primitive limestone, primitive trap, serpen¬ 
tine porphyry, syenite topaz, quartz rock, 
primitive flinty slate, primitive gypsum. 
These are altogether denominated primi¬ 
tive rocks, which have no organic remains, 
and appear to have been undisturbed. But 
in the strata above these there are evident 
signs of violent fractures caused by the 
action of waters. In this manner valleys 
nave been excavated, and a separation 
thus occasioned in strata that once evi¬ 
dently formed one continuous range. Such 
water-worn fragments have, from the cause 
of their existence, been denominated dilu¬ 
vium, to distinguish them from other de¬ 
bris produced by causes still in operation, 
such as the alluvium or the accession to 
lands by inundations, torrents, and the like, 
as also the volcanic rocks formed by the 
eruptions of mountains. Besides the rocky 
fragments and insulated hills above men¬ 
tioned, the strata above these primitive 
rocks contain also organic remains. In 
those immediately above, called transition 
rocks, fossil remains of corals and shells 
are found in small quantities, as also in 
the carboniferous limestone that lies next 
to these rocks. The coal strata, which 
follow, abound with vegetable remains of 
ferns, flags, reeds of unknown species, and 
large trunks of succulent plants, which are 
altogether unknown either in description 
or in nature. Above the coals are beds 
containing corals and shells, which, like 
those in the strata below, are characterized 
by this peculiarity, that in some places 
they are to be found in families, and that 
in other places there will be found beds of 
marine shells in one layer, and those pe¬ 
culiar to fresh water in another layer, 
resting one over the other in alternate 
succession. In the highest of the regular 
strata, called the crag, will be found the 
rhells at present existing in the same coast, 
and, lastly, over all these strata is a cover¬ 
ing of gravel, which is remarkable for 
eontaining the remains of numerous quad¬ 
rupeds, as the bones, horns, teeth, shells, 
scales, &.c. These animals are for the most 
j»rt either foreign $o the climates where 
their remains ara found, or they are of a 
larger size than any now known, or they 
are altogether different finm any species 
af animal hitherto know* or mentioned. 


Among those animals whose remains have 
been found in countries far distant fron. 
the places which they inhabit are the ele 
pliant and the rhinoceros, numerous re¬ 
mains of which have been found in Eng¬ 
land, France, Germany, Italy, and other 
parts of Europe, but still more in Siberia, 
where, throughout the whole extent of that 
country, there is scarcely a river or a shore 
in which have not been found the bones of 
elephants and other animals. Near the 
rivfer Willioni, in the eastern part of Sibe¬ 
ria, has been dug up a rhinoceros still pos 
sessing the skin, fat, and muscles; and 
fossil ivory has been procured in immense 
quantities in the countries nearest to the 
arctic circle. So numerous are the remains 
that have already been dug up, as to form 
immense collections in the cabinets of the 
great, particularly in that of the Prince of 
Hesse Darmstadt and the Elector of Mau- 
heim. Naturalists have also been enabled, 
in part, to ascertain the species of there 
animals, at least as far as regards the rhi¬ 
noceros, which is of the double horned 
kind ; but in regard to the elephantine re¬ 
mains, although very numerous, it is not 
so certain whether they are of any known 
species or otherwise. As to the animals 
differing in size from those of their own 
species at present, Ireland furnishes speci¬ 
mens of deer that have been dug up of an 
extraordinary magnitude ; and in Scotland, 
a kind of oxen has been found bigger than 
the largest species existing at present. Of 
animals altogether unknown, both North 
and South America, and other parts, fuj 
nish several examples, as the mammoth, 
the mastodon, and other nameless animals 
of a prodigious size. 

This remarkable fact, of the fossil re 
mains of animals, did not escape the notico 
of the ancients, for Xenophanes, above font 
hundred years before, the Christian era, 
is said to have discovered the remains oi 
some marine animals imbedded in rocks, 
from which he absurdly inferred the 
eternity of the world. Herodotus alsi 
ascertained the existence of fossil shells, 
from which, with much greater reason, he 
was led to conclude that the sea had once 
occupied those parts. Also in the pyra¬ 
mids, the stones were found to contain the 
remains of animals, of which there existed 
in his time no corresponding species. 
Strabo, who saw these fragments of stone 
lying about the pyramids, took them to be 
petrified lentils, that had been used by the 
workmen ; at the same time this writer, as 
well as Pliny and others, attest the exist 
ence of such animal remains, and in a high 
state of perfec»ion. In the Natural Histo- 



GEOMETRY 


176 

ry of Pliny many fossil remains are spoken 
of, as the bucardia, resembling an ox’s 
heart; the glossopetra, having the form of 
a tongue ; the horns of ammon, resembling 
a ram’s horn ; the lepidotes, ’ike the scales 
of fishes, &c. 

GEOMETRY. That branch of mathe¬ 
matics which treats of the properties of 
extension and figure. Geometry is distin¬ 
guished into the theoretical and the practi¬ 
ced. Theoretical or speculative geometry 
treats of the various properties and rela¬ 
tions in magnitudes, &c. Practical geom¬ 
etry comprehends the construction of fig¬ 
ures, the drawing of lines in certain posi¬ 
tions, as parallel or perpendicular to each 
other, &c. Speculative geometry is again 
distinguished into elementary geometry, 
that treats of the properties and proportions 
of right lines and right lined figures, as also 
of the circle and its several parts; and the 
sublime or transcendental geometry, that 
treats of the higher order of curves, &,c. 

The simple principles of geometry are 
explained in definitions and axioms. The 
following are the most important defi¬ 
nitions. A point is that which has neither 
length, breadth, nor thickness •, a line has 
length without breadth or thickness ; a 
superficies, or surface, has length and 
breadth only, the boundaries of which are 
lines; a solid has length, breadth, and 
thickness, the boundaries of a solid are 
surfaces. A straight line lies evenly be¬ 
tween the parts, parallel lines keep at the 
same distance from each other when ex¬ 
tended indefinitely. A perpendicular line 
is perpendicular to another line. An angle 
is formed by the meeting of two lines in a 
point; it is a right angle when formed by 
one line falling perpendicularly on another 
line; an obtuse angle, when it is greater 
than a right angle ; and an acute angle 
when it is less. A figure is a space in¬ 
cluded within one or more boundaries, 
called sides; it is rectilinear when contain¬ 
ed by right lines, and curvilinear when 
contained by curved lines ; a rectilinear 
figure contained by three right lines is a 
triangle; if by four, quadrilateral; if by 
five, a pentagon ; if by six, a hexagon, &c.; 

. by more than twelve, a polygon. 

Triangles are distinguished according to 
the length of their sides, into equilateral, 
having all the sides equal; isoceles, having 
two sides equal; and scalene, having all 
the sides unequal; or according to their 
angles, into right angled, if they have one 
right angle; obtuse angled, if they have one 
•btuse angle; and acute angled, if they 
have all acuto angles. Every quadrilateral 
•r fr*' ri «ed figure is called a parallelogram 


when it has its sides parallel, at d a rec-x*»gJe 
when all its angles are right angles. Four¬ 
sided figures are moreover distinguished 
according to their sides and angles, into a 
square, which has all its sides equal and it* 
angles right ones ; an oblong square, which 
has its opposite sides equal and its angle* 
right ones; a rhombus, having all the sides 
equal, but the angles not right ones; and a 
rhomboid, having the opposite sides equal 
and the angles not right ones. When a 
quadrilateral has none of its sides parallel 
it is a trapozium, and when only two of its 
sides parallel a trapezoid. The diagonal 
is the right line which divides a parallelo¬ 
gram into two equal parts. The base of a 
figure is the side on which it is supposed 
to stand. The vertex is the extreme point 
opposite to the base; the altitude is the 
perpendicular distance from the vertex to 
the base. The area of a figure is the quan¬ 
tity of space contained within its bounda¬ 
ries. 

Of curvilinear figures in common geo¬ 
metry is the circle, which is a plane figure 
bounded by a curve line called the circum¬ 
ference, which is equally distant from a 
point called the centre. The diameter of 
a circle is a straight line drawn from one 
side of the circumference to the other, 
through the centre, so as to divide it into 
two equal parts. The radius of a circle is 
a straight line drawn from the centre to 
the circumference : the segment of a circle 
is a part cut oflf by a line called the chord. 
The circumference of every circle is sup 
posed to be divided into 360 equal parts, 
called degrees, every degree into 60 part* 
called minutes, and every minute into 6C 
parts called seconds. 

Solids are distinguished into a prism, 
the sides of which are parallelograms, and 
the two ends or bases are similar; poly¬ 
gons, parallel to each other; the cube, con¬ 
sisting of six equal square sides or faces; the 
pyramid, having any plane figure for its 
base and triangles for its sides, all termi¬ 
nating in one common point or vertex, 
the cylinder, which is generated by the 
rotation of a rectangle about one of its sides 
supposed to be at rest; the cone, a solid 
having a circular base, and its other ex¬ 
tremity terminated in a single point or 
vertex. Those curves which are formed 
by the intersection of a plane with a eon* 
form the subject of conic sections, which 
is a branch of sublime geometry. 

Ratio is the mutual relation of two mag 
nitudes cf the same kind to one another, 
in respect to quantity, as 2 to 1, which i* 
double ; the former of these is called the 
antecedent and the letter the consequent: 



GEOMETRY. 


proportion is the similitude of ratios, as 
5 is to 2 as 3 is to 1, that is a triple ratio 
in both eases. 

An axiom is a plain truth that wants no 
demonstration, as that the whole is greater 
than a part. A postulate is that which 
requires to be granted as true before ano¬ 
ther thing can be demonstrated. A propo¬ 
sition is that which proposes something to 
be done or demonstrated ; it is a problem 
when it proposes any thing to be done, as 
to divide a given line into twoequal parts, 
or to raise a perpendicular, &c.; and a 
theorem when it proposes something to be 
shown, as that triangles of the same base 
and altitude are equal to each other, or 
that all the angles in the same segment of 
an arch are equal, &x. 

GEOMETRY, History of. The origin 
of geometry is ascribed by Herodotus to 
the Egyptians, who, in consequence of the 
inundations of the Nile, which carried 
away all their landmarks, were under the 
necessity of distinguishing and laying out 
their lands by the consideration of their 
figure and quantity, whence the word geo¬ 
metry in the Greek signifies literally land¬ 
measuring. The Greeks, who cultivated 
thu science more than any other people, 
doubtless learned the rudiments from the 
Egyptians ; for Thales, who travelled into 
Egypt and acquired a sufficient knowledge 
of astronomy to calculate, must also have 
first become acquainted with the principles 
of geometry to assist him in his astro¬ 
nomical inquiries. Pythagoras, the pupil, 
and friend of Thales, distinguished himself 
by his discoveries in arithmetic, as well 
as geometry. He invented the multiplica¬ 
tion table, called after him the Abacus 
Pythagoricus, and in geometry he disco¬ 
vered the thirty-second and forty-seventh 
propositions in the first book of Euclid’s 
Elements. Soon after this flourished Anax¬ 
imander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Cle- 
ostratus, ADnopides, and Zenodorus, all 
celebrated geometricians, of whose works 
nothing remains except of the last. They 
were succeeded by Hipparchus, who ren¬ 
dered himself celebrated by the quadrature 
of the lines called after him, as also by his 
attempt at the quadrature of the cube, 
which was a matter of great interest among 
the ancient mathematicians, and is said to 
have tanen its rise in an answer of the oracle 
at Delphi, which, when consulted on the 
occasion of some public calamity, answered 
‘ Double the altar,’ which was an exact 
cub*. Notwithstanding the failure of Hip¬ 
parchus, others renewed the attempt,which 
although it proved unsuccessful as to that 
particular object, nevertheless is said to 


17" 

have led to the discoveries of other geo¬ 
metrical properties, as the conchoid of 
Nicomedes, the cissoid of Diodes, and the 
quadratrix of Dinostratus. This latter ge¬ 
ometrician was the follower and friend of 
Plato, whose devotion to the science of 
geometry was such that he caused it to be 
inscribed over the door of his school, 
‘ Let no one enter here who is ignorant of 
geometry.’ To Plato we are indebted for 
that branch of geometry known by .Ltj 
name of conic sections, of which his scholar 
Aristeus is said to have composed five 
books that are highly spoken of by the 
ancients, but are not now extant. Eudoxus 
and Menechemus were also disciples of 
Tlato, and distinguished themselves, the 
former in geometry as well as astronomy, 
the latter by his application of conic 
sections to many problems. After an in¬ 
terval of ninety years from their time, 
that is, about three hundred years before 
Christ, flourished Euclid,who, by collecting 
and methodizing all the principles of geo¬ 
metry then known into a regular system, 
called his Elements of Geometry, secured 
to himself a celebrity which, in point of 
extent, has never been surpassed, and per¬ 
haps scarcely ever equalled, his worK 
having ever since been considered as the 
standard of all geometrical knowledge. 
Euclid was quickly followed by Archi¬ 
medes, a mathematical genius, who added 
many discoveries to the sciences of geome¬ 
try, mechanics, optics, and hydrodynamics. 
In geometry he discovered the ratio be¬ 
tween the sphere and the circumscribing 
cylinder, found the quadrature of the para¬ 
bola, and the solidity of its conoid ; he 
invented the spiral which bears his name, 
and discovered its rectification, besides a 
variety of other important geometrical 
propositions, many of which are extant 
and attest the skill and ingenuity of th« 
author. 

Apollonius of Perga, who, from his 
writings, acquired the name of the Great 
Geometrician, flourished about thirty years 
after Archimedes. His work on the Conic 
Sections, which is the principal piece of 
his extant, was in all probability the best 
of its kind in that day, and has since been 
the groundwork of all works published on 
that subject. Of those who after Apollo¬ 
nius distinguished themselves in their time 
in the cultivation ofthegeoinetrical science, 
there are but few who added any thing 
worthy of particular notice. Eratosthenes 
attempted to measure the circumference 
of the earth ; Ctesibius invented water 
pumps; Hero of Alexandria, clepsydrae, 
Theodosius, who lived in the first centuqr 




GL 


GIN 


ftf the Chrbtian tera, wrote a treatise on 
the ephere, which was one of the first on 
ipherical trigonometry. 

After an interval of three or four cen¬ 
turies from the time of Theodosius, we 
meet with the names of Pappus the com¬ 
mentator of Apollonius, Theon, the com¬ 
mentator of Ptolemy, and of Proclus ano¬ 
ther commentator on the ancient mathe¬ 
maticians. The destruction of the library 
of Alexandria by the Saracens was very 
fat al to the cultivation of geometry, which 
had flourished there more than any where 
else: all the geometricians from every 
part had assembled there, and when driven 
away they were deprived both of their 
books and instruments. It is not surprising, 
therefore, that the study of geometry was 
for many centuries almost entirely for¬ 
gotten amidst the troubles which desolated 
all Europe on the irruption of the northern 
ribes. The Arabs, who by the ravages 
ney committed at Alexandria had done 
he most injury to the science of geometry, 
were, after the lapse of two centuries, the 
cultivators of that which they had nearly 
nnihilated. They studied the works of the 
Greeks, and showed their proficiency in 
he correctness of their comments on these 
writings. 

Whilst the Arabs were thus promoting 
he cause of science generally, Europe 
emained in a state of comparative barba¬ 
rism, nor was the study of geometry re¬ 
vived among the Europeans before the 
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when by 
the translations of the ancient writings, the 
taste for geometry became very general 
among the thinking part of the community. 
In the following century there arose mathe¬ 
maticians who added very materially to 
the stock of geometrical knowledge. Car¬ 
dan applied algebra to the resolution of 
geometrical problems; and Descartes, who 
followed at the distance of nearly a cen¬ 
tury, pursued this application of algebra to 
geometry still farther. At the same period 
with Descartes flourished Cavelerius who, 
in his work on ‘Indivisibles,’ struck out 
a new path to himself, in which he was 
followed by many writers of great celebrity, 
as Wallis, Pasca., Fermat, Roberval, Leib¬ 
nitz, Newton, and many others, who set 
forth geometry in a new light, and formed 
a new system of the science. Among the 
treatises in which are embodied the geo¬ 
metrical principles of the moderns and 
ancients may be reckoned the Elements 
df Euclid by Simson and Playfair, the 
treatises of Czanam, Clt vius, Bonnycastle, 
Puree, Davies, Mulcaliy, &c. 

GEORGE St. The patron saint of 


England, is said to have been a great 
warrior of Cappadocia, and a martyr i* 
the Christian cause. 

GEORGICS. Books treating of husban 
dry, after the manner of Virgil’s poems on 
rural subjects, which are so called. 

GERANIUM. A genus of plants, thf 
numerous species of which are remarkable 
for the beauty either of their leaves or 
their flowers, or both. The seeds of the 
flower are contained in a husk, which 
resembles a stork’s beak, whence it has 
acquired the English name of crane’s bill. 

GERMAN (in Law). Whole or entire 
as respects genealogy or descent, as bro¬ 
thers german, those who are so on both 
father and mother’s side. 

GERMEN (in Botany). The germ, 
ovary, or seed bud, which is the lower 
part or base of the pistil. 

GERMINATION. The act of sprouting 
forth, as applied to the seeds of vegeta¬ 
bles; also the time when they vegetate. 

GIANTS CAUSEWAY. A vast collec¬ 
tion of a black kind of marie, called ba 
saltes, in the county of Antrim in Ireland 
The masses of rock are there disposed in 
sucli regular order, and to such an extent 
as to make this causeway one of the great¬ 
est curiosities in nature. 

GTBBOUS (in Astronomy). A term ap¬ 
plied to the enlightened part of the moon, 
during her course from full to new, when 
the dark part appears falcated or horned, 
and the light part convex or gibbous. 

GIFT (m Law). A conveyance which 
passeth either lands or goods; a transfer 
of any thing without a valuable conside¬ 
ration. 

GIG. A very light kind of two-wheeled 
chaise 

GILD. See Guild. 

GILDING. The art of covering the sur¬ 
face of bodies with gold. 

GILLIFLOWER, or July Flower. A 
smaller kind of carnation that flowers in 
July. 

GIMLET. A carpenter’s tool for boring 
holes. 

GIN, or Geneva. A hot fiery spirit, for¬ 
merly drawn from the berries of the 
genevre or juniper tree, but now made 
by the distillers of the oil of turpentine 
and malt spirits. The Hollands Geneva 
is manufactured chiefly at a village neai 
Rotterdam, and is drawn from wheat 
and the juniper berries The English gi* 
is a destructive drink among the lower 
orders. 

GIN (among Sportsmen). A machia* 
which serves as a trap or snare for cateb 
ing beasts 



GLA 

GIN (among Mechanics) A machine 
for driving piles. 

GINGER. An Indian root of a biting 
hot taste; the flower consists of five petals, 
shaped something like those of the iris. 

GIPSIES. A wandering tribe, who are 
to be found in different countries of Eu¬ 
rope, and are supposed to be of Egyptian 
origin. They are altogether a distinct 
class of people, both in their habits, which 
are predatory and uncivilized ; and in their 
complexion, which is sallow and brownish. 
But they are now beginning to follow the 
occupations of civilized life, and in winter 
to reside in towns, where they occasion¬ 
ally send their children to school 

GIRAFFE. See Camelopard. 

GIRDERS (in Architecture). Some of 
the largest pieces of timber in a floor. 

GIRT. The circumference of a tree. 

GLACIERS. A name in Switzerland 
for Die extensive tracts of ice and snow 
which occur in the Alps. 

GLACIS (in Fortification). A mass of 
earth serving as a parapet to the covered 
way. 

GLADIATORS. Persons who fought in 
the arena at Rome for the amusement of 
the people. These were usually slaves, 
who fought until one was killed. This 
cruel custom was abolished by Constantine 
the Great. 

GLANDS. A sort of kernels in the ani¬ 
mal body, which serve to secrete the fluids. 
They are composed of blood vessels, nerves, 
and absorbents. 

GLANDERS. A virulent disease in 
horses, which shows itself by a discharge 
of mucus from the nostrils. 

GLASIER. See Glazier. 

GLASS. An artificial substance formed 
by the action of fire on sand, or siliceous 
earth with salts and metallic oxides. It is 
remarkable for its brittleness and transpa¬ 
rency, which latter quality renders it avail¬ 
able for many purposes of domestic use 
There are five kinds of glass, namely, flint 
glass, or glass of lead; plate glass, or glass 
of pute soda; crown glass, the best window 
glass; broad glass, a coarse window glass; 
and bottle glass, a coarse green glass. 

GLASS (among Mariners). Sometimes 
the telescope, and sometimes the hourglass 
or sand glass. 

GLASSBLOVVER. One who blows 
glass in a glasshouse. 

GLASSHOUSE. A house where glass 
is manufactured. 

GLAUBERS SALTS. The sulphate of 
soda; a purgative. 

GLAZIER. One who works with glass 
»r makes glass windows The company 


GLt 17S 

of glaziers in London, were incorporated 
in the reign of Elizabeth. 

GLAZING. The crusting over earthen 
ware with a vitreous substance; also the 
putting glass into windows, or making 
glass lights for windows. 

GLEANING. Picking up the scattered 
ears of wheat after the wheat is cut and 
carried. It was once thought in England, 
that, by the common law, the poor might 
claim this liberty as their right; but it has 
been adjudged by a solemn judgment of the 
Court of Common Pleas, that no such 
right exists by the common law of the land. 

GLEBE LAND. In England, a portion of 
land belonging to a parsonage or vicarage 

GLEE (in Music). A composition of 
three or more parts; originally used for 
convivial purposes. 

GLIR.ES. The fourth order of the class 
mammalia in the Linnaean system, includ¬ 
ing such animals as have two fore teeth, a 
cutting one in each jaw, no tusks, and feet 
with claws formed for running, as the 
beavei, the hare, &c. 

GLOBE (in Geometry). A round spheri¬ 
cal body, more commonly called a sphere; 
as the armillary sphere 

GLOBE (in Astronomy). An artificial 
sphere, or a round solid body, on which 
is drawn a representation of the earth, as 
on the terrestrial globe; or of the heavens, 
as on the celestial globe. 

GLOBULES. Little globes or round 
bodies observable in fluids. 

GLOSSARY. A vocabulary or small 
dictionary, 

GLUCIC ACID, An acid obtained from 
the solution of grape-sugar, saturated 
with baryta or lime. 

GLUC1NA, or GLUCINE. The oxide of 
glucinium, a white powder, so named 
from the sweetness of its salts, 

GLUCINIUM. A metal in the form of 
a greyish-black powder, which acquires 
a dark metallic lustre by burnishing. 

GLUCOSE. A sugar obtained from 
grapes, honey, and most acid fruits; a 
potato-starch, used instead of gum-ara¬ 
bic, for dressing, in the process oi 
weaving and printing woollens, silks., 
or cottons; also used for the glazing oi 
paper, stiffening gauzes, &c. 

GLUE. An inspissated jelly, made from 
the parings of hides and other offals, by 
boiling them in water, then straining off 
the impurities, and boiling them again. 

GLUME (in Botany). The calyx of 
corolla of grasses. 

GLUTEN. An adhesive, tenacious, and 
elastic substance, similar to glue, which is 
procured by the decomposition of wheal 
flour, or other vegetable substances, of 
which it forms a part 



180 


GOL 


GOT 




GLUTTON. A cunning voracious ani¬ 
mal, larger than a badger, which inhabits 
Europe, Asia, and America, and preys on 
the carcasses of hares, mice, &x 

GNAT. An active little insect, which 
lives by sucking the blood of other ani¬ 
mals 

GNEISS. A sort of rock that lies imme¬ 
diately over granite. 

GNOMON (in Dialling). The stile or 
pin of a dial, the shadow of which points 
out the hours. 

GNOMON (in Astronomy). An instru¬ 
ment or apparatus for measuring altitudes. 

GNOMON (in Geometry). A figure 
formed by the two complements with 
either of the parallelograms about the 
diameter. 

GNU. A particular kind of antelope, 
having horns bent forward at the base and 
backward in the middle. 

GOAD. A staff oointed with a sharp 
iron for driving cattle. 

GOAT. A quadruped fond of dry, rocky 
situations, and feeding on aromatic vege¬ 
tables. The varieties ofthe goat are distin¬ 
guished principally by their horns. 

GOAT-SUCKER. An American bird, 
so called because it was supposed to suck 
the teats of the goats. 

GODFATHER. One who stands sponsor 
for a child in baptism. 

GODWIT. A bird resembling the Plo¬ 
ver, that feeds on worms on the sea shore. 

GOLD. The richest and heaviest metal 
except platina, being the most solid and 
the least porous. The ductility and malle¬ 
ability of gold is such, that one grain of it 
will cover upwards of fifty square inches, 
and an ounce is capable of being extended 
in the form of wire many hundred miles. 
Gold is found in beds of quartz, sand 
stone, &c. and also in many rivers, par¬ 
ticularly in Peru, in minute and irregular 
grains, which are known by the name of 
gold dust. 

GOLDBEATERS SKIN. The skin or 
membrane of any animal, which is used 
by the goldbeaters in preparing gold leaf. 

GOLDEN NUMBER. A number be¬ 
ginning with one and increasing one every 
year till it comes to nineteen, when it 
begins with one again, and is used to show 
what year in the lunar cycle any given 
year is. 

GOLDEN ROD. A plant which is for 
*he most part a nat ve of North America. 
Two species only are found in Europe. 

GOLDEN RULE. A name given to the 
Eule of Three. 

GOLDFINCH. A beautiful European 
bird with a fine yellow mark in its black 


quill feathers. It sings very charmingly 
and is very docile. See Yellow Biro. 

GOLD FISH. An elegant fish of a gold 
colour, originally brought from China, and 
now kept by way of ornament. 

GOLD LEAF, or Leaf Gold Gold 
that is hammered by the beaters, until it 
becomes as thin and extended as a leaf. 

GOLDSMITH. A worker or seller of 
gold or silver vessels. The company of 
goldsmiths in London, were incorporated 
in the reign of Richard II. 

GONDOLA. A sort of Venetian plea 
sure barge. 

GONG (in Music). A Chinese instru 
ment, the form of which is a shallow circu¬ 
lar concave. 

GOODS (in Law). The valuables of 
which a man is possessed. 

GOOSANDER. A water bird, the size 
of a goose. 



GOOSE. A well known domestic fowl, 
which exists in a wild as well as a tame 
state. The gray lay goose, or common 
wild goose, is easily tamed : from this sort 
has sprung the domestic breed. 

GOOSEBERRY (in Botany). A plan 
that is set with prickles, and yields a fruit 
of an oval and globular figure, containing 
many small seeds in a pulpy substance 
It is a bush much cultivated in gardens. 

GORGE (in Fortification). The entrance 
of a bastion, ravelin, or other outwork. 

GORGET. A piece of armour round 
the neck; something similar is now worn 
by officers on duty by way of ornament. 

GOSHAWK. That species of hawk 
which was formerly much used in falconry. 

GOSPEL. The four books in the New 
Testament written by the Evangelists, 
St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, and St 
John. 

GOSSAMER. A fine filmy substance 
like a cobweb, which is seen in clear dayi 
in autumn in stubble fields, and is proba¬ 
bly worked by spiders for catching flies. 

GOTHIC STYLE. A style of architec 
ture in which pointed arches of greater 
height than breadth, and a profusion of 
ornaments, in imitation of leaves and 

















GRA 


flowers, are the principal characteristics. 
GOTHIC ARCH. An arcli calieil by the 
talians arclie de terzo et di quarto acuto, 
.. e. of the third and fourth point, consisting 

ot two area of a circle meeting in an angle 

at the top. 



GOVERNMENT. The power in a state 
6y which the whole is governed; if this 
power be in the hands of one it is a Mo¬ 
narchy ; if in the hands of the nobility, an 
Aristocracy ; and if in the hands of the 
people, or those chosen by them, a De¬ 
mocracy. The executive government is 
the power of administering public affairs, 
the Legislative Government that, of making 
the laws. 

GOULARD. In piiarmacy, an extract 
of sugar of lead, used for inflammations. 

GOVERNOR. In mechanical science, 
a contrivance for maintaining uniform 
velocity with varying resistance. 

GOWAN. In geology,decomposed gra¬ 
nite. 

GOWT, or GOOUT. In engineering, a 
sluice used in embankments for letting 
out water. 

GRACE NOTE. In music, any note 
added as an ornamental flourish. 

GRADDO. In music, a word applied 
to the notes moving by conjoint inter¬ 
vals. 

GRADIENT. The proportionate ascent 
or descent of the several planes on a 
railroad; thus, an inclined plane 2 miles 
in length, with a total fall of 18 ieet, is 
described as having a gradient of 9 feet 
per mile. 

GRADUATE. In literature and the 
arts, one who has received a degree in 
a college or university, or from some 
professional incorporated society. 

GRADUATION. Regular progression; 
act of graduating. 

GRADUATOR. In physics, a contri¬ 
vance for accelerating spontaneous 
evaporation; also an instrument for di¬ 
riding any right line or curve into equal 
portions. 

GRAB. A vessel used on the Malabar 
coast, having two or three masts. 

GRACES. In mythology, three beau¬ 
tiful goddesses, Aglaia, Thalia, and 
Euphrosyne, who attended upon Venus. 
In music, ornamental notes attached to 
principal ones. 


GRA 181 

GRADUATION. Dividing any thing 
into equal parts or degrees. 

GRAFTING (in Horticulture). The pro¬ 
cess of inserting a branch of one tree, into 
the stoek of another, so that it may receive 
nourishment from it, while at the same 
time it produces a new tree, like the o d 
one whence the graft was taken. 

GRAFTING-TOOL. A kind of curved 
spade fit for cutting trenches. 

GRAIN. A general name for a. Rinas 
of seed corn. 

GRAIN (in Commerce). A small weigh} 
the twentieth part of a scruple in Apothe¬ 
caries weight, and twenty-fourth in Troy 
weight. 

GRAIN (in Mineralogy). The veins of 
wood, or the component particles' of stone 
and metals as they are disposed in the 
mass, &c. 

GRAINS OF PARADISE. The seeds 
of the ammonium, which have a pungent 
taste like pepper. 

GRAIN TREE. The cochineal tree. 

GRAKLE. A bird not inhabiting Eu 
rope, having a thick bill and sharp hooked 
claws. 

GRALLA3. An order of birds in the 
Lin mean system, with obtuse bills and long 
legs, as the crane, snipe, stork, and ostrich. 

GRAMINA. Grasses; the fifth family 
in the Linntean system, comprehending 
among the species the ray grass, clovei, 
trefoil,sanfoin, lucern, &c. which are called 
artificial grasses, as distinguished from the 
meadow grass. 

GRAMMAR. The art of speaking and 
writing truly, according to the rules estab¬ 
lished by custom and the authority of 
good writers. Universal Grammar is that 
which treats of the first principles or ele¬ 
ments of language, which are founded on 
logic; Particular Grammar is the grammar 
of each language, containing not only the 
general principles of grammar, but also 
the peculiarities in the structure of each 
language. 

Grammar is divided into four parts, 
namely, 1. Orthography, or the right mode 
of writing and spelling, which treats of 
letters, their powers, different offices, and 
divisions into vowels, consonants, diph¬ 
thongs, mutes, liquids, syllables, word«,.& c 
together with punctuation, or the right 
mode ofdistin guishing words, &c. by points 
or accents, &c. 2. Etymology, which treats 
of the formation or derivation of words 
from one another, and their distribution 
into .ne several parts of speech, according 
to their several offices, into nouns, adjec 
tives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prapoil 
tions, conjunctions, and mteijeetions Ety 










i82 


GRA 


(iKA 


rnology also treats of the several inflections 
to express number, gender, case, mood, 
tense, person, &c. Sometimes etymology 
treats of the derivation of words of one 
language from those of another, which is 
called remote etymology. 3. Syntax treats 
of words as they are connected with or 
dependant on each other, giving rules for 
tlie right construction and disposition of 
words in a sentence. 4. Prosody treats of 
the quantities and accents of syllables as 
parts of a verse, and the right rules of 
versification. 

GRAMMAR, History of. Grammar, 
as a practical art, must have existed long 
before it was considered as a science, and 
the rules of grammar must have been 
formed after language had assumed a settled 
shape by the practice of good writers. 
The works of Homer contained a practical 
illustration of all the rules of the Greek 
grammar long before the subject of gram¬ 
mar excited any attention. It is likewise 
clear that as there is a close connexion 
between correctness of thinking and cor¬ 
rectness of speaking, the study of logic 
preceded that of grammar; hence we find 
that Aristotle makes a logical distinction 
between words denoting time and words 
not denoting time, the former of which 
he denominates by a word answering to 
the verb in grammar, and the latter by a 
word answering to the noun. But although 
the Greeks, particularly the Athenians, cul¬ 
tivated their language for purposes of ora¬ 
tory, yet there appears to have been no 
particular advances made towards bring¬ 
ing it under grammatical rules. They 
seem to have studied their language by 
che ear, which was so universally nice 
that a herb woman at Athens is said to 
have distinguished Theophrastus to be a 
stranger from the affectation of a single 
word in expressing himself; and for the 
same reason the orators were careful not 
to let a single injudicious expression escape 
them which might offend the audience. 
We are likewise informed that it was a 
common thing for the young people to get 
the tragedies of their favourite authors by 
heart, which they would recite on various 
occasions. When the Athenians, after their 
defeat at Syracuse, were made slaves, they 
softened their slavery by reciting the 
works of Euripides to their masters, w ho 
treated them the better on that account. 
In this manner the Grecian youth were 
taught their language at school, where a 
Homer was looked upon as indispensable. 
To a light minded people, like the Athe¬ 
nians, this mode of learning a language 


would be far more agreeabls than tne dr^ 
method of studying grammar; but as thfr 
former course was not so practicable ii 
the acquiring a foreign language, this i& 
probably the reason why grammar seems 
first to have been cultivated among ths 
Romans, who, being studious of the Greek 
w'ere naturally led to a comparison of Ian 
guages, and to a logical and abstract con 
sideration of language in general. Certain 
it is, that the study of grammar com 
menced with the Romans, and that the 
names of all the parts of speech are Latin, 
and to be found in the writings of authors 
subsequent to the age of Varro and Cicero, 
as rElius Dionysius, Julius Pollux, Vale¬ 
rius Probus, Herodian, Suetonius, Chari- 
sius, Macrobins, Diomedes, Augustin, Pris- 
cian, y£lius Donatus, &c. 

GRAMMARIAN. One who is skilled 
in grammar learning. 

GRAMMAR SCHOOL. A school in 
which the learned languages are gram¬ 
matically taught. 

GRAMME. A small French weight 

GRANARY. A storehouse for threshed 

corn. 

GRAND JURY (in Law). The jury 
which find bills of indictment against 
offenders, who are afterwards tried before 
a petty jury, in case the former find a true 
bill against the party accused. 

GRAND SEIGNIOR The title of the 
Turkish sultan. 

GRANITE. A compound rock, consist¬ 
ing of quartz, felspar, and mica, crystal¬ 
lized and cohering without cement. Granite 
is hard, and admits of an elegant polish. 

GRANT (in Law). A gift in writing, 
of such things as cannot conveniently be 
passed, or conveyed by word of mouth. 

GRANULATION (in Chemistry). Pour¬ 
ing melted metals into cold water, that 
they may divide themselves into grains. 

GRAPE. The fruit of the vine, growing 
in clusters, from wiiich wine is expressed. 
Grapes are found by a chemical analysis 
to contain supertartrate of potash, tartaric 
acid, citric and malic acids, abundance of 
sugar, a portion of mucilage jelly, some 
albumen, and also, as is said, some 
g*uten. 

GRAPESHOT (in Artillery). A combi¬ 
nation of small shot, put into a thick canvass 
bag, and corded so as to form a kind of 
cylinder. 

GRASSES. See Gramiita. 

GRASSHOPPER. An insect that hops 
in the summer grass: it is allied to the 
locust in its make, but is very harmless. 

GRAVEL. A kind of loamy sand mixed 




GRE 


GRO 18* 


with p«bb!es, which adhere so as to form 
a solid handsome path. 

GRAVER. A tool used in engraving. 



GRAVE SOUND A low deep note. 

GRAVIMETER. An instrument for 
measuring the specific gravities of bodies. 

GRAVITATION. The pressure that a 
boi-/, by the force of its gravity, exerts on 
Mother body under it. 

GRAVITY. The force by which bodies 
are carried or tend towards the centre of 
the earth. 

GREEK FIRE. An artificial fire in¬ 
vented by the Greeks in the middle ages, 
during their wars with the Arabs and 
Turks. It consists of naphtha, bitumen, 
sulphur, gum, &c. 

GREENBACK. The popular name 
given to the notes issued by the U. S. 
Government, first issued in 1862. They 
derived their name from the green color 
predominating in them. 

GREENSAND. In geology, arenaceous 
beds of the tertiary formation of the 
cretaceous system, so termed from its 
abounding with small grains of chlorite. 

GREENSTONE. In mineralogy, a va¬ 
riety of trap; an igneous rock in which 
felspar is combined with augite or horn¬ 
blende. It sometimes occurs of great 
extent and thickness. 

GREENSHANK. A sort of snipe. 

GREGORIAN STYLE, or the New 
Style (in Chronology). A new account of 
time, according to the improved Calendar 
made by order of Pope Gregory XIII. 

GRENADE. A hollow globe of iron, 
filled with combustibles, and thrown out 
of a mortar. 

GRENADIERS. Foot soldiers, selected 
for their stature, being the tallest and 
stoutest men in the army. 

GREYHOUND. A slenler dog, fitted 



for running with great swiftness, who is 
employed mostly in coursing hares. 


GREYSOUIRRELi. A beautiful squirrel 
common in America. 



GREYWACKE. A mountain form* 
tion, consisting mostly of a sort of slate. 

GRIDIRON. A utensil for broiling 
meat. 

GRINDERS. The large teeth which 
serve best for grinding the food. 

GRIST. Corn ground 

GRIT. The smallest particles of sand; 
also the coarser parts of meal. 

GROAT. In England, a silver coin, first 
struck in the reign of Edward I. It has 
since been used as a money of account 
equal to four pence or 8 ceuet. 

GROCER. One who sells tea, sugar, 
plums, spices, &c. The company of gro¬ 
cers in London, were incorporated in 1344. 

GROOM. A servant who looks after 
horses. 

GROOM OF THE STOLE. In Eng¬ 
land an officer of the court, who has the 
charge of the king’s wardrobe. 

GROOVE. A hollow channel cut with 
a tool 

GROSS-BEAK. A bird with a stout 
bill, and of a fiery red colour, except round 
the bill and on the throat, which is black 
It is to be met with in North America, 
and is called the Virginia nightingale, on 
account of the fineness of its song. 



GROSS WEIGHT. The weight ef 
goods together with the cask or vessel. 

GROT, or GROTTO. A hollow undei 
ground; also an artificial hollow made la 
a garden. 

GROTESQUE (in Painting and Sculp 










184 


GUA 


GUI 


lure). A work or composition in the gro¬ 
tesque or wild taste. 

GROVE. A small wood or place set 
with trees 

GROUND (in Husbandry). Any piece 
of land in cultivation, or set apart for cul¬ 
tivation. 

GROUND (in Architecture). The ground 
plot, or piece of ground selected for a 
building 

GROUND (in Military Tactics). The 
field or place for action. 

GROUND (in Painting). The surface on 
which the figures and objects are raised 
and represented. 

GROUND (in Music). The plain song 
®r tune in which the descents are raised. 

GROUND (among Mariners). The place 
where the anchor is fixed. 

GROUNDASH. A sapling of ash taken 
from the ground, in distinction from a 
branch cut from a tree. 

GROUND1VY. A herb, the shoots of 
which trail upon the ground, and take root 
at their different joints. 

GROUNDLING. A fish, so called be¬ 
cause it keeps under stones in small brooks. 

GROUND-PINE. A plant, the smell of 
which resembles resin. It grows on dry 
and barren hills, and on the ditchba* ks by 
the roadside. 

GROUNDSILL. The lowest horizt t al 
timber on which the exterior wall is 
erected. 

GROUND-SQUIRREL. See Chi.'. 

Squirrel. 

GROUP (in Painting). An assemblag* 
of figures, appearing to have a connexion 
with each other. 

GROUPING (among Painters). Puttinfi 
figures together in groups. 

GROUSE. A bird largertlian a partridge, 
iving in the mountainous parts of Europe 
and Asia. The American partridge is pro¬ 
perly the ruffed Grouse. 

GRUB. The worm or maggot produced 
from the beetle, which afterwards becomes 
a winged insect. 

GRU1NALES. One of Linnasus’s natu¬ 
ral orders of plants, containing the gera¬ 
niums, flax, lignum vit®, &c. 

GRUS. One of Bayer’s constellations. 

GUIACUM. A resinous substance pro¬ 
cured from a tree of the same name in the 
West Indies. 

GUARANTEE (in Diplomacy). A 
prince or power appointed by the stipu¬ 
lating powers, to see that the articles of 
any treaty or agreement are performed on 
each side. 

GUARD. The iuty of guarding or de¬ 
fending any post or person from an attack 


or surprise; also the soldiers who do tbit 
duty. 

GUARD (in Fencing). A posture oi 
action proper to defend the body. 

GUARDBOAT (in Naval Tactics). A 
boat appointed to row among ships of war. 
to see that the officers keep a good look 
out. 

GUARDIAN. One who has the charge 
of a person committed to him ; as the 
guardian of an infant, who sees to hit 
education and manages his affairs, &c. 

GUARDSHIP. A vessel appointed to 
superintend the marine affairs in a harbour 
or river. 

GUDGEON. A fresh water fish, of the 
carp kind, the flesh of which is very deli 
cate. 

GUIDE (among Travellers). One who 
accompanies another in order to show him 
the way. 

GUIDE (in Music). The leading note 
in a figure. 

GUILD (in England). A company 01 
incorporated society. 

GUILDHALL (in London). The com¬ 
mon hall of the guilds or companies, which 
was built in 1411, by Thomas Knolls, then 
mayor. 

GUILLOTINE. A machine for behead¬ 
ing, first invented by a Scotchman and 
now used in France. It was introduce* 
during the revolution. 

GUINEA HEN or PINTANO. An Afri 



can bird domesticated in Europe, whicl 
makes i harsh unpleasant cry. 

GUINJK A PIG. An animal betwixt t 



rabbit and a moose, an tahahStaai of Sra 

zil 

GUINEA An English gold sola,. In 










GUN 


GYP 


1M 


aoined in the reign of Charles II. and till 
*ately current for 21.?. It was so called 
because it was made from the gold that 
was brought from Guinea, on the coast of 
Africa. 

GUITAR. A rausbal stringed instru¬ 
ment, rather larger than a violin, and 
plaved with the fingers. 

GULES. A tincture in heraldry, marked 
& engraving by straight lines. 



GULP. A part of the sea running in 
,and. as the Gulf of Mexico. 

GULL. A species of sea bird, of which 
there are many varieties. 

GUM. A concreted vegetable juice, 
which exudes through the bark of trees. 
A gum, properly speaking, is that only 
among chemists which is soluble in water; 
that which is insoluble in water is a gum 
resin. • The gum arabic flows from the 
acacia, in Africa and Arabia-, gum lac is the 
juice of the croton lacifera; gum ammoni¬ 
ac was first drawn from ammonia. 

GUMS. The vascular and elastic sub¬ 
stance that covers the arches of the upper 
and under jaws, embracing the roots of 
the teeth. 

GUM-TREE. The popular name of the 
black gum, of the genus nyssa, one of 
the largest trees of the Southern States 
of America. 

GUMLAC. The resinous produce of an 
insect, which deposits its eggs on the 
branches of a tree called bihar. 

GUNNY. A coarse sackcloth manufac¬ 
tured in Bengal, of which bags are made 
for containing salt and other articles. 

GUN. In military science, a general 
term for all species of fire-arms, as 
muskets, rifles, carbines, ordnances, &c. 
the principal of which are the Muzzle¬ 
loading and Breech-loading guns, the 
latter comprehending the Needle-Gun 
(which see). Gunpowder is a mixture 
of 5 parts of nitre, 1 of sulphur, and 5 of 
charcoal, finely powdered and very ac¬ 
curately blended. Gun-cotton is a prep¬ 
aration of cotton by steeping it in nitric 
or nitro-sulphuric acid, and afterwards 
washing it, by which it acquires the ex¬ 
plosive properties of gunpowder. Gun;! 
barrel, the metallic tube of a gun. Gun¬ 
boat, a boat for carrying cannon. Gun- 
lock, the lock of a gun. Gun-metal, an 
alloy of copper and tin. 


GUNPOWDER-PLOT (in England.) 
The pint or conspiracy in which Guy Faux 
was the principal agent, to blow up the 
parliament house, by means of gunpowder 
placed underneath, which was to have 
been set fire to when King James I was 
assembled with his parliament; also the 
anniversary of that day, namely, the fifth of 
November, when this plot was discovered. 

GUNSHOT. The reach or range of a gun. 

GUNSTOCK. The wood to which the 
barrel of a gun is fixed. 

GUNTER’S CHAIN. The chain com¬ 
monly used in measuring or surveying 
land, so called from Mr. Gunter, the in¬ 
ventor. The chain is 66 feet in length, 
and is divided into 100 links of 7.92 inches 
each, consequently an acre of land is equal 
to 10 square chains. 

GUNTER’S LINE. A logarithmic line, 
usually graduated upon scales, sectors, &c. 

GUNWALE or GUNNEL. The upper¬ 
most wale of a ship. 

GUST (among Mariners). A sudden and 
violent squall of wind. 

GUTTA SERENA. A disease in the eye, 
which deprives the patient of his sight. 

GUTTURAL LETTERS. Letters which 
are pronounced with the throat. 

GYMNASIUM. A place among the 
ancients where the youth were trained in 
gymnastic exercises; also a public school 
of learning, in which latter sense, it is now 
frequently employed. 

GYMNASTICS. Athletic exercises, such 
as wrestling, leaping, running, and throw¬ 
ing the dart or quoit, which were much in 
use among the Greeks, from whom the 
word is derived. 

GYMNOSOPHISTS. A sect of Indian 
philosophers, who always went naked, 
and lived a solitary life. 

GYNANDRIA. One of the classes in 
the Linnaean system, consisting of plants 
with hermaphrodite flowers, in which the 
stamina are placed on the style 



GYPSUM. A sort of calcareous earth, 
consisting of sulphate of lime. When 
highly burnt it falls into powder, frots 
which plaster of Paris is made 















































186 


H A I 


HAN 


H. 


«, the eighth letter of the alphabet, for¬ 
merly stood as a numeral for 200, with a 
dash over it for 20,000; in Heraldry, it 
stands for the middle base, a point in the 
escutcheon ; as an abbreviation, for hour. 

HAARTE BESTE. A variety of the Af¬ 
rican Antelope. 

HABEAS CORPUS. In England, a 
arrit which may be made use of by the 
*curt8 at Westminster for removing pris¬ 
oners to answer any cause, as a Habeas 
Corpus ad respondendum, ad satisfacien¬ 
dum, <Stc.; bat the most celebrated writ of 
this kind is that of Habeas Corpus ad sub¬ 
jiciendum, which a man who is, or sup¬ 
poses himself to be aggrieved by an unlaw¬ 
ful imprisonment, may have out of the 
King’s Bench, directed to the person de¬ 
taining him, and commanding him to pro¬ 
duce the body of the prisoner, to submit to 
or receive whatever the court shall consider 
m that behalf. This writ was founded on 
the common law, and secured by many 
statutes, particularly that of the 31 Chas. 
II. which is by distinction called the Habeas 
Corpus Act. The writ of Habeas Corpus 
in the United States is that, by which a 
man in prison may claim an immediate 
irial, or examination. 

HABERDASHER. A dealer in small 
wares, as tape, thread, pins, needles, &.c. 
The company of haberdashers in London 
was incorporated in 1447. 

HADDOCK. A fish of the cod kind, 
which inhabits the northern coast. 

HADLEY’S QUADRANT. A quadrant 
that is particularly used for taking altitudes 
at sea 

HAEMORRHAGE. A flux of blood from 
any part of the body 

H AIL. A meteor, which consists of frozen 
rain, or drops of rain agglutinated together 
by the frost, so as to form little pieces of 
ice, called hailstones 

HAILING (among Mariners). Saluting 
or accosting a ship at a distance 

HAIR. Small filaments issuing out of 
the pores of the skin of animals, and serv¬ 
ing for the most part as a covering. The 
principal constituent parts of hair are ani¬ 
mal matter, oil, silex, sulphur, carbonate of 
lime, &.c. 

HAIR (in Botany). The down, or hair- 
Ike threads on the surface of plants 

HAIR-GRASS. A plant, some species 
•f which are perennials and somr annuals 


HAIR’S BREADTH. A measure ot 
length, equal to the forty-eighth part of ar 
inch. 

HALBERT. A weapon something like 
a spear, formerly carried by the serjeanU 
of foot and artillery. 

HALCYON. A name for the kingfisher. 

HALF-BLOOD (in Law). Relationship 
by the father’s or the mother’s side only. 

HALF-MOON (in Fortification). Ai 
outwork having two faces. 

HALFPENNY. An English copper coin 
of the value of one cent. 

HALL. A public edifice, a court of jus 
tice. 

HALL (in Architecture). A large room 
at the entrance of a fine house 

HALLELUJAH. A part of church music 
in which these words are repeated. 

HALLIARDS Ropes for hoisting up 
the yards. 

HALLOO. A hunter’s cry after the dogs. 

H ALLUC1NATION. An affection either 
in the senses or the imagination, which 
causes a person to feel, see, or hear what 
does not exist. 

HALM. In England, the stalk of corn 
which is left on the ground when it is cut. 

HALO. A meteor, in the form of alumi¬ 
nous ring or circle, appearing round the 
bodies of the sun, moon, or stars. 

HAMMOCK (among Mariners). A piece 
of hempen cloth, six feet long and three 
feet wide. 

HAMSTER. An animal of the mouse 
tribe, entirely black, except at the tip of 
the nose, edges of the ears, feet, and some¬ 
times the tail, which are white. 



HANAPER OFFICE. In England, an 
office in the Court of Chancery, out of 
which issue all original writs. 

HAN D (in the Manege). The fist clenched 
or a measure of three inches, by which the 
height of a horse is computed; also the 
parts of a horse, as the forehand, for the 
head, neck, and fore quarters; the hind 
hand, which includes the rest; and also 
the horseman’s hand, as the spur hand. 




II AR 


HAR 


187 


which is his tight hand ; and the bridle 
hand, which is his left hand. 

HAND. An important member of the 
oody, which consists of the carpus, or wrist; 
the metacarpus, or the four bones within 
the palm and the fingers. 



HAND (among Watchmakers). The in¬ 
dex of a clock or watch. 

HAND-BARROW. A barrow without 
wheels. 

HANDCUFFS. Two circular pieces of 
iron locked over the wrists of a prisoner 
to prevent him using his hands. 

HANDSPIKES. Wooden levers used 
at sea. 

HANGINGS Tapestry hung or fastened 
against the wall. 

HANSE TOWNS. Port towns of Ger¬ 
many, which were incorporated for the 
purpose of protecting their trade. The 
three principal of these towns were Ham¬ 
burgh, Bremen, and Eubec, which still 
retain the name. 

HARBOUR. A place where ships may 
ride in safety. 

HARDNESS (in Physiology). The re¬ 
sistance opposed by a body to the separa¬ 
tion of its parts. 

HARE. A timid animal of exquisite 
sight and hearing, with a short tail. It is 
in Europe a beast of chase, and is some¬ 
times pursued by greyhounds in open 
ground, which is called coursing; and 
sometimes by harriers, or hare hounds, 
which is called hare hunting. Shooting 
of hares is not lawful in England. A spe¬ 
cies of hare common in America, passes 
under the name of rabbit. 



HARELIP a lip clovei^or parted like 
that of a hare 

HARMATTUN. A wind which blows 
serioJically from the interior Darts of Africa * 


towards the Atlantic. Tin s wind is remark- 
aole for its dry and parching character. 

HARMONICA. A musical instrument 
constructed with drinking glasses. 

HARMONICS. That branch of music 
which considers the differences and pro 
portions of sounds. 

HARMONY (in Music). The agreeable 
result or union of several musical sounds 
heard at one and the same time. Melody 
is produced by a succession of musical 
•ounds, as harmony is produced by theii 
combination. 

HARMONY OF THE SPHERES. A 
kind of music, supposed by the ancients to 
be produced by the accordant motions of 
the stars and planets. 

HARP. A musical stringed instrument 
of great antiquity, of a triangular form, 
and played with the fingers. 



HARPER. One who plays upon the narp 
IIARPINS (among Mariners). The 
breadth of a ship at the bow. 

HARPOONS, or Harping Irons. Irons 
formed at one end like a baibed arrow, 
and having a rope at the other, for the 
purpose of spearing the whale. 

HARPSICHORD. A stringed and keyed 
instrument in a mahogany case. 

HARROW. A drag with iron teeth, to 
break the clods after ploughing. 



HARPY A fabulous monster, with tk« 
head of a woman, the wings of a bird, and 
the tail of a beast. 





188 


HAW 


HE A 


HARP A LID2E. In entomology, an ex¬ 
tensive family of coleopterous insects, 
of which the Harpalusis the type. 

HART ALL. Orpiment, an oxide of ar¬ 
senic, used as a yellow paint. 

HARTSHORN. In pharmacy, the horn 
of the common stag, which obtains a 
place in the pharmacopoeia because it 
contains less earthy matter and more 
gelatine than other bones. 

HATCHETINE, A bituminous mineral 
or mountain-tallow, found at Merthyr 
Tydvil, in S. Wales, 

HARUSPICE. In Roman history, a 
person who pretended to foretell future 
events by the entrails of beasts. 

HATCHING. The act of maturing fecun¬ 
dated eggs, so that they should produce 
young birds. This is commonly done by 
the incubation of the mother; but some¬ 
times by means of artificial heat in ovens, 
as is practised in Egypt. 

HATCHMENT. See Achievement. 

HATCHWAY (among Mariners). An 
opening in the deck, to serve as a passage 
from one deck to another. 

HATTER. A manufacturer and seller 
of hats. The company of hatters, or hat- 
makers in London, is very ancient. 

HAVERSACK. A kind of bag of strong 
coarse linen, to carry bread and provisions 
on a march. 

HAUL, or YAUL (amongRopemakers). 
A yarn of four hundred threads. 

HAUNCH. The hind part of a stag, or 
of a horse, &e. 

HAUNT. The walk of a deer. 

HAUTBOY. A musical wind instru¬ 
ment, shaped much like the flute, only 
that it spreads and wide js at the bottom, 
and is sounded through a reed at one 
end. 

HAWFINCH. A sort of finch, so called 
because it feeds on haws and cherries. 

HAWK. A bird of prey of the eagle and 
falcon tribe, the two principal species of 
which are the sparrowhawk and the gos¬ 
hawk, both used formerly in falconry. 

HAWKERS. In England, itinerant petty 
chapmen, who go with their goods from 
town to town and from house to house. 
They are obliged by law to have a license. 

HAWKING. The ancient sport of fowl¬ 
ing with hawks. 

HAWKING (in Trade). The going about 
with commodities to sell, after the manner 
of a hawker. 

HAWK’S BELL. The bell put about 
the feet of a hawk. 

HAWKWEED. A plant which bears a 
flower in the form of a marigold. The 
whole plant has a milky juice. 

HAWSE. A sea term, for the situation 
•f the cables before the ship’s stern, when 


, she .6 moored with two anchors out fron 
the bows, as c a clear or open hawse,’ ‘ a 
foul hawse,’ &c 

HAWSER. A small cable. 

HAZARD. A game of chance, played 
much by gamesters and gamblers. 

HAZLE NUT. A shrub having male 
flowers growing at remote distances from 
the fruit on the same tree. The nuts 
grow in clusters, and are of three kinds, 
the common hazel nut, the cob nut, and 
the filbert, which latter are the most e* 
teemed. 

HEAD (in Anatomy). The superior part 
of the body, placed on the neck, and con¬ 
sisting externally of the face and the hairy 
scalp; internally, of the brain and the 
medulla oblongata. 

HEAD (among Mechanics). The upper 
and more solid part of inanimate bodies, 
as the head of a nail, the head of a gate, 
the head of a hammer. 

HEAD (in Painting). The representation 
of the head of a person. 

HEAD (in Architecture). An ornament 
of sculpture or carved work. 

HEAD (in Gunnery). The fore part ol 
the cheeks of a gun. 

HEAD (in Printing). In England, the 
top of a page. 

IIEADBOROUGH. Formerly the chief 
of a borough, or frankpledge; now a sort of 
petty constable. 

HEADER (in Masonry). A name for 
the bricks which are inserted lengthwise 
in the thickness of a wall. 

HEADLAND. A point of land lying 
farther out at sea than the rest. 

HEADSTALL. That part of a bridle 
that goes about the head; also a kind a 
halter. 

HEALING (in Surgery). Curing a 
wound. 

HEALING (among Bricklayers). The 
covering a roof with any thing, as lead, 
slates, &c. 

HEARING. One of the five senses, of 
which the ear is the organ, with the help 
of the auditory nerves and membrane. 

HEARSE. A close carriage for convey¬ 
ing dead bodies. 

HEART. The seat of life in the animal 
body, is situated in the thorax, and divided 
externally into the base, which is the broad 
part; the superior and inferior surface ; 
and the anterior and posterior margin. 
Internally, it is divided into two ventrh 
cles, right and left. 

HEARTBURN. A burning pain in the 

stomach. 

HEARTSEASE. A plant cultivated if» 





HED 

#» \'t, that yields a variegated, sweet¬ 

ing ^/i g lower. 

HEARTH Tiie pavement of a fire¬ 
place 

HEAT (in Physiology). See Caloric. 

HEAT (among Geographers). The heat 
of different climates, which arises from the 
different angles under whieh the sun’s rays 
strike upon the surface of the earth; added 
to which, the heat of different places is 
either increased or diminished by the acci¬ 
dents of situation, with regard to moun¬ 
tains and valleys, proximity to the sea, 
and the like. 

HEAT (among Smiths). T1 a degree of 
heat requisite for iron work, namely, the 
blood-red heat, the smallest degree; the 
flame, or white heat, the second degree ; 
and the sparkling, or welding heat, which 
is the strongest degree. 

HEAT (among Sportsmen). A certsm 
prescribed distance which a horse runs 

.e course. 

HEATH. A wide open place, generally 
•. rergrown with heath. 

HEATH (in Botany). A shrub, which 
either grows wild, or is cultivated with 
great care in hothouses. The cultivated 
sorts are remarkable for their variety and 
beauty. 

HEAVEN (in Astronomy). That im¬ 
mense region wherein the planets, stars, 
and comets are disposed, and perform their 
motions; among the ancients, a heaven 
denoted an orb or circular region of the 
ethereal heaven. Astronomers therefore 
assumed as many different heavens as they 
observed different celestial motions ; thus 
they had seven heavens for the seven 
planets, the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the 
Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The 
eighth was the fixed stars, which was par¬ 
ticularly denominated the firmament. Pto¬ 
lemy added a ninth heaven, which he calls 
the Primum Mobile ; Alphonsus afterwards 
added two crystalline heavens, to account 
for some irregularities in the motions of 
the other heavens. Other ancient astrono¬ 
mers admitted more heavens, according to 
k heir different hypotheses. 

IIEB. An abbreviation for Hebrews. 

HECATOMB. The sacrifice of a hundred 
oxen. 

HECTIC FEVER. An habitual fever, 
or one which is slow and continued, end¬ 
ing in a consumption. 

HEDGE. A fence of thorns or shrubs to 
part off land. 

HEDGEHOG. A quadruped defended 
all over with sharp prickles, which is a 
native of Europe, and found also in Mada¬ 
gascar. It lives in thickets, and swims 


HEL 18 f 

easily. When frightened, it rolls itself up 
in its spiry skin, and presents nothing but 
a ball of prickles. 



HEDGESPARROW. A kind of spar 
row that lives in the fields and about the 
hedges. 

HEEL. The back of the foot protuberat 
ing behind. 

HEEL (among Mariners) The heel of 
a mast, that part at the foot of a ship’s 
mast that is pared away slanting. 

HEELPIECE. A piece of leather put 
upon the heel of a shoe. 

HEGIRA (in Chronology). An tera 
which takes its date from Mahomet’s flight 
from Mecca, a. d. 622. 

HEIR (in Law). One who succeeds by 
descent to lands and tenements. 

HEIRLOOM. Household goods and fur¬ 
niture which have for several descents 
belonged to a house, and necessarily come 
to the heir with the house. 

HELIACAL (in Astronomy). A term 
applied to the stars or planets when they 
rise and set with or at the same time aa 
the sun. 

HELIOCENTRIC. An epithet for what 
relates to the centre of the sun. 

HELIOMETER. An instrument for 
measuring the diameter of the heavenly 
bodies. This instrument is a kind of tele¬ 
scope, consisting of two object glasses of 
equal focal distance, placed one by the 
side of the other, so that the same eyeglass 
serves for both. 

HELIOTROPE, or Turni dle. A plant 
which is said always to follow the course 
of the sun. 

HELLEBORE. A plant, thi flower of 
which expands in the form of a rose. The 
seed is oblong, like a grain of wheat It 
is very doubtful whether the plant now so 
named be the true hellebore so famous foi 
its poisonous quality among the ancients. 

HELM (in Naval Architecture) A long 
flat piece of timber suspended at the hind 
part of a ship’s sternpost, which serves to 
direct the course of the ship. It is com¬ 
posed of three parts, namely, the tudder 
which turns upon its hinges the tillei 







190 


HER 


HER 


which serves to direct the rudder; and the 
wheel round which the tiller rope is wound 
in large vessels. 

HELM ET. A headpiece, or armour for 
the head, which was formerly the noblest 
piece of coat armour. 

HELMINTHOLOGY. The science of 
worms. 

HELVE. Tje handle of an axe. 

HEM. The edge part of e'oth. 

HEMIPTERA. The second order of in¬ 
sects in the Linmean system, including 
those which have their upper wings semi- 
crustaceous, as the cock-roach, mantis or 
walking leaf, locust, cricket, grasshopper, 
lanthorn-fly, boat-fly, water scorpion, 
aphis or plant louse, and the coccus or 
cochineal. 

HEMISPHERE. One half of the mun¬ 
dane sphere. 

HEM LOCK. A narcotic plant, the leaves 
of which are cut into many minute seg¬ 
ments, like parsley. Tt is doubtful wheth¬ 
er this be the true hemlock of the ancients. 

HEMP. A fibrous plant, of which linen 
and ropes are made. 

HEN. A female bird 01 any species, par¬ 
ticularly the domestic fowl. 

HENBANE. A poisonous plant that 
grows in hedges. 

HENDECAGON. A figure of eleven 

sides. 

HEPTAGON. A figure of seven sides 
and seven angles. 



HEPTANDRIA. One of the Linmean 
classes, including those plants which have 
seven stamens to the flower, as the horse- 
chestnut, chickweed, lizard’s tail, &c 



HEPTA 1CHY. The seven kingdoms 
formed by the Saxons on their first settle¬ 
ment in England. They were all united 
into one kingdom by Egbert. 

HERALD (in England). An officer 


whose business it is to proclaim war and 
peace, to marshal processions, and re gulate 
armorial ensigns, &c. The heralds are six 
in number, and are distinguished bv the 
names of Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, 
Windsor, Somerset, and York. They are 
all equal in degree, and have precedence 
only according to the seniority of theii 
creation. 

HERALDRY. An ancient art which 
professed to teach the true use of arms; as 
how to blazon or describe them in proper 
terms, and how to marshal or dispose the 
different arms in an escutcheon or shield. 

HERALDRY, History of. Although 
the science of heraldry, as far as regards 
the distinctions of families by means of 
coat armour, is comparatively of modern 
date, yet the Romans were not without 
their marks of honour, which, being here¬ 
ditary, served as a proof of nobility, and 
a title to a certain rank. This was known 
among them by the name of jus imaginum, 
which was the right of having the statues 
or images of their ancestors; that belongec 
to those only who were either of patrician 
rank or had risen to distinction in the state. 
He who had the privilege of using the 
statues or images of his ancestors was 
termed ‘nobilis;’ he who could only use 
his own was a ‘ novushomo,’ or an upstart, 
like one who first procures a coat of arms; 
and he who had neither his own statues 
nor those of his ancestors was termed ‘ ig 
nobilis.’ These images or statues were 
made of wood, brass, marble, and some¬ 
times in waxwork, and were painted, ac¬ 
cording to the life, with the several em¬ 
blems of military honour which belonged 
to the individual. Thus the collar or 
chain on the statue of Torquatus, and the 
tuft of hair on that of Cincinnatus, were 
the trophies of which these brave warriors 
had despoiled their enemies. 

These statues commonly stood in their 
courts in a cabinet of wood, whence pro¬ 
bably originated our cabinets of arms, 
where the helmet, crest, gauntlet, spurs, 
banner, &c. were kept; and as, upon par¬ 
ticular occasions, these cabinets were set 
open, and the statues were exposed to 
public view before the porch or gate of 
their houses, so our nobility and gentry 
have their coats of arms cut in stone, and 
painted in escutcheons over their gates. 
At their funerals those statues were borne 
before such as had the jus imaginum, 
whence in after times it became the prac¬ 
tice, at the funerals of great men, to carry 
their ensigns of nobility, and the arms jf 
those from whom they were descended, 
which, being all painted, are placed unde' 






HER 


HER 


191 


ihe name of an achievement on the house 
of the person deceased. As a farther proof 
that our heraldic distinctions take their 
rise from the jus imaginum of the Romans, 
it appears that the law of arms among the 
Europeans in the middle ages was regu¬ 
lated by the civil law. 

The introduction of armorial bearings, 
in place of the images and statues of the 
Romans, is to be ascribed to the northern 
tribes whc overran Europe on the decline 
and fall of the empire. The Goths, Van¬ 
dals, and other such people, were in the 
practice, like their ancestors the Celts and 
Scythians, of painting on their shields the 
figures of animals, either for the purpose of 
rendering themselves formidable, or more 
probably by way of distinction; and al¬ 
though, from their martial character, their 
ensigns of honour were at first purely mili¬ 
tary, yet, by being transmitted to their 
posterity, they became badges of civil rank 
and honour; and, in process of time, other 
circumstances gave rise to bearings which 
were not purely military. Thus, on the 
establishment of the feudal system, the 
tenants of the king, or the great lords, re¬ 
presented on their shields the services they 
owed to their superiors by way of an ac¬ 
knowledgement of their fidelity, whence 
originated roses, cinque-foils, spurrowels, 
bows and arrows, hunting-horns, ships, 
which are to be found so frequently in 
coats of arms. So, in like manner, the 
crusades gave rise to the figures of the 
cross, which is borne in a diversity of 
forms; and tournaments, which were intro¬ 
duced by Henry the Fowler in the tenih 
century, are supposed to have given rise to 
the fesse, pale, bend, and other ordinaries 
which represented the fillets or lists of 
different kinds which were worn by the 
combatants and those who attended. From 
the practice and ceremony of the herald’s 
recording the names, arms, and proofs of 
the nobility of the knights at tournaments, 
the science of heraldry took its name; and 
as this ceremony was preceded by the blow¬ 
ing of a horn, blazon, which comes from 
the German ‘ blason,’ to blow, is now used 
for a scientific description of coats of arms. 

HERB (in Botany). That part of the 
vegetable which rises from the root, and 
comprehends the stem and leaves, Sc c. 

HERBIE. Herbs; the fourth tribe into 
which Linnteus divided the vegetable 
kingdom. 

HERBAL. A book giving an account 
of the names, natures, and uses of plants. 

HERCULANEUM. An ancient city of 
Naples, overwhelmed by an eruption of 
Mount Vesuvius in the reign of Titus* U 


was discovered ia the year 1689, since 
which time many manuscripts, paintings, 
statues, and other relics of antiquity, have 
been discovered by digging. 

HERCULES. A celebrated hero of an¬ 
tiquity, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, 
who travelled as far as the Straits of Gib¬ 
raltar, and is said to have erected two 
pillars, one at Cadiz in Spain, and the 
other at Ceuta in Africa. His exploits are 
celebrated by the poets and historians of 
antiquity 



HEREDITAMENTS (in Law). Im¬ 
moveables, which a man may have to him 
and his heirs. 

HERESY. An error in some fundamen 
tal doctrine of the Christian faith, or a 
private opinion different from that of the 
orthodox church. 

HERETIC. One tainted with heresy. 

HERIOT (in England.) The best beast 
that the tenant died possessed of, which 
was due to the lord of the manor. 

HERON. A bird similar in form to the 
crane and stork, but mueh larger, being 
seven feet in standing. 



HERISON. A barrier made of beams 
stuck with spikes, to block up a passage. 

I1ERMETICAL SEAL (among Chem¬ 
ists). A method of stopping glass vessel* 
so closely that the subtlest spirit cannot 
escape. 

HERNIA. Every kind of rupture, v* 
ried according to the part affected. 






192 


HIC 


HIP 


HEROIC 10EM. A poem setting forth 
.he exploits of some hero. 

HEROIC VERSE. Hexameter verse, 
so called because it is used by poets in 
their heroic poems. 

HERRING. A small seafish of a green 
colour, which inhabits the North seas, and 
migrates southerly in immense shoals, par¬ 
ticularly in the month of June. Their 
progress is marked by the number of birds 
which follow them to prey upon them. 
Those which flock to the British coasts 
are to be found in the greatest number 
off Yarmouth, the mart for herrings. 

HERSE (in Fortification). An engine 
ike a harrow, stuck full of spikes 

HESPERIDiE (in Botany). A natural 
order of plants, including the myrtle tribe. 

HETEROSCII (in Geography). Those 
inhabitants of the earth which have their 
shadows falling but one way, as those liv¬ 
ing between the tropic and polar circles. 

HEXAEDRON (in Geometry). A solid 
figure of six equal sides. 

HEXAGON (in Geometry) A figure of 
tix aides and six angles. 



HEXAGYNIA (in Botany). An or er jf 
t&nts, which have six styles in the flowers. 

HEXAMETER (in Poetry). A vtrse 
consisting of six feet. 

HEXANDRIA (in Botany). One of the 
Linntean cusses, comprehending those 
plants which have six stamens in each 
flower, as the pmeapp 1 *, jimboo, spider- 
wort, lily of tho variay, rxrow-grass, &c. 



HHD. An abbreviation for h* gshead. 
HIATUS. A gap or chasm in verses; 
also any deficiency in a maniy nipt which 
destroys the connexion. 

HICCOUGH, or HICCI '.T A convul¬ 

sive motion of the stomacn 


HIDE (in Law). A portion of land 
from 100 to 120 acres. 

HIDE (among Tanners). The skins ol 
beasts aAer they are taken off. 

HIDEBOUND (in Farriery). A disease 
in horses and cattle when the skin cleaves 
to the sides. 

HIDEBOUND (in Botany). A disease 
in trees when the bark cleaves to the 
wood. 

HIERARCHY. Church government, oi 
the subordination of rank among the dit 
ferent orders of clergy. 

HIEROGLYPHICS. Certain charac 
ters,. figures, or signs, made use of by the 
Egyptians instead of letters, to express th* 
conceptions of men, particularly the mys 
teries of their religion. In a general sense 
an hieroglyphic is any symbol or figure 
which may serve to represent an object; 
thus the astronomical characters aie many 
of them of this nature, as the character 
for Mercury, $ , which is the figure of hi.' 
caduceus; that of Mars, $ , which is sup 
posed to represent his shield and spear; 
that of Saturn, ^, which represents his 
sickle, <fcc. 

HIGHNESS. In Europe, a title of hon¬ 
our given to a prince. 

HIGH-WATER. When the tide is at 
its highest point. 

HIGHWAY (in Law). A public or free 
passage for the people. 

HIGHWAYMEN. Robbers on the high¬ 
ways. 

HIGLER In England one who buys 
poultry in the country, and carries them 
up to town. 

HIND. The female of the stag. 

HINGE. The iron work on which a 
door is made to turn. 

HIP. The upper part of the thigh. 

HIPPOPOTAMUS, or The Ritei 
Horse. An amphibious creature found in 
the rivers of Africa. 



HIP-ROOF (in Architecture). A parti 
cular kind of roof, which has neither gablt 
heads, shred heads, nor jerkin heads. 

HIPS (in Botany). The ripe fruit of 
the dog-rose, which is principally mads 
into a sweetmeat ' 












HOM 


HISTORY. In its most general sense, 
an account or description of events and 
things in an orderly series, comprehending 
Civil or Political History, Sacred History, 
Ecclesiastical History, and Natural Histo¬ 
ry; in a particular sense, a narrative of 
political events in the order of time. 

HISTORY (in Painting). A picture 
composed of diverse figures or persons, 
representing some transaction. 

HITCH (among Mariners). A sort of 
knot or noose for fastening a rope to ar v 
thing. 

HIVE. A basket or box, which serves 
as a receptacle for tees. 

H. M. S. In England, an abbreviation 
for Her Majesty’s S^ip. 

HOBSON’S CHOICE. A by-word, sig¬ 
nifying that or none, taken from one Hob¬ 
son, a livery-stable keeper at Cambridge 
England, who obliged his customers eith¬ 
er to take the horse that stood next the 
stable door, or to go without. 

HODMAN. A bricklayer’s labourer. 

HOE. A husbandman’s tool for cutting 
up weeds. 

HOEING (in Husbandry). The process 
d > cltaiinf, the weeds with a hoe, and 
pairing p the earth on planted ground. 

FOG. A domestic quadruped, very vo¬ 
racious and very prolific. 

HOGSHEAD (in Commerce). A mea¬ 
sure of capacity, containing 63 gallons. 

HOLD. The whole interior cavity or 
belly of the ship, where, in merchantmen, 
the goods sie commonly stowed.- 

HOLLFAST. An iron hook for fixing 
any thivg :o a wall. 

HOJASRACEiE. One of Lirnaeus’s na¬ 
tural orders of plants, including shrubs 
and perennials, as rhubarb, &c. 

HOLLOW (in Architecture). A con¬ 
cave moulding. 

HOLLY. A prickly shrub which forms 
an impenetrable hedge. The variegated 
hollies are remarkable for their beauty; 
some bear yellow berries, and others white. 

HOLM-OAK. The evergreen oak. 

HOLY GHOST. The third person of 
the Holy Trinity. 

HOMAGE. In England, the oath of sub¬ 
mission and loyalty, which the tenant, 
under the feudal system, used to take to 
his lord when first admitted to his land. 

HOME. A sea phrase for the situation 
which belongs properly to the tackling or 
parts of the vessel, as the anchor comes 
home when it i9 drawn out of the ground. 

HOMICIDE (in Law). The causing the 
death of a human creature, which is justi¬ 
fiable, if justified by unavoidable necessity; 

17 


HO JN 193 

excusable if it happens by misadventure ; 
and felonious if done without excuse. 

HOMILY. A plain discourse made to 
the people, instructing them in matters of 
religion 

HOMOGENEAL (in Physiology) Of 
the same nature and properties as homo- 
geneal particles. 

HONE. A fine kind of whetstone used 

for setting razors. 

HONEY. A thick, viscid fluid substance, 
collected by the bees from vegetables and 
flowers. It is distinguished into three 
kinds, namely, first, the virgin honey, 
which is the first produce of the swarm, 
obtained by draining from the combs 
without pressing; the second sort is thicker 
than the first, and is procured by pressure ; 
the third is the worst sort, which is extracted 
by heating the combs over the fire, and 
then pressing them. In the flowers of plants, 
near the basis of the petals, are certain 
glands containing a sweet juice, which the 
bees suck up by means of their proboscis 
or trunk, and, flying with it to thetr hives, 
discharge it again from the stomach through 
the mouth into some of the cells of the 
comb. This honey is destined for the food 
of the young, but, in hard seasons, the bees 
are sometimes reduced to the necessity of 
feeding on it themselves, and die of hunger 
after they have eaten it all up. In France, 
a good swarm of bees will yield, in two 
years, nearly thirty pounds of honey; but 
honey is most abundant in the islands of 
the Archipelago, and other countries which 
abound with flowers throughout the year. 
From honey is made the strong liquor 
called mead. 

HONEY-BAG. The stomach of the bee, 
which is the reservoir of the honey. 

HONEY-COMB (in Husbandry). The 
repository which the bees make in the hive 
for saving their honey in. 

HONEY-COMB (in Gunnery). A flaw 
in the metal of a piece of ordnance, when 
it is badly cast. 

FIONEY-DEW. A sort of mildew of m 
sweet taste, found early in the morning on 
plants, flowers, &c. 

HONEY-FLOWER (in Botany). A 
plant having the appearance of a shrub, 
and bearing spikes of chocolate-coloured 
flowers in May, in each of which a quan¬ 
tity of black sweet liquor is found 

HONEY-SIJCKLE (in Botany). A shrub 
with a climbing stalk, the flowers of whick 
forir a tube in the shape of a huntsman’s 
horn. They are produced in clusters, and 
are very sweet. 

HONI SOTT QU1 MAL Y PENS* 



194 


HOP 


HOR 


In England, the rnotto ot the order of the 
Garter, signifying, Evil be to him that 
e. vil thinks. 

HONOUR. In England, the most noble 
part of seignories. 

HONOUR (in Military Affairs). External 
'narks of honour paid to superior officers. 

HONOUR COURTS. In England, courts 
held within the bounds of an honour. 

HONOUR, Maids of (in Court Eti¬ 
quette). In England, ladies in the queen’s 
household, who attend the queen when 
she goes out. 

HONOURS OF WAR. Honourable 
terms granted to a vanquished enemy, 
when he is permitted to march out of a 
town with all the insignia of military 
etiquette. 

HOOD. An upper covering for the head 
of a woman. 

HOOD (at the University). In England, 
an ornamental fold that hangs down the 
back of a graduate, to mark his degree. 

HOOF. The horny part of the foot of a 
horse or other cattle. 

HOOK. A bended iron to hang things 
unon ; also a bent piece of iron or wire 
attached to a fishing-rod for catching fish. 

HOOP, or HOOPOE. A bird inhabit¬ 
ing Europe, Asia, and Africa, watch is 
■otituy and migratory 



HOP. A plant with a creeping iuoi, 
the stalks of which climb and twist about 
whatever is near them ; wherefore, in hop 
grounds, poles are fixed near to the plant 
for them to rise upon. Hops are said to 
have been introduced into England from 
the Netherlands in the sixteenth century : 
they are principally used to boil up with 
beer, in order to prevent it from turning 
sour, and to give it a strengthening quality. 
Hops require to be planted in open situa¬ 
tions, and in a rich strong ground. The 
wo best sorts are the white and the gray 
cind. These should be planted in hills 
about eight or nine feet asunder. About 
:he beginning of July hops begin to blow. 


and are .eady to gather about th« latter 
end of August, when, by their strong scent, 
their hardness, and the brown colour of th« 
seed, they may be known to be fit. The 
best method of drying hops is on a kiln 
over a charcoal fire; when the stalks are 
brittle, and the top leaves easily fall off, 
they are properly dried. When taken from 
the kiln, they should be laid to cool for 
three weeks or a month before they are 

kged. 

HORIZON (in Astronomy). A great 
circle of the sphere, which divides it intc 
ipuer and lower hemispheres. The appa- 
ren; or sensible horizon is that circle of 
the heavens which bounds the view of the 
observer, in distinction from the rational 
or real horizon, which is a circle encom 
passing the earth exactly in the middle. 
It is represented in the globes by the 
wooden frame which contains the globe. 

HORN (in Natural History). The hard 
pointed bodies which grow on the heads 
of some granivorous animals, and serve 
either for defence or ornament; also the 
slender bodies on the heads of insects, &c. 

HORN (in Chemistry). Is mostly com¬ 
posed of albumen, gelatin, and phosphate 
of lime, but the horns of the buck and 
stag are of an intermediate nature between 
horn and bone. 

HORN (in Music). A wind instrument, 
chiefly used in hunting and in the chase. 

HORNBEAM. A tree that has leaves 
like the elm or beech tree ; it was formerly 
used in hedgerows. The timber is very 
tough and inflexible. 

HORNBLENDE (in Mineralogy). A 
sort of slaty stone, of a green and blackish 
green colour. It is a very abundant min¬ 
eral. 

T iC RN BOOK. The first book for chil- 
v*r-9i, containing the alphabet, which was 
.t.- me"!/ covered with transparent horn. 

HORNET. A large, strong, and stinging 
Insect, oi'the wasp kind. 

HORN-ORE (in Mineralogy). One of 
the species of silver ore. 

HORNPIPE. An animated sort of 
dance. 

HORN-STONE. A species of flint. 

HORNWORK (in Fortification). An 
outwork which advances towards the field. 

HOROLOGY. The science which treats 
on the measuring of portions of time. The 
principal instruments used in the measur 
ing of time are dials, clepsydra or water- 
clocks, clocks, watches, and in some case* 
also hour-glasses. 

The dial was doubtless one of the firsf 
instruments contrived for the measuringof 
time bv means of the sun. The first an 








HOR 


record is the dial of Ahaz mentioned in 
5«aiah. This king began to reign 400 
years before Alexander, and within 12 
years of the building of Rome. The Jhal- 
dee historian Berosus is said to have con¬ 
structed a dial on a reclining plane almost 
parallel to the equator. Aristarcnus the 
Samean, Thales, and others are also men¬ 
tioned as the makers of dials. The first 
sun-dial at Rome was set up by Papirius 
Cursor in the 460th year of the building 
of the city. The subject of dialling, or of 
making dials, has particularly occupied 
the attention of mathematicians within 
the last tlire* centuries. Clavius is the first 
professed writer on the subject. Deschales 
and Ozanam in their Courses, and Wolfius 
in his Elements,havesimplified the science. 
M. Picard gave a new method of making 
large dials by calculating the hour lines, 
and De la Hire, in his Dialling, gave a 
geometrical method of drawing hour lines 
from certain points determined by obser¬ 
vation. The method of drawing primary 
dials on easy principles is to be found in 
the Dialling of Everhard Walper, and the 
Rudimenta Mathematica of Sebastian Mun¬ 
ster. Among the more modern treatises on 
this subject may be reckoned that of Wells 
in his Art of Shadows, Ferguson in his 
Lectures on Mechanics, Emerson in his 
Dialling, Leadbetter in his Mechanic Dial¬ 
ing, Mr. W. Jones in his Instrumental 
Dialling, and Bishop Horsley in his Mathe¬ 
matical Tracts. 

Scipio Nasica was the first who con¬ 
structed the clepsydra, although it is sup¬ 
posed to have been invented by the Egyp¬ 
tians under the Ptolemies about 150 years 
before the Christian era. They serve for 
measuring time in the winter, as the sun¬ 
dials do in the summer; but they had two 
great defects : the one, that the water ran 
out with greater or less facility, as the air 
was more or less dense; and the other, 
that the water ran more readily at the 
beginning than towards the conclusion. 
The Egyptians, by this machine, measured 
the course of the sun ; and Tycho Brahe, 
in modern times, made use of it to mea¬ 
sure the motion of the stars, &c. Dudley 
also used the same contrivance in making 
all his maritime observations. 

The invention of clocks has been ascribed 
to different authors ; namely, to Boetius in 
the sixth century, to Paciticus, Archdeacon 
of Verona, and to Silvester in the tenth 
century. 

HOROMETRY The art of measuring 

hours 

HOROPTER (in Optics). A right line 
irawn through the point where the two 


HOR 195 

optic axes meet, parallel to that which 
joins the two pujnls. 

HOROSCOPE (in the exploded Science 
of Astrology) The degree or point of the 
horizon rising above the eastern point of 
the horizon at any given time, when a 
prediction was to be made of a future 
event; also a scheme or figure of the 
twelve houses. 

HORSE. A domestic animal, that excels 
all others in beauty and usefulness. The 
most esteemed breeds of horses are, the 
Barbary or Arabian horses, remarkable 
for their fieetness ; the English racehorse 
and hunter, which combines beauty with 
swiftness; and the English draught-horses 
which are distinguished for their size and 
strength, &c. There is no creature so 
valuable as the horse, and none that often¬ 
times fares worse. The age of a horse 
under eight years old is mostly to be known 
by his teeth. The horse has twenty-foui 
grinders ; four tushes, or single teeth ; and 
twelve front teeth, or gatherers. Mares in 
general have no tushes. The black mark 
or cavities denoting the age, are to be 
found in the corner front teeth, adjoining 
the tushes. At four years and a half old. 
the mark teeth are just visible above the 
gum, and the cavity is distinctly to be seen. 
At five, the remaining colt’s teeth are shed, 
and the tushes appear. At six. the tushes 
are up, and appear white, small, and sharp, 
with a small circle of flesh growing near 
them; the horse’s mouth is then completed 
the corner teeth being filled up At eight 
the black marks disappear. 



HORSE (in Military Affairs). A body 
of horsemen. 

HORSE (among Carpenters). A frams 
or trestle on which boards or planks are 
laid to be cut and otherwise worked. 

HORSE (among Printers). A stage or. 
which pressmen set their heaps of papei 
for printing. 

HORSE. A sea term for a rope mad* 





196 


HOR 


HOU 


fast to ono of the shrouds, having a dead 
man’s eye at the end 

HORSE-BEAN. A small bean usually 
given to horses. 

HORSE-BREAKER. One who breaks 
in young horses, and fits them for use. 

HORSE-CHESTNUT. A tree, which 
yields a prickly nut. 

HORSEDEALER. One who buys horses 
to sell them again. 

HORSE-DOCTOR. One who undertakes 
to cure the diseases of horses. 

HORSE-LEECH. A large sort of leech 
that fastens on horses. 

HORSEMAN. One skilled in riding. 

HORSEMANSHIP. The art of riding 
and managing horses. 

HORSERACE. A match of horses in 
running. • 

HORSESHOE (in Smithery) A circu¬ 
lar piece of iron fitted to the foot of a horse. 
This shoe is sometimes turned up in the 
winter season, to prevent the horse from 
slipping: this is called rough-shoeing. As 
an improvement upon this sort of shoeing, 
the clips have been made removeable at 
pleasure by means of a screw 



HORSESHOE (in Fortification). A 
work, sometimes of an oval figure, raised 
in marshy grounds. 

HORSESHOEING. The fitting and 
nailing a shoe to a horse’s foot. 

HORTICULTURE. The art of culti¬ 
vating a garden, and rearing the finest 
kinds of plants. 

HORTUS SICCUS. Literally, a dry 
garden; an appellation given to a collection 
of specimens of plants carefully dried and 
preserved. Various methods have been 
adopted by botanists for obtaining a hortus 
siccus; but that of pressing the plants, that 
are to be dried, in a box of sand or with 
a hot smoothing iron, has been recom¬ 
mended. If pressure be employed, that is 
best effected by means of a botanical press 
made for the purpose, in which the plants 
are put, with sheets of dry paper between. 
At first they ought to be pressed gently, 
and occasionally taken out in order to see 
that none of the leaves are rumpled or 
folded. ^ 3 they continue to dry, the pres¬ 
sure may be increased. When they are 
sufficiently dried, thuy may be taken out 


and laid on dry paper. Plants that are 
succulent require a longer and harder pres 
sure, hut for the most part three days 
pressure Is sufficient. 

HOSANNA. A solemn acclamation used 
by the Jews in the Feast of Tabernacles. 

HOSE (among Mariners). A leathern 
tube for conveying water from the main 
decks into the casks. 

HOSIERY. Stockings, and other goods 
in a shop that are spun or wove. 

HOSPITAL. A house, erected out of 
charity, for the support and relief of the 
sick and poor 

HOSPITALLERS. An order of knights 
who built an hospital at Jerusalem for the 
entertainment of pilgrims. 

HOST. The consecrated wafers in the 
Roman Catholic communion 

HOSTAGE. A person left as a surety for 
the performance of the articles of a treaty 

HOTBED. A bed made in a wooden 
frame with horse-dung, and covered with 
glasses, for raising early plants. 

HOTCH-POT. Properly, flesh cut into 
small pieces, and stewed with herbs and 
-oots; in Law, in England, the putting 
lands together, that belong to coparceners, 
for the purpose of distributing them equally. 

HOTHOUSE. A building, constructed 
in a garden, for the rearing of exotics and 
tender plants that require heat. 

HOUND. A kind of sporting dog, having 
pendulous ears, and very strong scent. 



HOUND’S TONGUE. A plant culti 
vated in gardens, bearing a pink flower. 

HOUR. The twenty-fourth part of a 
natural day ; the space of sixty minutes 

HOUR-GLASS. A glass for measuring 
the hours by the running of the sand fro.n 
one part of the vessel to another. 

HOUSE. A building, constructed with 
all conveniences for habitation. 

HOUSE (among Genealogists). A noble 
family, or an illustrious race descended 
from the same stock. 

HOUSE (in Astrology). The twelftk 
part of the heavens. 

HOUSEHOLD The whole of a family 






HUE 


H Y D 197 


HOUR. CIRCLE, In cosmography, a 
term applied to any great circle that 
passes through the two poles; the hour 
of the day being known when that circle 
is ascertained upon which the sun is for 
the time being. Hour-circles are drawn 
on the globe at 15° distant from each 
other on the equator. 

HOWITZER. A kind ot mortar, mount¬ 
ed upon a carriage like a gun. 

IIOY. A small vessel for carrying pas¬ 
sengers from one place to another. 

HUE AND CRY (in Law). The com¬ 
mon law process of pursuing a felon. 

HUGUENOTS. The Protestants of 
France, so called by way of contempt in 
the sixteenth century. « 

IfcULK. Any old vessel that is laid by, 
unfit for further service 

HULKS. Old vessels, stationed in the 
river Thames, in England, wherein con¬ 
victs are kept to hard labour. 

HULL. The main body of a ship. 

HUMMING-BIRD. The smallest of all 
birds, which extracts the nectar from the 
flowers with a humming noise like that of 
a bee. 



HUMOURS OF THE EYE. Are three; 
namely, the aqueous or watery humour, 
which lies in the fore part of the globe; 
the crystalline, or icy, next to the aqueous ; 
and the vitreous or glassy humour, which 
is larger than the rest, and fills the back¬ 
ward cavity of the eye 

HUNDRED. A number consisting of 
ten multiplied by ten. 

HUNDRED (in Law). A part of a shire 
or county, which formerly consisted of ten 
tithinss, or ten times ten households. 

HUREALITE, A crystallized mineral, 
with a vitreous lustre, whose constitu¬ 
ents are phosphoric acid, protoxide of 
iron,protoxide of manganese, and water. 

HURONITE. The name of a yellowish- 
green mineral which occurs in boulder 
stones in the neighborhood of Lake 
Huron; its constituents are silica, al¬ 
umina, protoxide of iron, lime, mag 
nesia, and water: sp. gr. 2-86: H = 2-25. 

HURRICANE. A storm of wind, fre¬ 
quent in the East and West Indies, which 
arises from the conflict of opposite winds. 


HUSBANDRY The practical part of 
agriculture 

HUSH-MONEY (in Law) A bribe 
given to a person not to reveal something 
to which he is privj 

HUSSARS. Hungarian horsemen, said 
to be so called from the huzza or shorn 
which they gave at the onset in battle 

HYACINTH (in Botany). A bulbous 
plant, the leaves of which are long and nar¬ 
row, the stalk upright and naked, and the 
flower growing on the upper part of a spike. 

HYACINTH (in Mineralogy). A sort 
of pellucid gem of a red colour with a 
mixture of yellow. 

HYADES. A cluster of five stars in the 
face of the constellation Taurus. 

HYA3NA. A ferocious beast, nearly al¬ 
lied to the wolf and dog. It infests burying 
grounds, and seizes whatever comes in ita 
way. 

HYBRID. An epithet for any animal 
whose sire is of one kind, and dam of 
another kind. 

HYDATID. An animal substance, in 
shape like a bladder, and distended with 
an aqueous fluid, which grows in the vis¬ 
cera of the human body. 

HYDRA. A fabulous monster with many 
heads, that is said to have infested the lake 
Leomea. 

HYDRA (in Astronomy). A southern 
constellation. 

HYDRANGEA. A greenhouse plant 
bearing a flower with a large head. 

HYDRATE (in Modern Chemistry). 
The combination of water with other 
bodies in a solid state, as slacked lime, 
which, being a combination of lime and 
water, is a hydrate of lime. 

HYDRAULICON, or Water-Organ (in 
Music) An instrument acted upon by wa¬ 
ter. 

HYDRAULICS. That part of statics 
which treats of the motions of fluids, par¬ 
ticularly of water issuing from orifices in 
reservoirs, or moving pipes, tubes, canals, 
rivers, &c. Among the machines which 
serve for the display of the phenomena of 
hydraulics, are the syphon, the pump, and 
the fire-engine. Among the moderns, the 
terms Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics are 
employed indifferently to denote this sci¬ 
ence See Hydrodynamics. 

HYDRODYNAMICS. Is properly that 
science which treats of the power or force 
of water, whether it acts by impulse or 
pressure ; but in an extended sense, it is 
that branch of mechanics which treats of 
tire motion of liquids or nonelastic fluids, 
and the forces with which they act o» 
other bodies 





98 


HYD 


HYD 


HYDRODYNAMICS, Distort of. Al¬ 
though the doctrine of fluids and their 
motion is but partially treated by the an¬ 
cients, yet, as respects the action of water 
in rivers, fountains, and aqueducts, it is 
certain that they must have had a consi¬ 
derable portion of practical knowledge. 
Aristotle treats on the nature of subterra¬ 
neous waters, as also of those which are 
above. Hero of Alexandria made an arti¬ 
ficial fountain, which bears his name. The 
Romans displayed their acquaintance with 
the art of carrying waters, in their famous 
aqueducts; and Frontinus, an engineer, 
who wrote on this subject, has given some 
few rules and hints on the motion of fluids. 
It is, however, only within the three last 
centuries, that this subject has attracted 
any particular notice. Benedict Castelli 
was the first who, in his treatise Dell’ 
Amesuradell’ Acque Currenti,investigated 
the measure of the flux of waters, which 
he found to depend upon the area of the 
section and the velocity of the water con¬ 
jointly. Since his time, many discoveries 
and theorems have been made on the mo¬ 
tions of fluids by Sir Isaac Newton in his 
Principia; Daniel Bernouilli, in his Hy- 
drodynamique; D’Alembert, in his Trait6 
des Fluides; M. Bossut, in his Hydrody- 
namique; M. Buat, in his Principes d’Hy- 
draulique; and M. Eytelwein, in his Hand- 
buch der Mechanik und der Hydraulik. 

HYDROGEN GAS. A constituent of 
water and the lightest species of ponder¬ 
able matter hitherto known, which was 
discovered by Mr. Cavendish in 1766. It 
is an inflammable air, or an invisible aeri¬ 
form fluid, which burns rapidly when kin¬ 
dled, in contact with atmospheric air, and 
forms what are now termed gas-lights. 
When combined with oxygen, it produces 
water. It is unfit for respiration, so that 
animals, when obliged to breathe it, die 
almost immediately. 

HYDROGRAPHY. A description of 
rivers, bays, lakes, and other pieces of 
water. 

HYDROLOGY. That part of natural 
history which treats of and explains the 
nature and properties of waters in general. 

HYDROMETER. An instrument for 
measuring the density and gravity, &c. of 
water and other liquids. That which is 
designed simply for ascertaining the specif- 
c gravity of different waters is more com¬ 
monly called an aerometer or waterpoise, 
the term hy d roineter being more commonly 
used to denote an instrument for measuring 
the specific gravity of spirits, though some¬ 
times used indifferently for either. Dr. 
Desaguliers contrived an hydrometer for 


determining the specific gravities of differ 
ent waters to such a nicety, bat it would 
show when one kind of water was but the 
40,000th part heavier than another. 

I1YDROMETRY. The mensuration Oi 
fluids, as to their density, gravity, 
HYDROPHOBIA, i. e. A Dread of 
Water. A distemper arising from the bite 
ofa mad dog, which is always accompanied 
with a horror of water and other liqujds 
HYDROSCOPE. An instrument an 
ciently used for the measuring of time 
HYDROSTATICAL BALANCE. A 
kind of balance contrived for the find ug 
the specific gravities of bodies solid is 
well as fluid. 



HYDROSTATICAL BELLOWS. A 
machine for showing the upward pressurr 
of fluids, and the hydrostatical paradox 



HYDROSTATICAL PARADOX A 
principle in hydrostatics, so called because 
it has a paradoxical appearance at first 
view; it is this, that any quantity of water 
or other fluid, how small soever, rnay be 
made to balance and support any quantity 
or any weight, however great it may be. 

HYDROSTATICS. The science which 
treats of the laws regulating the motions, 
pressure, gravitation, and equilibrium of 
fluid bodies, particularly water, and als« 


































IAM 


ICH 


199 


•f solid botflies immerged therein. This 
science is divided into three branches, 
namely, hydrostatics, properly so called, 
which treats of fluids in an equilibrium, 
their density, gravity, &c.; hydraulics, 
which treats of fluids in a state of motion; 
and pneumatics, which treats of elastic 
fluids These two last branches will be 
found explained in their respective places. 

The first branch of hydrostatics engaged 
the attention of Archimedes, who appears 
to have first attempted to determine the 
specific gravity of bodies, in consequence 
ef the following circumstance. Hiero, 
king of Syracuse, having reason to suspect 
that a goldsmith, whom he employed to 
make him a crown of gold, had adulterated 
it with a quantity of silver, he requested 
Archimedes to detect the cheat. Accord¬ 
ingly this philosopher procured two masses 
of gold and silver of equal weight with 
the crown, which he immersed in a vessel 
full of water, at the same time carefully 
noticing the quantity of water which each 
displaced; after which he immersed the 
crown of gold also in the same vessel, and 
by comparing the quantity of water which 
flowed over each time, he was enabled to 
ascertain the proportions of gold and silver 
in the crown. He is said to have been 
led to this idea by observing on one occa¬ 
sion, whilst he was bathing, that as he 
immerged his body, the water ran over 
the bath, whence he concluded that the 
water which ran out when his whole body 
was immerged was equal in bulk to his 
body; and on the same principle he con¬ 
sidered that if the crown were altogether 
of gold, the ball of gold, being of the 
same bulk as the crown, would, when 
immersed, raise the water just as high as 
the crown immersed, but if it were wholly 
of silver, the ball of silver being immersed 
would raise the water no higher than the 
crown immersed; and if the crown was of 
gold and silver mixed in a certain propor¬ 
tion, this proportion would be discovered 


by the height to which the crown would 
raise the water higher than the gold and 
lower than the silver. The authors who 
have treated further on this subject may be 
found under the article Hydrodynamics 
HYGROMETER. An instrument for 
measuring the degree of moisture and dry 
ness of the atmosphere 
HYMEN. T he god of marriage. 
HYMENOPTERA. An order of insects 
in the Linnasan system, having membra 
naceous wings, as the gall-fly, the saw-fly 
the bee, the wasp, the ichneumon, &c 
HYPERBOLA. One of the curves 
formed by cutting a cone obliquely to its 
axis; and if the plane be produced so as 
to cut the opposite cone, another hyper 
bola will be formed, which is called the 
opposite hyperbola to the former 



HYPERBOLE. An exaggerated repr* 
sentation of any thing. 

HYPOCHONDRIAC. One troubled 
with the spleen or melancholy. 

HYPOTHENUSE. The longest side of 
a right-angled triangle. 

HYPOTHESIS. A principle taken for 
granted, in order to draw conclusions 
therefrom for the proof of a point in 
question 

HYSSOP. A plant with long narrow 
leaves, bearing a crest of flowers. It is 
doubtful whether this be the hyssop men¬ 
tioned in Scripture. 

HYSTERICS. Spasmodic, convulsive 
affections of the nerves, to which women 
are particularly subject 


I 


, the ninth letter of the alphabet, used as 
t numeral signifies one, and stands for 
my numbers of units as often as it is re¬ 
peated, as II, two. III, three, <fcc. When 
placed before a higher numeral, it dimi¬ 
nishes it by one, as IV, four, IX, nine; 
and when after, it increases it by one, as 
XI. e even, XII, twelve, XIII, thirteen, 
&c. 

IAMBIC VERSE, Verses composed of 


iambic feet, that is, a short and a long foot 
alternately. 

IBIS. A bird like a stork, which was 
worshipped in Egypt. 

ICEHOUSE. A house in which ice i» 
deposited against the warm months. 

ICH DIEN, i. e. I serve. The motto on 
the arms of the Prince of Wales in Eng¬ 
land, first taken by Edward tie Black 
Prince. 







200 


1 CH 


IH8 


IB. IBID, or IBIDEM. The same 
IBEX. An European variety of the 

(eat with very long horns 



ICHNEUMON. An Egyptian animal 
»f the weasel kind that feeds upon the eggs 
of the crocodile. 



ICHNEUMON (in Entomology). A 
sort of fly, which deposits it3 eggs in the 
bodies of other insects. 

ICHNOGRAPHY (in Architecture). 
The ground plan of a building. 

ICHNOGRAPHY (in Fortification). A 
draught of the length and breadth of the 
works raised about a place. 

ICHTHYOLOGY. That branch of gene¬ 
ral zoology which treats of fishes. These 
animals are divided into five orders, name¬ 
ly, into apodal, or those which have no 
ventral fins; jugular, which have the ven¬ 
tral fins placed more forward than the 
pectoral; abdominal, or those which have 
the ventral fins situated behind; thoracic, 
or those which have their ventral fins situ¬ 
ated immediately under the pectoral; and 
tne cartilaginous fishes, which have a car¬ 
tilaginous instead of a bony skeleton. 

ICHTHYOLOGY, History of. The 
subject of fishes has engaged the attention 
of naturalists from the time of Aristotle to 
£he present period Aristotle, probably the 
first writer on the subject, divided fishes 
into cetaceous, spinose, and cartilaginous; 
ae was, after a long interval, followed by 
several others, who treated of the fishes of 
jurticular places, as Ovid, who treats of 


the fishes of the Euxine, Appian of thoM 
of the Adriatic, and Ausonius of those of 
the Moselle, &c.; among the moderns there 
are also some who have treated this subject 
partially, as Paul Jovius, who described 
the fishes of the Mediterranean, Scbwenk- 
felt those of Silesia, Schonefelt those of 
Hamburgh, Marcgrave the fishes of Brazil, 
Russell and Francis Valentine those of 
Amboyna. Pliny was a general writer 
on the subject, and pursued no method; 
A21ian and Athena»us have only scattered 
notices of some few fishes. Among the 
moderns, Bellonius, Rondeletius, Gesner, 
Willughby, Ray, Artedi, and Linnaeus 
have done most towards reducing this 
science to a systematic order. 

ICOSANDRIA (in Botany). The twelfth 
class in the Linnaean system, including 
plants with twenty stamens or more l* 
their flowers, els the melon, Indian fig 
pomegranate, plum, &.c. 



IC. In chemistry ,a termination affixed 
to those acids which contain in combin¬ 
ation the highest known quantity of 
the acidifying principle. 

ICE. Water or other liquid solidified 
by cold; water becoming solid at 32° 
Fahrenheit. Icebergs are vast bodies of 
ice, among the most remarkable of 
which are those of Spitzbergen. Some 
of these icebergs are the creation of 
ages, and receive annually additional 
bulk by the falling of snow and of rain, 
which often instantly freezes, and more 
than repairs the loss occasioned by the 
influence of the sun. Icefloe is an ag¬ 
gregated mass of floating ice, frequent 
in the northern seas, and very danger¬ 
ous to navigation. 

ICELAND SPAR. In mineralogy, a 
pure variety of calcareous spar or car¬ 
bonate of lime, remarkable for its clear¬ 
ness, and thebeautiml double refrac¬ 
tion which it exhibits. 

ICE SPAR. A mineral of a whitish- 
grey color, consisting of silica, alumina, 
potash, lime, peroxide of iron, and 
water: sp. gr. 4-32; H =3. 

ICHNEUMONES. A tribe of parasiti¬ 
cal hymenopterous insects. 

ICHNITES. In geology, fossil foot¬ 
prints of animals. Ichnolite is a stone 
retaining the impression of fossil foot¬ 
marks. 

I. H. S. An abbreviation for Jesus Ho 
minum Salvator, i. e. Jesus the Saviour of 
Mankind. 






ICH 


IMP 


201 


ICHNOGRAPHY. In perspective, the 
view of anything cut off by a plane par¬ 
allel to the horizon. In architecture, a 
transverse or horizontal section of a 
building, exhibiting the plot of the 
whole edifice, and of the several apart¬ 
ments in any story. Among painters 
the word is used to describe images or 
ancient statues of marbles and copper, 
of busts and semibusts, of paintings in 
fresco, or mosaic works. 

ICHNOLOGY. The science of fossil 
footprints. 

ICHOR. A thin and sanious fluid, 
which escapes from wounds or sores, 
and irritates or inflames the parts over 
which it flows. 

ICHTHYOCOLLA. The scientific name 
of isinglass, a very pure form of gela¬ 
tine, prepared from certain parts of the 
entrails of several Ash. Good isinglass 
is free from smell or taste, and perfectly 
soluble in boiling water. 

ICHTHYOLITE. A stone containing 
the petrifaction of a fish or any of its 
parts. 

ICHTHYOLOGY. The science or 
knowledge of fishes; that department of 
natural history which treats of the 
structure, habits, and classification ot 
fishes. Ichthyotomy, the anatomy of 

flSllGS. 

ICHTHYOPHTHALMITE. A mineral 
of pearly lustre; the fish-eye stone. 

ICHTHYOSIS. In pathology, a rough¬ 
ness and thickening of the skin, por- 
tions of which become scaly, an occa¬ 
sionally corneous, with a tendency to 
excrescences. 

ID2E, or IDES. A Greek termination, 
employed in natural history to denote a 
certain order or class of animals to 
which the termination idse or ides is af¬ 
fixed . 

IDE. In chemistry, a termination for 
certain compounds which are not acid; 
as oxides, chlorides, &c. 

IDEALISM. In metaphysical science, 
the theory or system which makes 
everything consist in ideas, and denies 
the existence of material bodies. Ideo¬ 
logy is a treatise on ideas, or the science 
of mind. 

IDIOLECTRIC. Having the property 
of manifesting electricity on friction. 

IDIOPATHY. In pathology, a primary 
disease, not consequent on other mor¬ 
bid affections. 

IDIOSYNCRASY. In physiology, a pe¬ 
culiarity of temperament or constitu¬ 
tion, which predisposes persons to the 
attacks of certain disorders from which 
others are exempt. 

IDEOLOGY. A treatise on ideas, or the 
doctrine of ideas; the science of mind. 

IDES. In the ancient Roman Calendar, 
the 15th day of March, May, July, and 
October, and the 13th day of the other 
months. 

IDOCRASE. A mineral of various 
s jades of brown and green, with a vit¬ 


reous lustre, consisting of silica, alu- 
minia, protoxide of iron, lime, and mag¬ 
nesia: sp. gr. 3-34; H =6. 

IDRIALINE. A mineral substance, 
composed of 18 parts of carbon and 1 of 
hydrogen. 

IGNIS FATUUS. A luminous meteor 
seen in summer nights in marshy 
places; Jack - a-lantern; Will-with-the- 
wisp. 

IGUANID2E. A family of Saurian rep¬ 
tiles, of which Iguana is the type and 
genus. 

IGUANODON. In geology, an extinct 
Saurian reptile of enormous size. The 
remains of one discovered in Tilgate 
Forest measured 70 feet from the snout 
to the tip of the tail; the head was 4>£ 
feet in length; the tail, 13 feet; height 
of the body, 9 feet; its circumlerence, 
14*^ feet; length of the thigh and leg, 8 
feet two inches. (Dr. Mantel). The 
Wealden formation, which contains the 
remains of these more than gigantic ten¬ 
ants of a former world, is overlaid by the 
chalk rocks of England, and is a fresh¬ 
water deposit. 

ILLUMINATI. A sect of heretics, who 
sprung up in Spain about the year 1575; 
the name given to certain associations 
in modern Europe, who were said to 
have combined to overthrow the exist¬ 
ing religious institutions. 

ILMENITE. In mineralogy, a variety 
of iron ore, of a dark brown color, con¬ 
sisting of titanic acid, peroxide of iron, 
protoxide of iron, protoxide of mangan¬ 
ese, and magnesia: sp. gr, 4*76; H=5-75. 

IMMERSION. In astronomy, the dis¬ 
appearance of any cellestial object be¬ 
hind another, or its shadow. Thus, in 
the eclipse of one of Jupiter’s satellites, 
the immersion take place when the sa¬ 
tellite disappears behind the body of the 
planet, or enters into the planet’s shad¬ 
ow; and in an occultation of a planet or 
fixed star by the moon, the immersion 
is the disappearance of the star or planet 
behind the body of the moon, and its 
reappearance is calledits emersion. 

INALINE. A vegetable product, re¬ 
sembling starch, obtained from the 
roots of Inula hellenium by boiling them 
in water. 

INCIDENCE. In dynamics and optics, 
the angle of incidence is the angle made 
by a ray of light falling on an object 
with a line drawn perpendicularly to 
the surface struck 

IMPACT, In mechanical science, the 
action of one body upon another, to put 
the latter, if at rest, in motion, or if in 
motion, to increase, retard, or alter its 
direction. The point against which the 
impelling body acts is called the point 
of impact. 

IMPASTATION. In sculpture, the mix¬ 
ture of different matters bound together 
by means ot cements, capable of resist¬ 
ing the action of fire or air. 



INC 


IND 


*02 

INCOGNITO, or INCOG (in Europe). 
Literally, unknown, not to be recognised; 
a mode of travelling without any mark of 
distinction, which is sometimes adopted 
by princes and great people who do not 
wish to be recognised. 

INCLINED PLANE (in Mechanics). 
A plane inclined to the horizon, or making 
an angle with it, which is one of the me¬ 
chanical powers. 



INCOMBUSTIBLE. A body that is 
incapable of undergoing combustion. 

INCOMBUSTIBLE CLOTH. A sort of 
cloth made from a stone in the form of a 
talc; which stone is called lapis amianthus, 
and asbestos. 

INCOMMENSURABLE (in Geometry). 

A term applied to two lines or quantities 
which have no common measure by which 
they can be divided. 

INCORPORATION (in Law). The 
formation of a body politic. 

INCORPORATION (in Chemistry). 
The mingling the particles of different 
bodies together into one mass, in such 
manner that the different ingredients can- ' 
not be distinguished. 

INCREMENT (in Fluxions). The small 
increase of a variable body. Dr. Brook 
Taylor, to whom we are indebted for the 
doctrine of increments or finite differences, 
denoted his increments by a dot under the 
variable quantity, thus the increment of x 
was denoted by x; others have employed a 
small accent, thus x ', or thus x. M. Nicole 
uses another letter to denote the increment 
of x, or any variable, as by n; but Euler 
employs the character A, thus Ax the in¬ 
crement of x, and Ay the increment of y. 
Dr. Brook Taylor first published his Me- 1 
thodus Incrementorum in 1715, which was 
afterwards illustrated by M. Nicole in the 
Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences 
for the years 1717, 1723, and 1724. In ■ 
1723, Emerson published his method of ' 
Increments; but the writer who contri¬ 
buted most to the elucidation of this sub¬ 
ject was Euler, who, in his Institutiones 
Calculi Differentialis, gave a new and ex¬ 
tended form to this branch of analysis. 
Various other writers have since treated 
on this subject, among whom Lacroix, in 
Qis Traites des Differences, &c. is thought 
wo have been the most happy. 

INCUBATION. The process of a bird 
■itting in and hatching its young; 


the time required for this va ties in diffei 
ent birds, domestic fowls sit three week* 
ducks, geese, and turkeys a month, pigeons 
eighteen days, &c. 

INCUBUS, or Night Mare. A disease 
which consists in an obstructed respira¬ 
tion, that produces the sensation in sleep 
of a weight pressing on the breast. 

INCUMBENT. One in present posses¬ 
sion of a benefice 

INDECLINABLE. Not varied by ter¬ 
minations, as an indeclinable noun. 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. Words 
that are loose and undetermined in their 
meaning, as whatsoever, any, every, &c 

LNDEMNITY (in Law). The saving 
harmless; or a writing to secure one from 
all damage and danger that may ensue 
from any act. 

INDEHISCENT. In botany, applied to 
fruits which do not split open, as the 
apple. 

INDENTED. In fortification, indented 
line is a serrated line forming several 
angles, so that one side defends another. 

INDENTURE. A writing containing a 
contract, originally so called from the 
two copies being indented to show their 
connecting correspondence with each 
other. 

INDETERMINATE. In algebra, inde¬ 
terminate analysis is a bi’ancli which 
has for its object the investigation of 
problems that admit of an infinite num¬ 
ber of different solutions. Indetermi¬ 
nate coefficient is a method of analysis 
of very extensive application in the 
higher mathematics. 

INDEX pi. INDEXES, and in mathe¬ 
matics, INDICES, in music, a character 
or director at the end of a stave to direct 
to the first note of the next stave. In 
arithmetic and algebra it is used as an 
exponent. In optics, it expresses the 
constant ratio which exists between the 
sines of the angles of incidence and re¬ 
fraction. Iudexof a globe is a little style 
fitted on to the north pole, and turning 
round with it, pointing to certain divi¬ 
sions in the hour circle. 

INDIANITE. A greyish shining min¬ 
eral found in the Indian Carnatic, in 
masses of a foliated structure. 

INDIAN RUBBER CAOUTCHOUC. An 
elastic gum which exudes from a tree in 
South America. 

INDICATOR. Applied to the muscle 
which extends the forefinger- 

INDICOLITE. An indigo-colored min¬ 
eral, a variety of tourmaline or schorl, 
found in Sweden. 

INDIGOTIC. In chemistry, noting an 
acid obtained from indigo when it is 
gradually added to boiling nitric acid, 
previously diluted with 12 or 15 parts 
of watea. It forms fine colorless or yel- 
lowish-white needles. 

INDITED, In law, that is accused, 
















INI- 


IN G 


of some offence by bill preferred to jurors. 

INDICTION, or Ctcle of Indiction 
(in Chronology). A mode of computing 
time by the space of fifteen years, instituted 
by Constantine the Great. The popes, since 
the time of Charlemagne, have dated their 
acts by the year of the indiction, which 
was fixed on the first of January. At the 
time of the reformation of the calendar the 
year 1582 was reckoned the tenth year'of 
the indiction. Now this date when divided 
by fifteen eaves a remainder seven, that is 
three less than the indiction, and the same 
must necessarily be the case in all subse¬ 
quent cases, so that in order to find the 
indiction for any year divide the date by 
fifteen and add three to the remainder. 

INDICTMENT. A bill or accusation 
drawn up in form of law, and exhibiting 
some offence, which is preferred to a 
grand jury preparatory to the trial in 
open court. 

INDIGENOUS. Native, as applied to 
animals and plants. 

INDIGO. A beautiful blue colour or 
dye procured from a plant called by the 
Americans, anil; in the Linnaean system, 
Indigofera. The indigo used by the diers 
is a fajcula procured from the leaves of 
the plant, which are laid in vats full of 
water, and left to ferment. The liquor is 
then drawn off into another vat, and after 
having been well stirred up, it is drawn 
off, and what remains at the bottom is ex¬ 
posed to the air until it is thoroughly dry, 
when it is fit for use. The principal con¬ 
stituent parts of indigo are mucilaginous, 
resinous, and earthy matter, with some 
oxide of iron. 

INDORSING. See Endorsing. 

INDUCTION (in England). Putting a 
clerk in possession of his living. 

INDUCTION (in Logic). A mode of 
argumentation or reasoning, when the 
species is gathered out of the individuals, 
and the genus out of the species, &c.: as, 
if it be true that all planets borrow their 
light from the sun, then, by induction, it 
is true that Jupiter, Mars, and each indi¬ 
vidual planet does the same. 

INDULGENCES (in the Romish 
Church). Pardons for sin, granted by the 
pope to such as profess to be penitents. 

INERTIA, or Vis Inertij* (in Physi¬ 
ology). A passive principle, supposed by 
Sir Isaac Newton to reside in bodies, by 
which they persist in their motion or rest, 
and receive motion \ccording to the force 
impressed upon them, and resist as much 
as they are resisted 

INFANT (in Law). Any person under 
the age of twenty-one. 


2M 

INFANTA. The title given to the eldest 
daughter of the king of Spain or Portigal 

INFANTE. The title given to the eldest 
son of the king of Spain and Portugal 

TNFANTRY. The body of foot soldiers 

INFECTION. The communication of 
a disease by certain effluvia which fly off 
from distempered bodies, or from good 
that are infected. 

INFINITESIMALS. Indefinitely small 
parts. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. The mood of a 
verb, so named because it is not limited 
by number or person. 

INFIRMARY. A place where the sick 
poor are received, or can get advice and 
medicines gratis. 

INFLECTION (in Optics). A multiplex 
refraction of the rays of light, caused by 
the unequal thickness of any medium. 

INFLECTION (in Grammar). The 
change which a word undergoes in its 
ending, to express case, number, gender, 
mood, tense, &c. 

INFLECTION, Point of (in Geome¬ 
try). A point where a curve begins to 
bend a contrary way. 

INFLORESCENCE. The manner in 
which plants flower, or in which flowers 
are fastened to the stem by means of the 
peduncle. 

INFLUENZA. A sort of catarrh or 
disease from cold,so called, because it was 
supposed to be produced by the peculiar 
influence of the stars. 

IN FORMA PAUPERIS. See Forma. 

INFORMATION (in Law). An accu¬ 
sation or complaint exhibited against a 
person, for some criminal offence. An 
information differs from an indictment, 
inasmuch as the latter is exhibited on the 
oath of twelve men, but the information 
is only the allegation of the officer or in 
dividual who exhibits it. 

INFORMER (in Law.) One who gives 
information, particularly private inlorma- 
tion, to a magistrate. 

INFUSIBLE. Not to be fused, or made 
fluid. 

INFUSION. A method of obtaining the 
virtues of plants, roots, &c. by steeping 
them in a hot or cold liquid. 

INFUSORIA. One of the L'nnean 
orders of animals, of the class vermes, in¬ 
cluding such as are simple, microscopit 
animalcule found in stagnant water. 

INGOT. A wedge or bar of gold. 

INGREDIENT. Any simple that enters 
into the composition of a compound medi¬ 
cine. 

INGRESS (in Astronomy). The sun's 
entering into the first scruple of Aries, Sxjl- 






204 


INO 


INS 




INGROSS. See Engross 

INHERITANCE (in Law). An estate 
lo a man and his heirs. 

INJECTION (in Anatomy). The filling 
the vessels of a dead subject with any 
coloured matter to show their ramifications. 

INJECTION (in Surgery). The forcing 
any liquid into the body by means of a 
clyster. 

INITIALS. Letters placed at the be¬ 
ginnings of words or sentences. 

INJUNCTION. A kind of prohibition 
granted by courts of equity, principally 
with a view of preserving property pend¬ 
ing a suit. 

INK. A black liquor for writing; it is 
sometimes red, when it is called red ink. 
Black ink is of three kinds: namely, In¬ 
dian ink, made in China of lamp-black 
and size; printer’s ink, composed of oil 
and lamp-black for the black ink. or of 
vermilion for the red ink; writing ink, 
comp^ed of an infusion of nutgalls, sul¬ 
phate of iron or copper dissolved in water, 
logwood, and gum arabic. The red ink is 
composed of Brazil wood, gum, and alum. 

INK,Stmpathetic. See Sympathetic 
Ink. 

INLAND. That place which is situated 
in the interior of a country, far from the 
seacoast. 

INLAND BILLS (in Commerce). Bills 
payable in the country where they are 
drawn. 

INLAND TRADE. Trade carried on 
within the country; home trade, as oppo- 
led to foreign commerce. 

INLAYING (among Mechanics). Work¬ 
ing in wood or metal with several pieces 
of different colours, curiously put together. 

IN LIMINE. In the outset; before 
any thing is said or done. 

INN. A house of entertainment for 
travellers. 

INNS OF COURT (in London). Houses 
or colleges for the entertainment of stu¬ 
dents in the law; the principal of these 
societies at present are Lincoln’s Inn, the 
Inner Temple, and the Middle Temple. 

INNUENDO (in Law). A hint, a doubt¬ 
ful or obscure expression. 

INOCULATION (in Surgery). The 
operation of giving the small-pox to per¬ 
sons by incision. When a person is inocu¬ 
lated with the cow-pox, it is called vacci¬ 
nation. 

INOCULATION (in Gardening). A kind 
of grafting in the bud; as when the bud of 
Uie fruit tree is set in the stock or branch 
®f another, so as to make several sorts of 
fruit grow on the same-tree 


INQUIRY. The act of inquiring, .search 
for truth, information, or knowledge; 
examination into facts or principles, in¬ 
terrogation, scrutiny, investigation. 
In law, a Writ of Inquiry is a writ di¬ 
rected to the sheriff, commanding him 
to summon a jury, and to inquire into 
the amount of damages due from the 
defendant to the plaintiff in a given 
action. In military matters, a Board of 
Inquiry, is a term used in contradis¬ 
tinction to a court-martial. It consists 
of a certain number of officers, who as¬ 
semble to make inquiry on certain mat¬ 
ters, but noton oath, as a court-martial. 

INOSCULATION. In anatomy, union 
by junction of the extremities, as in 
arteries or veins. 

INSALIVATION. In physiology, the 
admixture of saliva with the aliment 
during the act of mastication. 

ENSCONCED. In military science, a 
term used when any part of an army 
has fortified itself with a sconce, or 
small work, in order to defend a pass. 

INSECT. A small winged or creeping 
animal; anything small or contempt¬ 
ible. In zoology, one of the third class 
of articulated animals, with a body com¬ 
posed of three distinct parts—the head, 
the thorax, and the abdomen; they have 
six legs and usually two or four wings 
attached to the thorax, two antennae 
and a distinct head, and respire by 
means of spiracles or minute punctures 
along the sides of the abdomen. Insects 
undergo what is termed metamorpho¬ 
sis; the first of which is that of the 
larva; the second, pupa, or chrysalis; 
and the third, the imago, or perfect 
insect. The aptera, or wingless insects, 
however, issue tiom the ovum with the 
form they always possess. 

INSECTIVORA. A family of vertebrate 
quadrupeds living on insects, including 
the shrew, hedgehog, and mole; an or¬ 
der of birds that feed on insects. 

INSECT. A numerous class of inver¬ 
tebrate animals, whose bodies are com¬ 
posed of three distinct parts joined to¬ 
gether, with three pairs of feet, and gen¬ 
erally wings. 

INSERTION. In pathology, the same 
as inoculation. In anatomy and botany, 
the intimate attachment of one part or 
organ to another, as the insertion of a 
ligament, muscle, or its tendon into a 
bone; or, in botany, that of a corolla, 
stamen, pistil, leaf, or ovary into any 
determinate point of a plant. 

INSESSORES. In ornithology, an or¬ 
der of birds which perch on trees. 

INSIST. In geometry, an angle is said 
to insist upon the arc of the circle in- 
tercepted between the two lines which 
contain the angle. 

IN SITU. In mineralogy, a term fre¬ 
quently applied to minerals when found 
in their original bed or stratum. 

INSPIRATION. In anatomy, the 





INS 


INT 


20ft 


act of breathing or taking n the ai , by 
<.he alternate contraction and dilatation of 
the chest. 

INSPIRATION (in Theology). The con¬ 
vey ing certain extraordinary notices or mo¬ 
tions into the mind; or, in general, any su¬ 
pernatural intluence on the human mind. 

INSTALLATION (in England). The 
ceremony of installing, or putting into any 
office or dignity, as placing a dean or pre¬ 
bendary in his stall or seat,, or a knight 
into his order 

INSTALMENT. The payment of a 
certain portion of a gross sum, which is to 
be paid at different timss,or, as the phrase 
is, by instalments. 

INSTANCE (in Civil Law). The pro¬ 
secution of a suit. 

INSTANT. The smallest perceptible 
portion of time; that wherein w6 perceive 
no succession. 

INSTANTER. Instantly. 

IN STATU Q.UO (in Diplomacy). A 
term signifying that condition in which 
things were left at a certain period, as 
when belligerent parties agree that their 
mutual relations should be in statu quo, or 
as they were before the commencement 
of a war, and the like. 

INSTINCT. The sagacity or natural 
aptitude of brutes, which supplies the 
place of reason. 

INSTITUTE. Any society instituted or 
established according to certain laws, or 
regulation for the furtherance of some 
particular object, such an colleges, or aca¬ 
demies, as they are sometimes called, Lite¬ 
rary Institutes. Mechanics’ Institutes, and 
the like. 

INSTITUTES. A bor.k so entitled, con¬ 
taining the elements of the Roman or Civil 
Law The Institutes are divided into four 
books, and contain an abridgement of the 
whole body of the Civil Law. 

INSTELLON. The region of stars, or 
that space beyoncl the solar system. 

INSTEP. The fore part of the upper 
side of the foot, near its junction with 
the leg. The instep of a horse is that 
part of the hind leg which reaches from 
the ham to the pastern-joint. 

INSPEXIUS. The first word of an¬ 
cient charters, confirming a former 
royal grant or charter. 

INSTRUMENT. A torn to do any 
thing with. 

INSTRUMENT (in Law). A deed or 
writing drawn up between two parties, 
and containing several covenants agreed 
between them. 

INSTRUMENT (in Music). Any frame, 
structure, or contrivance, by which har¬ 
monious sounds may be produced. 

18 


INSTRUMENTAL (in Music). An epi 
tliet for the music of instruments, as dis¬ 
tinguished from the vocal music, or that 
of the human voice. 

INSULATE. Properly, standing alone; 
as, in Architecture, an insulate column, 
that which stands alone 
INSULATED (in Chemistry). A term 
for bodies that are supported by electrics 
or nonconductors, so that their communi¬ 
cation with the earth, by conducting sub- 
stances, is interrupted 
INSURANCE, or ASSURANCE (in 
Law). A contract or agreement by which 
one or more persons, called insurers or 
assurers, engage, for a certain premium 
paid, to make good the loss of any house, 
ship, or goods, by fire, shipwreck, or other¬ 
wise. 

INSURANCE COMPANIES. Com¬ 
panies of persons who form a ftmd or 
capital, which they dispose of, in insuring 
the property of others against casualties 
by fire, &c. 

INSURANCE OFFICE. The place 
where insurance companies conduct their 
business, of which there are many in Lon¬ 
don and in all the capitals of Europe, and 
America. 

INTAGLIOS. Precious stones, having 
the heads of great men or inscriptions, 
&x. engraven on them, such as are to be 
seen on ancient rings, seals, &c. 

INTEGER (in Arithmetic). A whole 
number, as distinguished from a fraction; 
as one pound, one yard, &c. 

INTEGRAL PARTS. Parts which 
make up a whole. 

INTEGUMENTS (in Anatomy). The 
coverings of any part of the body, as the 
cuticle, cutis, &c. The common integu¬ 
ments are the skin, with the fat and cellu¬ 
lar membrane adhering to it, also particu 
lar membranes, which invest certain parts 
of the body, are called integuments, as the 
tunics or coats of the eye. 

INTENDANT. A military officer, who 
has the inspection and management of 
certain affairs. 

INTENSITY. The state of being affected 
to a high degree; the power or energy of 
any quality raised to its highest pitch 
INTERCALATION (in Chronology) 
An inserting or putting in a day in the 
month of February every fourth yew 
INTERDICT. A papal censure prom 
biting divine offices to be performed within 
any parish or town, &c.; which was put 
in force in England in the reign of King 
John, and in Germany several times a* 
different periods. 

INTEREST fir Commerce). Monej 



INT 


ION 


3XJ 


paid for the use or loan of incney. The 
sum lent is called the principal; the sum 
paid by the borrower, the interest; and 
wken the two are incorporated, the interest 
paid upon that is called compound interest, 
or interest upon interest. 

INTEREST (in Arithmetic). A rule by 
which the interest of money is computed, 
which is either simple or compound. 

INTERJECTION. An indeclinable part 
if speech, serving to express the emotions 
ef the mind. 

INTERLOCUTORY ORDER (in Law). 
An order which does not decide the cause 
itself,only some intervening matter relating 
to it. 

INTERLOPERS (in Law). Those who, 
without legal authority, intercept or hinder 
the trade of a company, lawfully established 
to trade in a particular way or part. 

INTERLUDE. An entertainment be¬ 
tween the acts of a play, for the purpose 
of allowing the performers time to rest, &c. 

INTERPOLATING (among Critics). In¬ 
serting a spurious passage, into the writings 
of some ancient author. 

INTERREGNUM. In Europe, the va¬ 
cancy of a throne, by the death or deposition 
of a king. 

INTERREX. He who governs while 
there is no king. 

INTERROGATION. A question put. 

INTERROGATION, or Note of In¬ 
terrogation (in Grammar). A mark thus 
(?) put at the end of a question. 

INTERROGATIVES. Words used in 
asking a question, as why, wherefore, 
&c. 

INTERROGATIVE SYSTEM. A mode 
of teaching by means of question and an¬ 
swer. 

INTERROGATORIES (in Law). Ques¬ 
tions in writing demanded of witnesses in 
a cause, particularly in the Court of Chan¬ 
cery. 

IN TERROREM. Ry way of frighten¬ 
ing or deterring. 

INTERSECTION (in Mathematics). 
The cutting of one line or plane by another. 

INTERVAL (in Music). The difference 
between two sounds, as respects acute and 
grave. 

INTESTATE. One dying without a will. 

INTESTINA (in Zoology). An order 
in the Linnrean system, of the class vermes, 
including earthworms and leeches. 

INTESTINE MOTION (in Physiology). 
That motion which takes place in the cor¬ 
puscles or smallest particles of a body. 

INTESTINES. The convoluted mem¬ 
braneous tube in the body of animals. In 
'.fas human subject, the intestines are divi- I 


ded mto large and small, each of whld 
consists of three distinct portions. 

INTOLERANCE. The not tolerating 
or allowing of every man’s private judg 
inent, in matters of doctrine or discipline. 

INTONATION (in Music). The act of 
sounding the notes in the scale with the 
voice, or any other given order of musical 
tones. 

INTRANSITIVE VERBS. Verbs that 
express actions, that do not pass over to 
an object, as go, come, &c. 

IN TRANSITU. During the passage 
from one place to another. 

INTRUSION (in Law). A violent or 
unlawful seizing upon lands or tenements 

INTUITION. The mental view of a 
matter,or the instantaneous act of the min d, 
in perceiving the agreement or disagree¬ 
ment of ideas. 

IN VACUO, i. e. In empty space, or 
in space comparatively empty. 

INVALID (in Military or Naval Affairs). 
A soldier or sailor, wounded or disabled 
in war, and unfit for service. 

INVENTION. Any new mechanica. 
contrivance for assisting human labour. 

INVENTORY. A catalogue or list of 
goods. 

INVERSION (in Geometry). The chang 
ing antecedents into consequents in the 
terms of proportion, and the contrary. 

INUNDAT^E (in Botany). One of the 
Linnrean natural orders, consisting of aqua¬ 
tic plants. 

INVOCATION (among Poets). An ad¬ 
dress to their favourite poet. 

INVOICE. A bill or account of goods 
sent by a merchant to his correspondent 
in a foreign country. 

INVOLUNTARY HOMICIDE ’in 
Law). The killing a man by accident, 
which differs from excusable homicide by 
misadventure in this, that the latter hap¬ 
pens in the performance of a lawful act, 
but the farmer may be an indifferent or 
a positively unlawful act, which is murder 
or manslaughter according to the nature 
of the case. 

INVOLUTION. The raising any quan¬ 
tity to a given power by multiplying it 
into itself the required number of times ; 
thus, the cube of 3 is got by multiplying 3, 
the root, into itself twice, as 3V3V 3:—b ~, 

IODINE. A deadly poison, of a black 
colour and metallic lustre, procured from 
relp, which resembles chlorine in its odour 
and power of destroying vegetable colours 
Iodine is incombustible, but with azote it 
forms a curious detonating powder. 

IONTC ORDER (in Architecture). An 
order so railed from Ionia in Lrsser Asia 



IRO 


ISS 


ar 


The body of the pillar is usually channel! id 
or furrowed with twenty-four gutters, and 
its length, with the capital and base, is 
twenty-nine modules, the chapiter being 
chiefly composed of volutes or scrolls. 




n n n n n n nnTirn 




IPECACUANHA. A medicinal root, 
which comes from South America, and was 
introduced into Europe in the seventeenth 
century, when it was much esteemed for 
the cure of dysenteries, but afterwards fell 
into disuse. 

IPSE DIXIT. Literally, he himself 
said it; a term signifying an opinion that 
rests on the word or authority of an indi¬ 
vidual only. 

IPSO FACTO. The very fact. 

IRIDIUM. A metallic substance procured 


and several pieces may be united inti one 
mass, by a process called welding. Iron is 
the only metal that is susceptible of mag¬ 
netic attraction. Pure iron is very rarely 
to be found ; the principal varieties of iron 
are the cast or pig iron, or that which is im¬ 
mediately extracted from the ore ; wrought 
iron, that which has gone through the pro¬ 
cess of melting in a furnace; and steel, 
that which has been heated in charcoal, 
and hardened by its combination with 
carbon. 

IRON. The name of several tools ma^e 
of iron, particularly that which serves, 
when heated, to smooth linen after it has 
been washed. 

IRONMONGER. A dealer in iron. 
The company of ironmongers in London, 
were incorporated in 1462. 

IRONMOULDS. Spots in linen, let! 
after ironing from stains of ink. 

IRONMOULDS (among Miners). Yel 
low lumps of iron or stone found in chalk¬ 
pits. 

IRRATIONAL (in Mathematics). An 
epithet applied to surd quantities. 

ISINGLASS. A gelatinous matter, 
formed of the dried sounds of cod and 
other fish. It is the principal ingredient 
in the blancmanger of the cooks, and is 
also used medicinally. 

ISIS (in the Mythology of the Egyptians). 
The wife and sister of Osiris. 

ISLAND. A country surrounded on all 
sides with water, as Great Britain, Ire¬ 
land, &c 

ISLAND CRYSTAL. A transparent 
stone of the nature of spar, a piece of 
which laid upon a book, every letter seen 
through it will appear double. It was 
originally found in Iceland, whence it was 
called Iceland or Island Crystal, and Is to 
be met with in France and other parts of 
Europe. 


from platina. 

IRIS (in Anatomy). A striped, varie¬ 
gated circle, next to the pupil of the eye. 

IRIS (in Botany). The flower de luce 
>r flag-flower, <fcc.; a plant with a bulbous 
root, which bears a beautiful blue flower. 
There are many species of it, as the com¬ 
mon yellow or water iris, the flag iris, the 
dwarf iris, &c. 

IRIS (among Opticians). The change¬ 
able colours which appear in the glasses 
of telescopes, &c. 

IRON. One of the most useful and 
abundant metals, which was one of the 
first metals that was known and worked. 
This metal is easily oxidized, but is infu¬ 
sible except by an intense heat; it is, how¬ 
ever, malleable at a less degree af heat, 


ISOCHRONAL or ISOCHRONOUS 
VIBRATIONS. Vibrations of a pendulum 
performed in the same space of time. 

ISOPEREMETRICAL FIGURES. Fi¬ 
gures having equal perimeters or circum¬ 
ferences. 

ISOSCELES TRIANGLE. A triangk 
having two sides or legs equal to eaefe 
other. 

ISSUE (in Law). 1. The children be 
gotten between a man and his wife. 2. Tfc« 
profits arising from lands, tenements, fines, 
<fcc. 3. The point of matter at issue between 
contending parties in a suit, when a thing 
is affirmed on the one side, and denied on 
the other. Issues my be either on matters 
of fact, or matters of law. 

ISSUE (in Medicine) An artificial 















































































JAL 


m jac 

•perture, giving rent to noxious humours 
n the body. 

ISSUES (in Military Affairs) Certain 
sums of money given into the hands of 
agents, for the payment of the army. 

ISSUES (in Fortification). Outlets in a 
iown. 

ISTHMIAN GAMES. Games formerly 
celebrated by the Greeks at the Isthmus 
of Corinth every three, four, or five years. 

ISTHMUS. A little neck of land joining 
a peninsula to a continent, as the Isthmus 
of Corinth, &c. 

ITALIC. A kind of letter used in print¬ 
ing, by way of distinction from the Roman, 
as in this word, Italy. 

ITCH. A cutaneous disease, supposed to 
lie caused by an insect of the acarus tribe 
called the itchmite. This small insect, 
which is white, with reddish legs, is found 


in the small peiitueid vesicles of tha heads 
and joints infected with the itch. 

ITTNERITE. A bluish mineral, con¬ 
sisting of silica, alumina, lime, soda, 
peroxide of iron, and water: sp. gr .2-38; 
H =7 0. 

ITTRIA. YTTRIA. A non-acid com¬ 
pound of the metal ittrium or yttrium 
with oxygen. 

IXODES. The name of a genus of par¬ 
asitical Acari found on the skins of do¬ 
mestic quadrupeds. 

IXOLITE. A mineral of a greasy lustre, 
found in bituminous coal. 

IVORY. A finer sort of bone, or an 
intermediate substance between bone and 
horn, prepared from the tusk of the male 
elephant. 

IVY. A parasitic or twining plant, that 
runs about trees, walls, &c. by means of 
roots and fibres from its branches. 


J. 


i, the tenth letter of the alphabet. 

JACK (in Mechanics). An instrument 
in common use for raising very great 
weights of any kind. 

JACK (among Mariners). The flag which 
u hung out in the bowsprit end. 

JACK (in Natural History). A kind of 
pike that is very destructive in fishponds. 

JACK, Smoke. An engine placed in 
chimneys, and turned by means of the 



ascending smoke, which answers the pur¬ 
pose of the kitchen Jack. 

JACKAL A beast of prey nearly allied 



to tho dog. It follows the lion and feeds 
npon the remains of animals he has killed 


JACKDAW. A bird of the crowklnc, 
having a white collar about its neck. 

JACKS. Small bits of wood fixed te 
the keys of virginals, harpsichords, and 
spinnets. 

JAC K-WIT H-T H E-L A NT E R N, or 
Will-O’-The-Wisp. Vulgar names for the 
ignis fatuus or meteor, which hovers in the 
night about marshy places, and seems to 
be mostly occasioned, by the extrication of 
phosphorus from rotten leaves, and other 
vegetable matters. It appears like a candle 
in a lantern, and has sometimes caused 
travellers to lose their way. 

JACOBIN. A partisan of the French 
revolution. 

JACOBITES. A name given to ths ad¬ 
herents of James II. at and alter the revo¬ 
lution in England. 

JACOB’S STAFF. A mathematical in¬ 
strument for taking heights and distances. 

JACOBUS. A gold coin in the reign of 
James I. current at 20s. 23s. and 25s. 

JACTITATION OF MARRIAGE. In 
England, a suit in the ecclesiastical court, 
when one of the parties boasts or gives 
out that he or she is married, which the 
other party denying, and no adequate 
proof of the marriage being brought, the 
offending party is enjoined silence on that 
head. 

JADE. See Nephrite 

JAG (in Botany). A division or cleft in 
a leaf. 

JALAP The root of a West Indian 
plant, of the convolvulus tribe, of a black 
colour on the outside, and reddish within 




























JEL 


JEW 


209 


with resinous veins. It was not known in 
England until after the discovery of Ame¬ 
rica, and received its name from Xalapa, a 
town in New Spain. The principal con¬ 
stituent parts of jalap are resin and starch. 

JAGUAR. An animal of the cat kind, 
resembling tt.e panther; it is found in the 
northern part of South America, and in 
Mexico 



JAMB (among Carpenter*). Any sup¬ 
porter on either aide, as the poata of a 
door. 

JAMB (among Miners). A thick bed of 
stone that obstructs the miners in their 
pursuing the veins of ores. 

JANIZARIES. The grand seignior’s 
guard, or the soldiers of the Turkish in¬ 
fantry, which have lately been abolished, 
and their places supplied by troops trained 
after the European manner. 

JANUARY. The first month in the year, 
supposed to take its name from Janus, an 
ancient king of Italy. 

JAPANNING. The art of varnishing 
and painting figures on wood, metal, &c. 
as is practised by the inhabitants of Ja¬ 
pan, &c. 

JAPONICA. The Japan rose. 

JAR. A measure of capacity, as a jar of 
jil, containing from 18 to 26 gallons 

JASMIN. See Jessamine. 

JASPER. A precious stone of a green 
transparent colour, with red veins. It is a 
sort of silicious earth, consisting mostly of 
silica, with a small portion of alumina, 
oxide of iron, magnesia, and potash. 

JAVELIN. A sort of half pike o» spear. 

JAUNDICE. A disease proceeding from 
obstructions in the glands of the liver, which 
eauses the bile to overflow, and turns the 
complexion yellow. 

JAW. A bone of the mouth, in which 
the teeth are fixed. 

JAWS. The two pieces in the cock of 
a gun between which the flint is fixed. 

JEHOVAH. The proper name of the 
Moot High in the Hebrew. 

JELLY. Any liquid, as the juice of 
18 * 


fruits, coagulated into a tremulous, soft sub¬ 
stance : when long boiled it loses the pro¬ 
perty of gelatinizing, and becomes anala- 
gous to mucilage. 

JERBOA. A lively little animal shaped 
like the Opossum of the size of a rat, and 
found in Egypt, and the adjacent countries. 

JAY. A bird with particoloured plumage, 
some varieties of which may be taught to 
speak. The blue jay of America is remark 
able for its brilliant plumage. 



JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. A sort 
of sun flower,which resembles the artichoke 
in taste. 

JESSAMINE, or JASMIN A plant 
bearing fragrant flowers, which is com¬ 
monly trained to the walls of houses. 

JESUITS, or the Order of Jesus. A 
religious order founded by Ignatius Loyola 
in 1538, and abolished in 1773, on account 
of their intrigues, but partially restored 
since. 

JESUITS BARK. The Cinchona or 
Peruvian Bark, so called because it was 
first used by the Jesuit missionaries in 
Peru. 

JET (in Mineralogy). A deep black sort 
of bitumen. 

JET D’EAU. The pipe of a fountain 
which throws up the water in the air. 

JETSAM (in Law). Any thing thrown 
out of a ship which is in danger of a wreck. 

JEU D’ESPRIT. A lively, pretty 
thought. 

JEWEL The name of the precious 
stones which are worn as ornaments. 

JEWELLER. One who works or deals 
in jewels and all kinds of precious stones, 

JEWEL OFFICE. In England, an of 
fice where the king’s plate is fashioned, 
weighed, and delivered out by the war¬ 
rant of the lord chamberlain 

JEWS. The descendants of the twelve 
tribes of Israel, who were so called after 
their return from the captivity of Babylon, 
from Judah, one of the sons of Jacob, 
whose tribe formed the most considerable 
part of those that remained of the Israelites 
Although the Jews have lost the distinction 
of their tribes, and are dispersed throughout 







210 


JOU 


JUD 


Ml nations, yet they remain a perfectly 
distinct people, and adhere to the religion 
of their foiefathers. Their condition has 
jeen considerably ameliorated in all Chris¬ 
tian countries where they now reside. 

JEW’S-EAR. A kind of mushroom. 

JEW’S-HARP. A musical instrument 
which is played between the teeth. 

JEW’S-M ALLOW. A plant whose 
leaves are produced alternately at the 
elalks. The nower expands in the form of 
a rose. 

JIB. The foremost sail of a ship. 

JOBBER. One who buys and sells 

for another. 

J OCKEY. A man who rides horses at 
races. 

JOHN DOREE. A species of fish. 

JOINER. A worker in wood, who fits 
together the several pieces which have been 
prepared for each other. He differs from 
the carpenter, inasmuch as he does the finer 
work, that requires more skill. The com¬ 
pany of joiners in London, was incorpora¬ 
ted ln-1570. 

JOINT (in Anatomy). The place where 
any bone is articulated, or joined with 
another. 

JOINT (in Masonry). The separation 
between the stones, which is filled with 
mortar. 

JOINT (In Joinery). The parts where 
two pieces of wood join. 

JOINT (in Botany). The knot in the 
stalk of a plant. 

JOINT (among Butchers). The limb 
that is cut from the carcass of an animal. 

JOINT STOCK (in Commerce). A 
stock or fund, formed by the union of 
several shares from different persons. 

JOINT STOCK COMPANIES. Com¬ 
mercial associations, having a stock con- 
sistingof many shares: in such associations 
the shareholders gain or lose, according to 
the number of shares which they hold. 

JOINTURE (in Law). A settlement of 
lands and tenements made over by the 
husband to the wife, to be enjoyed after 
his decease. 

JOISTS. Timbers framed into the girders, 
or sommers ©f a building. 

JONQUIL. A plant of the Narcissus 
kind, the flowers of which are either single 
ar double, and are much esteemed for their 
rweet scent. 

JOURNAL. Any book in which is kept 
ui account of what passes in the day. 

JOURNAL (in Merchants’ Accounts). 
A book wherein every thing is posted out 
if the waite-book. 

JOURN AL (among Putkishrsrs and 


Booksellers) A periodical work, eithei 
daily, weekly, or monthly, &c. 

JOURNAL (among Mariners) A book 
wherein is kept an account of the ship’s 
way at sea. 

JOVE. The name ot the supreme 
deity among the Romans; Jupiter; the 
planet Jupiter; the air or atmosphere, 
or the god of the air. In alchemy, tin. 

JOURNEYMAN. One wio works by 
the day, the week, or the year, Ac. for 
another. 

JUBILEE. Every fiftieth year, cele¬ 
brated as a festival among the Jews, in 
commemoration of their deliverance out 
of Egypt. At this festival, which was a 
season of joy, bondservants were set free, 

JUBILEE (in the Romish Church). A 
solemnity instituted a. d. 1300, by Pope 
Boniface, to be observed every hundredth 
year, or every twenty-fifth year, as en 
joined by Pope Sixtus IV. for the per¬ 
formance of several ceremonies in order to 
obtain pardons, remissions from sins, in¬ 
dulgences, &c. The jubilee lasts a whole 
year, and as it brings in great stores of 
wealth to the popes, it has been called the 
Golden Year. 

JUDAISM. The rites, customs, and 
doctrines of the Jews. 

'JDGE (in Law). A chief magistrate 
appointed to administer justice in civil 
and criminal causes. 

JUGATE. In botany, a term applied 
to the leaflet pairs in compound leaves. 

JUGULAR. Pertaining to the throat 
or neck. Jugular veins are the veins 
which bring the blood from the head 
down the sides of the neck. By their 
union with the subclavian vein, they 
form the superior vena cava, which 
terminates in the superior part of the 
right auricle of the heart. Jugulars, in 
ichthyology, comprehend that class of 
fishes which are distinguished by having 
ventral fins anterior to the pectorals. 

JUDGE MARTIAL, or Judge Advo¬ 
cate, or Advocate General. The su¬ 
preme judge in courts martial. 

JUDGMENT (in Law). The sentence 
of the court, pronounced by the judge on 
the matter in the record, either in cases 01 
default, where the defendant puts in no 
piea ; or of confession, when the defendant 
acknowledges the action; or upon demur 
rer, where the defendant pleads a bad plea 
in bar; or upon a nonsuitor retraxit, where 
the plaintiff withdraws or abandons the 
prosecution. Judgments are either inter¬ 
locutory, that is, given in the middle of a 
cause on some intermediate point, or final, 
so as to put an end to the action. 

JUDICIAL (in Law). An epithet foi 




JUS 


211 




JUF 


*hat appertains to a court, as judicial 

lecisions, &c. 

JUJUBES. In the materia medica, a 
fruit of the pulpy kind, produced on a 
tree which Linnaeus considers as a 
species of Iihamnus. 

JULEP. In medicine, mucilaginous 
mixture. 

JULUS. In botany, a catkin: an in¬ 
florescence of the Willow, Hazel, <kc. 

JULIAN PERIOD (in Chronology). 
A period of "7980 consecutive years, pro¬ 
duced by the multiplication of the three 
cycles of the sun, moon, and indiction into 
one another. It was so called because it 
consists of Julian years 

JULIAN YEAR. A space of time con¬ 
sisting of 365 days and 6 hours, so called 
from Julius Caesar, by whom it was esta¬ 
blished. The calendar, which contained 
an account of Julian time, was called the 
Julian Calendar; and the time when it 
was first instituted, namely, 46 a. c., the 
Julian Epocha. 

JULY. The seventh month in the year, 
so called In honour of Julius Ciesar. 

JUNIPER TREE. A sort, of tree or 
shrub, having long, narrow, and prickly 
leaves, and bearing a soft pulpy beirv. 
This shrub is common on heaths and bar¬ 
ren hills, but the berries which are used 
medicinally are brought from Germany. 
From the berries is made, in Holland, the 
gin called Hollands gin 

JUNO (in the Heathen Mythology'). The 
wife of Jupiter, whose emblem was the 
peacock. 



JUNO (in Astronomy). One of the 
aewly discovered planets. 

JUNTA. A Spanish term for a meeting 
of men sitting in council. 

JUPITER (in Astronomy). One of the 
largest of all the planets, being, according 
to some, upwards of two thousand times 
bigger than our earth. It is the most bril¬ 
liant star after Venus, revolves on its own 
axis tn 9 hours and 56 minutes, and per 
forms its revolution round the sun in 4329 
days 14 hours 18 minutes and 41 seconds. 


JUPITER (in the He then Mythology) 
The son of Saturn and Ops, and chief of 
the gods, was the most honoured among 
men. His most usual attributes are the 
eagle, and thunder, and sometimes a figure 
of victory, and a spear, &c. 



JURISDICTION. The power or autho¬ 
rity invested in any individual or court, of 
doing justice in the causes brought before 
them. 

JURISPRUDENCE. Properly, a know 
ledge of the laws, or skill in interpreting 
and applying them ; also the laws them¬ 
selves, together with all that relates to 
their administration. English jurispru¬ 
dence comprehends the common and stat 
ute law, together with such parts of the 
civil and canon law as have been admitted 
into their courts. 

JURY (in Law). A certain number of 
persons sworn to inquire of, and to declare 
the truth upon the evidence offered to them 
relating to the matter of fact. Juries are 
of different kinds, as the grand jury, petty 
jury, special jury, common jury, coroner’s 
jiny, &.c. The grand jury, consisting of 
twenty-four persons, is chosen to consider 
all bills of indictment preferred to the court, 
which they return as true, by writing upon 
them, ‘billa vera,’ true bill, or throw out 
by indorsing the word ‘ignoramus.’ The 
petty jury, consisting of twelve men, is 
chosen to try all causes civil and criminal: 
in the latter causes they give a verdict of 
Guilty, or Not Guilty ; in civil causes, they 
bring a verdict either for the plaintiff or 
the defendant; and in real actions, either 
for the demandant or tenant. A jury is 
called special, when it is returned for a 
particular cause, and common when it is 
returned by the sheriff in the same panel, 
to try every cause at the same court. 

JURYMAN. One who is sworn on a jury 

JURY-MAST. A great yard used in 
the place of the foremast or mainmast, 
when it is broken down by a storm. 










211 


KAM 


JUNGERMANNIACE2E. In botany, a , 
natural order of Acrogens, consisting of 
creeping moss-like plants, of which 
Jungermannia is the genus and type. i 

JUNKERITE. A crystallized mineral 
of a yellow-grey color, consisting of 
protoxide of iron, carbonic acid, silica, 
and manganese: sp. gr. 3-8; H=3-81. 

JUSSI. A textile fibre produced in 
Manilla, of which dresses, &c., are made. 

JUTE. An annual plant common in 
Bengal, from which a coarse kind of 
cloth is woven, and of which the gunny- 
bags are made. 

JUTES. An old Teutonic or Scandina¬ 
vian tribe from Jutland, who invaded 
England in the fifth century. 

K. 


KEE 

JUWANZA. The name of the camel’s 
thorn (Alhagi Maurorum), which fur¬ 
nishes the manna of the desert, and is 
used for making screens, &c. 

JUXTAPOSITED. Placed near; adja¬ 
cent or contiguous. 

JUXTAPOSITION. The state of being 
placed in nearness or contiguity. 

JUZAIL. A heavy rifle used by the 
Affghans. 

JURASSIC. In geology, a term applied 
to the oolitic system, and so called from 
its occurrence in the Jura mountains 
of Switzerland. 

JUREMA BARK. An astringent bark 
obtained from the Acacia jurema of 
Brazil, 


K, the eleventh letter in the alphabet, stood 
as a numeral for 250, with a stroke over 
it thus, K, for 250,000 ; as an abbreviation, 
it stands for Knight, as K. G. Knight of 
e Garter, K. B. Knight of the Bath. 
KALE. A hardy kind of winter cab- 
► ige, with a curled leaf. 

KALEl DOSCOPE. An optical in¬ 
strument for exhibiting a diversity of 
beautiful figures, invented by Dr. Brews¬ 
ter. It is chiefly used by calico-printers, 
potters, and carpet manufacturers, who are 
thus supplied with an immense variety of 
patterns. 

KALI (called in Botany Salsola Kali). 
A sort of marine plants, from which the 
alkali of commerce is procured by burning. 



KALMUCS. A nation of Tartars inha¬ 
biting parts of Russia in Asia. 

KAMSIN. A hot and dry southerly 
wind, common in Egypt and the deserts 
of Africa, which prevails more or less for 
fifty days. On the approach of this wind 
the sky becomes dark and heavy, the air 
gray and thick, and filled with a dust so 
subtle that it penetrates everywhere. It 
Is not remarkably hot at first, but increases 
hi beat the longer it continues, during 
which time U causes a difficulty of breath¬ 


ing, and when at its highest pitch, will 
cause suffocation and sudden death. To 
prevent this, it is necessary to stop the 
nose and mouth with handkerchiefs. 

KAN. A magistrate in Persia, answer¬ 
ing to a governor in Europe. 

KANGAROO. An animal in Austra¬ 
lia, which, when full grown, is as large 
as a sheep. It leaps and eats like a squir¬ 
rel. It is furnished, like the opossum, with 
a pouch in the abdomen, which is a recep¬ 
tacle for its young during the time of 
breeding, and is resorted to after the birth 
for the sake of warmth and protection. It 
is said to leap thirty yards at a single bound. 



KAOLIN. A sort of earth which ia 
used as one of the two ingredients in porce¬ 
lain. 

KECKLING (among Mariners). Wind¬ 
ing or twining small ropes about a cable or 
bolt-rope, to preserve them from galling. 

KEDGER. A small anchor. 

KEDGING (among Mariners). Setting 
up the sails, and letting a ship drive with 
the tide, when the wind is contrary to the 
tide. 

KEEL. The lowest piece of timber in 
a ship, running her whole length. Some¬ 
times a second keel, or false keel, as it ia 





KET 

called, is put under the first This name 
is also given to a low flat-bottomed vessel 
used in the river Tyne, in England, for 
bringing coals from Newcastle. 

KELLERS (among Mariners). Small 
tubs use in calking ships. 

KEEL-HAULING (among Mariners). 
A punishment of offenders at sea by let¬ 
ting them down with ropes, and drawing 
them under the keel from one side to the 
other. 

KEELSON (in Naval Architecture). A 
principal timber in a ship, laid withinside 
across all the timbers. 

KEEP. A strong tower in old castles, 
where the besieged retreated in cases of 
extremity. 

KEEPER (in England). An officer of 
different descriptions, as the Keeper of the 
Great Seal, a lord by his office, and one 
of the Privy Council, through whose hands 
pass all charters, commissions, and grants 
of the king under the Great Seal; Keeper 
of the Privy Seal, through whose hands 
pass all charters, &c. before they come to 
the Great Seal; besides which there is the 
Keeper of the Forests, the Keeper of the 
Touch, an officer of the Mint, Sec. 

KEEPING (among Painters). The ma 
nagement of lights and shades, so as to 
preserve the proper distances of objects 
according to the rules of perspective. 

KEG. A barrel for pickled fish. 

KELP. The ashes of the salsola soda 
and other marine plants, which, when 
burnt in pits, and stirred about for a length 
of time, form hard masses, that are used 
in making soap. In this manner the min¬ 
eral alkali called soda is procured. 

KENNEL (among Sportsmen). A place 
in which dogs are kept; also the hole in 
which a fox lies. 

KERMES. A round body of the size of 
a pea, and of a brownish-red colour, which 
contains a number of soft granules filled 
with a red colour. It is found in the 
southern parts of Europe adhering to the 
scarlet oak, and was till lately supposed 
to be a vegetable excrescence, but is now 
known to be the extended body of an 
animal filled with a numerous offspring, 
which are the little red granules. 

KERMES MINERALIS. A preparation 
of antimony, so called from its beautiful 
deep orange colour. 

KESTREL A small kind of hawk. 

KETCHUP. The liquor of mushrooms, 
which is much used as a sauce. 

KETTLE-DRUM. A drum, the vellum 
head of which is spread over a body of 
snuw- 

KiSTTON STONE. An opaque compact 


KID 213 

sort of marble found in different parts of 
Britain. 

KETCH. A strongly built ship with 
a main and a mizzen mast. 



KEY (among Smiths). An instrument 
for opening a lock, having cavities to cor¬ 
respond to the wards of the lock. 

KEY (in Gunnery). The firelocks and 
springlocks of gun-carriages. 

KEY (in Carpentry). The last board 
that is laid. 

KEY (in Music). A name for the pieces 
of wood or ivory in an organ or harpsi¬ 
chord, which are struck by the finger in 
playing an instrument; also the fundamen 
tal note, otherwise called the cleff or cliff. 

KEY (in Commerce). The same as 
Quay. 

KEY, or Gold Key (in Court Eti¬ 
quette). In England, the key which is 
worn by the Lords of the Bedchamber. 

KEYS (in Naked Flooring). Pieces of 
timber framed in between every two joists. 

KEYS (in Joinery). Pieces of timber let 
in transverse to the fibres, into the back of 
a board. 

KEYS (in England) The twenty-four 
commoners in the Isle of Man, wno are the 
conservators of the liberties of the people 

KEY-STONE (among Architects). The 
name for those stones which form the 
sweep of an arch, particularly the last or 
middle stone placed on the top of the arch 
or vault. 

KIDNAPPING (in Law). The forcible 
taking away a man, woman, or child, in 
order to carry them abroad. This is an 
offence at common law, and punishable by 
fine, imprisonment, and pillory. 

KIDNEY-BEAN. A garden pulse hav¬ 
ing a papilionaceous flower, the pistil of 
which becomes a long pod, that is eaten 
before the seeds are fully formed. 

KIDNEYS. Glands shaped like a kid 
ney-bean, which separate the urine from 
the blood. There are two kidneys, one on 
each lumbar region 













KILDEER PLOVER. A well known 
bird that frequents open grounds and con¬ 
stantly cries Kildeer. 

KILDERKIN. A liquid measure con¬ 
taining eighteen gallons. 

KILN. A furnace in which chalk is 
burnt for making lime ; also a place where 
bricks, tiles, and malt are burnt or dried. 

KILN-DRYING. The process of drying 
wetted barley on a kiln for the purpose of 
making malt. 

KINT> v fci Law). In their natural state, 
as tithe m kind, that is, in the commodi¬ 
ties themselves as distinguished from their 
▼alue in money; so, in Military Affairs, 
ratios supplied in kind. 

KINDRED (in Law) Persons of the 
same blood or descent. 

KING. The sovereign ruler of a state. 
The law ascribes to the king of England, 
in his political capacity, immortality, for 
the king never dies; and on his decease, 
which is called his demise, his regal dignity 
is vested, without any interregnum or in¬ 
terval, at once in his heir 

KING AT ARMS (in Hetaldry). An 
officer at arms, that has the preeminence 
over the rest, and is otherwise called Gar¬ 
ter King at Arms. 

KING BIRD. An American variety of 
the fly-catcher, sometimes called the ty¬ 
rant fly-catcher, from his constant attacks 
upon other birds. 

KINGDOM (in Law). Any country 
governed by a king. 

KINGDOM (in Natural History). A 
general division of natural objects, as the 
animal, the mineral, and the vegetable 
kingdoms in the Linnsan system. 

KING-FISH. A European fish of re¬ 
markably splendid colours. 

KING-FISHER. A bird that feeds on 



ftah, whose piumage resembles the purple 
colour of the king’s robes. 

KING’S BENCH, Bancus Regius, or 
B R. The supreme court of common law 
m England, consisting of the Lord Chief 
lustice, and three puisne or inferior judges, 


who hear and determine, for the most part, 
all pleas whicli concern the king’s crows 
ard dignity. 

KING-PIECE, or Kino-Po»t (in Car¬ 
pentry). The chief beam under the roof. 

KING’S BENCH PRISON (in England) 
A prison wherein debtors, and offenders 
against the state, are confined. 

KING’S EVIL. A scrofulous disease, in 
which the glands are ulcerated, the gift of 
curing which, was formerly attributed to 
the kings and queens of England from the 
time of Edward the Confessor. The prac¬ 
tice of touching the king or queen for the 
evil, is now abolished. 

KING’S SILVER (in England). Money 
due to the king in the Court of Common 
Pleas, for a license there granted to any 
man for passing a fine. 

KIRK. The Scotch Presbyterian church. 

KITE. A bird of prey, of the falcon 
kind, the tail of which is forked, and dis 
tinguishes it from all other birds of prey. 



KITE. A plaything among schoolboys, 
consisting of a slight wooden frame covered 
with paper, and constructed so as to rise 



in the air. By the help of a long string it 
may be allowed to fly at the pleasure of 
the person holding it. 

KNEE3 (in Naval Architecture). Pieces 







LAB 


of timber bowed like a knee, which bind 
the beams and futtocks together. 

KNAPSACK. A leathern bag in which 
*oldiers carry their provisions, &c. 

KNEE. That part which joins the leg 
snd thigh together. 

KNEE-PAN. A little round bone placed 
in the fore part of the knee. 

KJMELL. A passing bell, anciently rung 
At the time when a person was about to 
expire. 

KNIGHT (in England). A title of hon¬ 
our, originally bestowed on every man of 
rank or honour, that he might be qualified 
to give challenges, and to perform feats 
of arms. It is aow an order of gentlemen 
Best to baronets, or a mere honorary dis¬ 
tinction, which entitles the person on 
whom it is conferred to be styled Sir 0. D., 
and his wife Lady D. D. A knight is now 
made by the king touching him with a 
sword as he kneels, and saying, ‘ Rise up, 
Sir D. D.’ 

KNIGIITS BACHELORS (in England). 
A description of knights inferior to the 
knights bannerets. 

KNIGHTS BANNERETS (in England). 
Knights so called, that were created 
knights on the field for some valiant 
achievement. 

KNIGHTS OF THE SHIRE (in Eng¬ 
land). Two knights or gentlemen of es¬ 
tate, who are elected by the freeholders of 
every county, to represent them in Parlia¬ 
ment The qualification of a knight of 


LAC m 

the shire Is to be possessed of 6001 per 
annum in a freehold estate. 

KNITTING. The process of weaving 
without a loom, by the help of a needle, 
also the act of tying together certain quan¬ 
tities of yarn, and then warping them into 
hanks to be tarred. 

KNOT (among Mariners). Any large 
knob formed on the extremity of a rope; 
also the division of the log line, answering 
to half a minute, as a mile does to an 
hour. 

KNOT (in Ornithology.) A fen-bird, the 
flesh of which is very delicious. 

KNOUT. A Russian punishment, which 
consists in barbarous scourging, slitting 
the nostrils, and mannings of different 
kinds. 

KORAN The book of the Mahometan 
doctrine, containing the revelations of 
their pretended prophet. 

KOUMISS. A fermented liquor made 
by the Tartars, of mare’s milk. Something 
similar is prepared in the Orkney and 
Shetland Isles. 

KREMLIN. The palace at Moscow, 
standing in a central and elevated part of 
the city, which suffered but little in the 
conflagration that followed the entry of 
the French in 1812. It was built in the 
fifteenth century. 

KT (in England). An abbreviation for 
Knight. 

K. T (in England). An abbreviation 
for Knight of the Thistle. 


L 


L, the twelfth letter in the alphabet, de¬ 
noting, as a numeral, 50, and with a line 
»ver it thus L, 50,000; as an abbreviation, 
t stands for libra, pound, and liber, book. 

LA (in Music). The syllable by which 
Guido denoted the last sound of each 
hexachord 

LABEL (among Mechanics). A thin 
brass ruler, witn sights, commonly used 
with a circumferentor, to take heights. 

LABEL (in Heraldry). A figure sup¬ 
posed to represent riban Is, which in coats 
of arms distinguished the eldest son of a 
ftunily 

Zrz_rzA 

LABEL (in Law). A klip fastened to 
deeds or writings, or any paper joined by 
way of addition to a will. 


LABIAL LETTERS Letters requiring 
the use of the lips in pronunciation. 

LABORATORY. A chemist’s work 
shop; also a workhouse where fireworkers 
and bombardiers prepare their stores. 

LABOURER. One who does day 
labour. 

LABYRINTH. A maze, o place ful 
of intricate windings. The ’ yrinth of 
Egypt, built by Psammiticus < n the banks 
of the river Nile, contained, within the 
compass of one continued wall, one thou¬ 
sand houses and twelve royal palaces, all 
covered with marble; it had only one en¬ 
trance, but innumerable turnings and 
windings, so that those who were in could 
not find their way out without a guide. 
This labyrinth was reckoned one of the 
seven wonders of the world. 

LAC. A substance well known in Europe 
under the different names of stick- lac^iheU- 










216 


LAD 


LAM 


ae, and seed-lac. Stick-lac Is the lac in its 
natural state; seed-lac is the stick-lac sepa¬ 
rated from thetwigs;shell-lac is that which 
has undergone the process of being purified. 
Lac was for some time supposed to be a 
gum, but improperly so, because it is in¬ 
flammable, and not soluble in water. It 
is the product of the coccus lacca, which 
deposits its eggs on the branches of a tree 
in Thibet, and elsewhere in India, where 
lac is fashioned into rings, beads, and other 
trinkets. Sealing wax, varnishes, and lake 
for painters, are made from it, and it is 
also much used as a dye. 

LACCIC ACID (in Chemistry). An acid 
procured from gumlac, the component 
parts of which are supposed to be carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen. 

LACE (in Commerce). A work com¬ 
posed of many threads of gold, silver, or 
silk interwoven, and worked by means of 
spindles on a pillow, according to the 
pattern designed. 

LACHRYMAL. An appellation given 
to several parts of the eye, from their 
serving to secrete or convey away the 
tears, as the lachrymal ducts, the lachrymal 
gland, the lachrymalia puncta, &c. 

LACING (among Mariners). The rope 
or line used to confine the heads of sails 
to their yards. 

LACK (in Commerce). The number of 
100,000 rupees in India. 

LACKER, or LACQUER. A sort of var¬ 
nish applied to tin, brass, or other metals. 
The basis of lacker is a solution of the re¬ 
sinous substance of seed-lac in spirit of 
wine. In order to give a golden colour to 
the solution, two parts of gamboge are ad¬ 
ded to one of anotto. When silver leaf or 
tin is to be lackered a larger quantity of the 
colouring materials is tequisite than when 
the lacker is intended to be laid on brass. 

LACTEAL VESSELS (in Anatomy). 
Tender transparent vessels which convey 
the chyle from the mesentery to the tho¬ 
racic duct. 

LACTIC" ACID. An acid procured from 
sour milk by precipitating it with lime- 
water and separating the lime with oxalic 
acid. It is supposed to consist of acetic 
acid and muriate of potash, with a small 
portion of iron and an animal matter. 

LADDER. A wooden tome made with 
steps for mounting. 

LADDER, Scaling (in Fortification). 
A particular kind of ladder made of ropes 
or flat staves, with which the men scale 
lb« walls of a place that is to be taken by 
surprise. 

LADY-BIRD. A small r®£ insect with 

■lack spots. 


LADY’S SLIPPER. A plant which 
grows wild, the flower of which ia some 
thing in the shape of a shoe. 

LADY’S SMOCK. A plant that grows 
wild, the flower of which consists of four 
leaves succeeded by narrow pods, which, 
when ripe, roll up and cast forth their 
seeds. 

LAIR (among Sportsmen). The place 
where deer harbour by day. 

LAIRD. The name of a lord of a manor 
in the highlands of Scotland. 

LAITY. The people, as distinguished 
from the clergy. 

LAKE (in Geography). A collection of 
waters in an inland place of great extent 
and depth, as the Lake of Geneva, <fc c. 

LAKE (in Painting). A fine crimson 
colour, between carmine and vermilion. 
It is formed by precipitation from the 
solution of the colouring matter with an 
earth or metallic oxide. Precipitates of 
different shades are obtained with alum, 
nitre, chalk, &c. 

LAMA (in Theology), or the Grand 
Lama of Thibet. The prince and high- 
priest of the country, who is supposed to 
be immortal, and on the dissolution of his 
mortal frame his soul enters into the body 
of a new born child. He is worshipped 
as a supernatural being by his subjects, 
and is never to be seen but in the secret 
recesses of his palace, where he sits cross- 
legged on a cushion. 

LAMB. The young of sheep while under 
a year old. 



LAMINA. A thin plate of any metal 

LAMINAE (in Anatomy). Are the twc 
thin plates or tables of the skull. 

LAMMAS DAY. The first of August, 
formerly a day of thanksgiving. 

LAMP. A light made of oil and a wick- 
also the vessel to receive the oil and the 
wick. 

LAMPBLACK. A colour procured from 
the smoke of burning oil mixed with gum 
water. 

LAMPERS. A disease In the palate of 
a horse’s mouth. 

LAMPREY. A sort offish which ad¬ 
heres firmly to rocks and other bodies by 
the mouth. It is in shape like an eel, and 








LAN 


LAN 


217 


a* slippery. Lampreys are esteemed as a 
delicacy, and are in season in the months 
of March, April, and May. 

LANCE. An offensive weapon formerly 
used by knights in their tilts and tourna¬ 
ments. 

LANCERS (in Military Affairs). A 
body of men in Poland armed with long 
lances and mounted on swift, horses. 

LANCET (in Surgery). An instrument 
used in bleeding, opening tumours, &x. 

LAND (in Geography). One main di¬ 
vision of the earth, as distinguished from 
water; in Law, land includes not only 
arable land, meadow, pasture, &c. but also, 
messuages and houses, for in conveying 
the land the buildings pass with it. 

LAND FALL (among Mariners). The 
first land discovered after a voyage. 

LAND FORCES (in Military Affairs). 
Troops employed only on land. 

LANDGRAVE. The governor of a 
district in Germany. 

LANDING. Going on land out of a 
boat or vesesl. 

LANDING (in Architecture). The first 
part of a floor at the head of a flight of 
stairs. 

LANDLOCKED. A sea term for a 
vessel when she is at anchor in a place 
wot open to the sea. 

LANDLORD (in Law). He of whom 
ands or tenements are held. 

LANDMAN. One on board a ship who 
has never been before to sea. 

LANDMARK (in Husbandry). A boun¬ 
dary set between the lands of different 
persons. 

LANDMARK (among Mariners). Any 
mountain or other object which may serve 
to make the land distinguishable at sea. 

LANDSCAPE (in Painting). A picture 
representing any part of a country, with 
the various objects of fields, trees, hedges, 
houses, &c. 

LANDSTTJRM. In military affairs, 
a local militia of Prussia, which is never 
called from its own district hut in case 
of actual invasion. 

LANGUAGE. Human speech in gene¬ 
ral, or an assemblage of articulate sounds 
forming words and signs for the expression 
of the thoughts of the mind. 

LANGUAGE, History of. That all 
men at first spoke one language we know 
on the authority of Scripture, and that 
that language must have been the Hebrew, 
the Holy Language, as it is called by the 
Jews, in which God was pleased to reveal 
hia word to man, is clearly deducible from 
Scripture In giving the names of Adam 
and many of h's posterity, the inspired 


penman expressly declares them to be o/ 
Hebrew origin, for of Adam he says that 
he was expressly so called from the He¬ 
brew Adam, earth, because he was made 
out of the dust of the earth, and in a 
similar manner he explains the names of 
Cain, Abel, Abram, Isaac, Jacob, and 
others. When God thought proper to con 
found the tongues of men, he reserved the 
Hebrew tongue for his chosen people, who, 
in that tongue, were to keep and hanJ 
down his oracles to future ages. 

Judging from the deviations whic«i the 
earliest languages underwent, it does not 
appear that any new language was formed 
in the confusion of tongues at the tower of 
Babel, nor in fact that any other change 
took place than what was needful to an¬ 
swer the divine purpose of causing the 
dispersion of mankind. The Chaldeans 
or Babylonians being one of the first people 
formed after the flood, we find that their 
language, which has been handed down to 
us unchanged, differs the least of any from 
the Hebrew. The Syriac, which was 
spoken by the Canaanites, was :'n its 
primitive state so nearly allied to the 
Hebrew that Abraham understood their 
speech; and although the Syriac which is 
now extant, and which was spoken by the 
inhabitants of ancient Syria, underwent 
many changes by the intercourse of differ¬ 
ent people, yet it still retains many vestiges 
of its origin. In the time of Joseph, the 
language of the Egyptians, which is still 
extant under the name of Coptic, was so 
different that the Israelites required an 
interpreter in order to be understood, but 
notwithstanding they retained in their 
letters and in many of their words marks 
of their affinity to the Hebrew. This grsat 
diversity in the language of the Egyptians, 
the descendants of Ham, within so short a 
period after the flood, is not surprising 
when we consider the peculiar character 
of this people for invention and device 

The Arabian is another language which 
from the antiquity of the people was 
probably formed at or very soon aftei the 
confusion of tongues. It is also very dif¬ 
ferent from all the other tongues then 
existing, and surpassed them all it ffie 
number of its letters and the harmony ani 
richness of its expression, but still it carries 
with it innumerable marks of its affinity 
to the Hebrew. The .Ethiopian was m 
all probability a dialect of the Egyptian, 
at least in the names of its letters it is 
very similar to that language; but Ludolf 
observes that it bears a great affinity to f be 
Hebrew and the Syriac, and a still 
to the Arabic, from which lie suppose* ti 



£1* 


LANGUAGE 


to be derived, In fact, he maintains that 
competent Knowledge of the Hebrew, or 
any other of the oriental languages, will 
enable a person to understand very much 
of the Ethiopic, there being several Hebrew 
roots and significations of Hebrew words 
.»■ this language which are not to be found 
in any other. 

At ‘.ne Phoenicians, Ihe descendants of 
the 'Janaanites, inhabited the maritime 
parts of the land of Canaan it is not sur- 
pris :«g that their language should be sup- 
post to have been nearly the same as the 
Hel ,ew. Some vestiges of this affinity 
re to be found in the proper names of the 
Carthaginians, their descendants, who 
epoK a dialect of the Phoenician called the 
Punic language: this latter language is 
also said to have had a tincture of the 
Chaldee and Syriac, which may be easily 
accounted for by the intercourse which 
the.® , two trading nations held with all 
i»tfn?r peopie. A writer in modern times 


a.so shown that the 

Maltese contains 

A If D 

9 YRI AC> 

COPTIC. 

„-’A.,OEE 

Alep’.i 

Beth 

Olaf 

, -- 

Alpha 

Phi 

Beth 

Bida or 

Chi 

Ghirnel 

Gomal 

Biia 

V 

Dha’.tth 

Dolath 

Gamma 

Shei 

He 

He 

Dalda 

Fei 

Van 

Waw 

Ei 

Kher 

Zain 

Zain 

Se 

Hori 

Che*h 

Hheth 

Zido 

Jauju 

Teth 

Teth 

Hida 

Shima 

Jod 

Vud 

Thila 

Dhei 

Chaph 

Cof 

Jauda 

Epai 

Lamed 

Lomad 

Kappa 

Mem 

Mim 

Lauda 


Nun 

Nun 

Mi 


Sarr.ech 

Sameeth 

Ni 


Crnain 

E 

Exj 


Phe 

Pe 

0 


Teadi 

Sode 

Pi 


Kopb 

Kof 

Ro 


Reel 

Riah 

Sima 


Schin 

Shin 

Tain 


7 bail 

Tau 

Upeilon 



as the abovementioned languages were 
•pcken by the most ancient people, it is 
not surprising to find that they retained so 
many marks of their origin, but it is 
vorthy of observation that those languages 
which sprung out of them underwent 
gieater changes in their external form, so 
as ic give them an air of originality which 
u.oes not in reality belong to them. Thus 
. ;s that the Greek, from the inventive 
gen us ol the people, acquired a peculiar 
structure and a richness of expression 
which made it pass for a primitive tongue, 
when in truth it is as much a derivative 
language as those which have since been 
formed. That it was indebted to the 
Egypv Kc. for the names of its letters will 
te obvious to any one who should com- 
sare Uu> Greek alphabet with the Coptic, 


a number of Punic words, from which it ti 
justly inferred that Malta was once in th« 
possession of the Carthaginians. 

The Persian, as it is now banded down 
to us, is confessedly posterior to the Arabic, 
to which it is nearly allied both in its 
primitive letters and whole construction, 
but it has been shown by writers tiiat the 
Parthians or Persians were Scythians whr 
mingled witli the Elemites or original in 
habitants of Persia, and gave to the Persian 
language that Celtic tincture which brings 
it nearer in accordance with the northern 
language of Europe. In the language of 
India and Armenia there are strong marks 
of resemblance to the Persian; but as to 
the Chinese it was probably one of the 
earliest tongues formed after the flood, as 
it bears few or no marks of tffinity to any 
but the Hebrew. 

In proof of what has been advanced on 
the oriental languages the following alpha 
bets are given :— 


BTHIOPIC. 

ARABIC. 

ARMENIAN. 

Alt 

Elif 

Ail 

Ue 

Bet 

Be 

Bien 

Teche 

Geml 

Gain 

Gim 

Pe 

Dant 

Dal 

Da 

Dache 

Haut 

Deal 

Jetach 

Rra 

Waw 

He 

Sa 

Se 

Zai 

Waw 

E 

Wiev 

Hharra 

Gim 

Jeth 

Tuim 

Tail 

Hha 

Thue 

Re 

Jamen 

Ta 

Je 

T»ue 

Caf 

Ye 

J 

Hium 

Lawi 

Caf 

Luim 

Ppiur 

Mai 

Lam 

Chhe 

KV 

Naha* 

Mem 

Dta 

F- 

Saat 

Nun 

Kien 

< 

Ain 

Sad 

Hue 


Af 

Ain 

Dsa 


Txadal 

Fe 

Ghat 


Kot 

Kaf 

Tee 


Reea 

Ke 

Mien 


Saut 

Sin 

HI 


Tawi 

Shin 

NU8 



Te 

Sche 



given above ; and antiquarians h? Vi made 
it clear that the roots of the Greek are to 
be traced either to the Egyptian, the 
Phoenician, or the Pelasgian, which was 
spoken by the Pelasgi, a Celtic people, 
who first took possession of Greece, or the 
Isles of Elisha as it is called in Scripture. 
It has also been clearly shown that this 
Pelasgian had a common original with 
the Irish and Welsh, the primitive lan¬ 
guages of Ireland and Britain, which were 
peopled by two kindred tribes, the de¬ 
scendants of Magog and Gomer, the sons 
of Japliet, who at a very early period pro¬ 
ceeded from Scythia to Europe, and laid 
the foundation of all the modern European 
languages. Those people which inhabited 
the countries of Europe, except Greece, 
were afterward* called by the Greeks 








LANGUAGE. 


21J 


S.elt® or Gallatte, and by the Romans 
Celti or Galli, Celts or Gauls. 

The Latin was not formed until a 
colony of the Pelasgi or Greeks intruded 
themselves upon the Umhri or Gomerii, 
the aborigines of Italy, and so far prevailed 
over their language that they modelled the 
mixture of the two upon the plan of the 
Greek in the formation of cases, moods, 
and tenses, to which were afterwards added 
many words of Egyptian or Phcenician 
extraction, from the intercourse which 
took place between the Romans, Cartha¬ 
ginians, and Egyptians. As to the Ger¬ 
man, Danish, Swedish, and other northern 
languages, they all bear evident marks of 
their affinity not only to each other, but to 
that of the Latin, with which they had a 
common Celtic original. At the same time 
their ancestors before their second irrup¬ 
tion into Europe under the name of Goths, 
Vandals, Huns, &c. had introduced such 
changes in the pronunciation and letters 
of their several languages as gave them an 
appearance of originality and peculiarity. 
Besides, it appears that the Hungarian, 
Sclavonic,Dalmatian,and Russian assumed 
a Greek character by a mixture of the 
Greek and its several dialects. 

The French retains many vestiges of its 
Celtic original, but in consequence of the 
Roman conquest the additions of the Latin 
prevailed, to all which the people gave it 
a peculiarity both in its pronunciation, 
orthography, and structure. The same 
remark applies to the Spanish, which also 
underwent some additional changes from 
the incursions of the Moors, who ingrafted 
upon it many words of Arabian and Phce¬ 
nician origin. The Italian is obviously a 
dialect of the Latin, modified by and 
assimilated to the French and Spanish, 
doubtless during the period when France, 


Spain, and Italy were goverrsed ly the 
emperors of the west. 

The English, the last formed lar guage 
in the world, is also remarkable for being 
compounded of a greater diversity of lan¬ 
guages than any other. The groundwork 
of the English is the Saxon, but there is 
not a language in Europe which has not 
contributed move or less to its formation. 
Many words were retained or borrowed 
by the Saxons from the language of the 
original natives, namely, the Welsh,which, 
as before observed, was one of the ancient 
Celtic dialects, of the same origin as the 
Saxon itself, but existed long prior to it. 
On the invasion and settlement of the 
Danes some changes as well as additions 
were made in the language, which under¬ 
went still greater changes at the Norman 
conquest, by the admission of Norman as 
well as French words, and the modelling 
of the language itself into a form more 
nearly allied to the French. From this 
source are derived a vast number of the 
Latin words and some few words of Greek 
origin, but the most numerous additions 
from these resources have since been made 
by the English themselves, who have also 
gradually given it a distinct form and pro¬ 
nunciation that entitle it as much to the 
name of original as any of the other Euro¬ 
pean languages that are of more ancient 
date. To this diversity in the origin of the 
English, and its aptitude to naturalize 
every foreign term, it is indebted for a 
variety and richness of expression which 
is not equalled by any other language in 
the world. 

The following list of the ivamez f ‘he 
ten first numbers among the Europ«r»n 
nations, taken from Parson’s Remains *»f 
Japhet, will suffice to show the affinity »5 
the languages abovementioned 


-B 


IRISH. 

WELSH. 

CREEK 

1. Aon 

Un 

El? 

2. Do 

Duy 

Jvw 

3. Tri 

Tri 

Tqs ig 
TtooaQzg 

Tlivis 

4. Ceathair. Pedwar 

5. Cuig 

Pymp 

6 She 

Chuech 

’E$ 

7 Sheagd 

Saith 

’Emit 

6. Ocht 

Lfith 

’ Oxrco 

9. Nyi 

Naw 

Evria 

10. Deic 

Deg 

Jiy.a 

German. 

Dutch. Swedish 

. Danish. 

i. Ein 

Eeh En 

Een 

2. Zwei 

Twee Twa 

Toe 

3. Drei 

Dru Tre 

Tre 

4 . Vier 

Vier Fyra 

Fire 

5 . Fiinf 

Vyf Faem 

Fern 


LATIN 

ITALIAN 

SPANISH 

FRENCH 

Unus 

Uno 

Uno 

Un 

Duo 

Due 

Dos 

Deux 

Tres 

Tre 

Tres 

Trois 

Quatuor 

duatro 

duatro 

duatre 

duinque 

Cinque 

Cineo 

Cinq 

Sex 

Sei 

Seys 

Six 

Septem 

Sette 

Siete 

Sept 

Octo 

Otto 

Ocho 

Huit 

Novera 

Nove 

Nueve 

Neul 

Decern 

Dieoi 

Diez 

Dix 


Sason. 

Englisi , 

Polish. 

Russian Hung&rum 

Alne, an 

One 

Jeden 

Yedna 

Eg 

Twa,twy 

Two 

Dwa 

Twa 

Ketto 

Drie 

Three 

Trizi 

Tree 

Harum 

Feovver 

Four 

Czterzti 

Shatirr 

Negv 

Fife 

Five 

Diecz 

Pet 

«Ct 



m 


LAR 


LAT 


German 

Dutch. 

Swedish. 

Danish. 

Saxon. 

English. 

Polish. 

Russian. Rungarios 

d. Seehs 

Zes 

Sex 

Sex 

Six 

Six 

Szesez 

Chest 

Hat 

7. Sieben Zeven 

Sju 

Syv 

Seofen 

Seven 

Sieden 

Set 

Het 

8. Acht 

Acht 

Aotta 

Otte 

Eaht 

Eight 

Ism 

Wo Mini 

Niolez 

9. Neun 

Neghen Nio 

Nie 

Negen 

Nine 

Dziewree 

Devit 

Kilenea 

.0. Zeheu 

Tien 

Tio 

Tie 

Tyn, tien 

Ten 

Dzeaziec 

Disset 

Tiz 


LANNER. A sort of hawk, formerly 
much esteemed in falconry. It is next to 
the buzzard in size. 

LANTERN FLY. A remarkable in¬ 
sect of South America, that emits an 
extraordinary light from the hollow of its 
head. 

LANYARDS (among Mariners). Short 
pieces of rope fastened to several parts of 
a ship. 

LAPIDARY (in Commerce). One who 
polishes and engraves stones. 

LAPIS INFERNALIS. A sort of 
caustic composition. 

LAPIS LAZULI (in Painting). A 
stone of a* azure or blue colour, of which 
the paint called ultramarine is made. It 
is a copper ore, very compact and hard, 
and is found in lumps of a beautiful blue 
colour, richly variegated with clouds of 
white and veins of shining gold colour. 

LAPSE tin Law). An omission on the 
part of the patron to present to a benefice 
within six months after it is vacant, upon 
which default the ordinary has a right to 
collate to the said benefice. 

LAPSED LEGACY. Fallen or lost by 
a lapse, as where the legatee dies before 
the testator, &c. 

LAPWING. See Peewit. 

LARBOARD. A sea term for the left 
hand side of a ship, when looking towards 
the stem or head. 

LARCENY. The felonious and fraudu¬ 
lent taking away the personal goods of 
another, which in England, is petty larceny 
if the thing be of the value of twelve pence 
or under, and grand larceny if above that 
value. 

LARCH. A lofty tree of the pine kind, 
bearing leaves like those of the pine, and 
• sort of mushroom for the fruit. The gum 
«f this tree is called Venice turpentine. 
The leaves fall off in winter. The timber, 
which is remarkably durable, is used in 
building ships. 

LARDER. The room where meat is 
kept and salted. 

LARES. The domestic or household 
gods among the Romans, placed in some 
private part of th? house, which the family 
honoured as their protector. 

LARGE (in Music). The greatest mea¬ 
sure of musical quantities ; one large con¬ 
taining two longa. 


LARGE. A sea phrase for the wind, 
when it crosses the line of a ship’s course 
in a favourable direction. 

LARGESS (in Husbandry). A gift to 
the labourers in the harvest season. 

LARGO (in Music). A slow move¬ 
ment. 

LARK. A well known singing bird, the 
most remarkable species of which is the 
skylark, that sings so beautifully as it is 
soaring in the air. This bird is not found 
in America. Our meadow lark bears some 
resemblance to it, but is nearly twice as 
large. 

LARKSPUR. A plant cultivated in 
gardens, the flower of which consists of 
many dissimilar petals or leaves, some of 
which end in a tail or spur. 

LARVA. The grub or caterpillar state 
of some insects so called by Linnaeus, but 
by others the eruca or caterpillar. 

LARUM. A sort of clock that makes a 
noise or alarm at a certain hour. 

LARYNX (in Anatomy). The top oi 
the windpipe, below the root of the tongue 

LASSO. A rope with a noose, used in 
South America for catching wild cattle 



LAST. A measure or weight, as a last 
of corn, &c. equal to ten quarters, and a 
last of cod fish, &c. equal to from twelve 
to twenty-four barrels. 

LATH (in Carpentry). A long, thin 
piece of wood, nailed to the rafters of a 
wall or roof to receive the plaster or 
covering. Laths are distinguished accord¬ 
ing to the wood of which they are made, 
into hearts of oak, sap laths, and deal 
laths. 

LATIIE (in Turner}'). The engine used 
in turning wood, <fcc. 

LATIN. The language spoken by the 
ancient Romans, or the inhabitants of 
Latium, from which it derives its name. 

LATITAT (in England). A writ used 







LAY 


LEA 


*» personal actions, where the party is to 
M arrested in any other county than Mid¬ 
dlesex. 

LATITUDE (in Geography). The dis¬ 
tance of a place from the equator, which 
is either northern or southern, according 
as the place is north or south. The lati¬ 
tude cannot exceed 90 degrees, the distance 
of the equator from the north or south 
pole. 

LATTEN. Iron plates tinned over, of 
which tea canisters are made. 

LAVA. The mineral substance which 
flows from Mount Etna, Vesuvius, and 
other volcanoes, is of a grayish colour, 
light, moderately hard, and brittle, and 
easily frangible: it generally attracts the 
magnetic needle, and is easily fusible into 
compact glass. 

LAUDANUM. A soporific tincture, con¬ 
taining the finer and purer parts of opium, 
drawn in water and spirits of wine, and 
then reduced to its due consistence. 

LAVENDER. A plant with a shrubby 
stem, much branched with numerous 
hoary leaves. The flowers are produced 
in terminating spikes from the young shoots 
on long peduncles. The leaves, stalk, and 
flower yield a fragrant perfume, and from 
the latter are prepared an essential oil, a 
simple spirit, and a compound tincture 

LAUNCE-F1SH, or Sand Launce. A 
sea fish which buries itself on the recess 
of the tide a foot deep in the sand. It is 
generally used for baits. 

LAUNCH. A particular kind of boat, 
used in underrunning the cables of differ¬ 
ent ships, that are fastened across each 
other. 

LAUNCHING. Putting a ship out of 
dock, and conveying her into the water. 

LAUNDRESS. One whose business it 
is to wash and get up linen. 

LAUREATE, or Poet Laureate (in 
England). A title given to the king’s poet. 

LAUREL. An evergreen tree, having 
broad, thick, shining leaves. The flower 
consists of five petals or leaves, which ex¬ 
pand in the form of a rose. 

LAURISTINUS. The wild bay tree. 

LAW. In its most extensive sense, the 
rule of conduct prescribed by the supreme 
power of a state. The laws of England 
comprehend the Common Law and the 
Statute Law, together with certain por¬ 
tions of the Civil Law and the Canon Law. 

LAWN. A plain or level space covered 
with grass, in a pleasure ground. 

LAY (in Ecclesiastical Law). An epi¬ 
thet r or whatever belongs to the people at 
large, in distinction from those who are in 
boly orders 


LAY (with Poets). A kind of anclen 
poetry, consisting of short verses. 

LAY (in Husbandry). Ground that lies 
fallow or untilled. 

LAY BROTHERS. In the Romish 
church, such as performed the secular and 
servile offices in a convent. 

LAY CORPORATION (in England). 
A lay investiture of bishops, &c. 

LAYER (in Horticulture). A young 
sprout bent down and covered with mould 
for raising fresh plants 

LAYER (among Fishermen). A chan 
nel or bed in a creek, where small oysters 
are thrown for breeding. 

LAY FEE (in England). Lands held 
in fee of a lay lord, as distinguished from 
those lands whtch belong to the church. 

LAY IMPROPRIATION (in England). 
The impropriating or employing the reve¬ 
nues of the church to the use of a layman. 

LAYMAN (in Ecclesiastical Law). One 
who has not taken holy orders. 

LAYMAN (in Painting). A statue of 
wood, whose joints are so made that it 
may be put into any posture. 

LAZARETTO. An hospital for lazars 
or leprous persons. 

LAZULI. See Lapis 

LAZULITE. A mineral of the silicious 
order, of which lapis lazuli is the principal 
species. Its principal constituents are 
silica, alumines, carbonate of lime, sul¬ 
phate of lime, oxide of iron, &c. 

LEACH (among Miners). A term signi¬ 
fying hard work. 

LEAD (in Mineralogy). A bluish white 
metal, very soft and flexible, and easily 
beaten into thin plates by the hsuomer 
In a strong heat it boils and emits flames, 
and if during that time it is exposed to the 
air, its oxidation proceeds very rapidly. 
It is very brittle at the time of congelation. 
Most of the acids attack lead, but it unites 
with most of the metals, particularly tin, 
which in union with lead forms the solder 
used by plumbers. The carbonate of lead, 
which is a powder, is better known by the 
name of white lead ; the red oxide of lead 
is otherwise called red lead. 

LEAD, or Sounding Lead. A sea term 
for an instrument which is used to discov 
er the depth of water at sea. 

LEAF (in Botany). A membranaceous 
and sometimes succulent part of a plant, 
which arises from the stem. Leaves ap¬ 
pear to assist the process of vegetation by 
communicating the air to the whole of ths 
plant, which on that account is found to 
be exceedingly tender of its leaves, and 
to suffer much from any rough treatment 
which they may receive. 


19* 




222 


LED 



LEM 


LEAF. A term applied to other objects 
resembling a leaf in shape or make, as the 
leaf of a book; also leaf gold or oilver, 
gold or silver beaten into plates of exceed¬ 
ing thinness. 

LEAGUE (in Geography). A moasure 
of length, containing a certain number of 
geographical paces, according to the usage 
or computation of different countries. A 
league at sea, where it is mostly used by 
us, is equal to three miles, or three thou¬ 
sand geometrical paces; the league in 
France contains three thousand five hun¬ 
dred paces. The Dutch or German league 
four geographical miles. Seventeen Spa¬ 
nish leagues are equal to a degre * or sixty- 
nine and a half statute miles. 

LEAGUE (in Politics). A \heaty of 
alliance between different states oi ) arties. 

LEAK. Any hole or chink in a vessel 
which admits the water, particularly ap¬ 
plied to a ship at sea. 

LEAKAGE (in Commerce). An allow 
ance made to merchants for the leaking or 
running of vessels. 

LEAP (in Commerce). A measure equal 
to half a bushel. 

LEAP YEAR (in Chronology). Any 
year in which a day is added more than 
ordinary. 

LEASE (in Law). A conveyance of 
lands, generally in consideration of rent 
or other annual recompense, for term of 
years, for life, or at will, provided it be 
for a shorter term than the lessor has in 
'Ihe premises. 

LEASH (among Sportsmen). The num¬ 
ber of three applied to partridges or other 
game which are killed. 

LEASING. The same as gleaning, or 
picking up the ears of corn after the field 
is cleared. 

LEATHER. The skin or hide of a beast 
tanned and dressed. 

LEATHER-DRESSER. One who 
dresses leather. 

LEATHER-SELLER. One who deals 
n leather. The company of leather-sellers 
in London, was incorporated in 1382. 

LEAVEN. A piece of sour dough put to 
ferment a mass of bread. 

LECTURER (in Ecclesiastical Law). In 
England, a minister who preaches in the af¬ 
ternoon, and is usually paid by the people. 

LEDGE (in Geography). A long ridge 
of rocks neaj- the surface of the sea. 

LEDGER. The chief book used in mer¬ 
chants accounts, wherein every man’s par¬ 
ticular account is kept j and also all the 
goods bought and sold are distinctly placed 
•a"*! by Jiemselves, as debtor on the left 


hand page, and creditor on ttht> rigid 
hand. 

LEE. A sea term for that part whict 
the wind blows upon, or that Is opposite 
to the wind, as the lee shore. 

LEECH. A well known insect that live* 
in the water, and is commonly used in 
bleeding. Tho two principal species art 
the medicinal leech, which is employed tc 
draw blood where the lancet is less safe ; 
and the horse leech, which is larger, and 
applied to horses for the same purpose. 

LEECHES. A sea term for the edges 
of a sail. 

LEEK. A potherb having long cylindri 
cal and coated roots. It has something of 
the flavour of the onion. 

LEES. The dregs of wine. 

LEET. In England, a little court within 
a manor, having a criminal jurisdiction. 

LEG (in Anatomy). A limb, and that 
part of the animal body which serves for 
walking. 

LEG (among Artificers) Whatever 
’ serves for the support of a thing, as the 
of a stool, &c. 

LEG (in Mathematics). The two sides 
of a triangle are called the legs. 

LEG. A sea term for ropes put through 
the bolt ropes of the main and foresail. 

LEGACY (in Law). A bequest or gift 
by testanvant of any personal effects ; the 
person beqveatliing is called the testator, 
and he to whom it is bequeathed the 
legatee. 

LEGATE. A cardinal or bishop sent by 
the pope as alt) ambassador to sovereign 
princes. 

LEGEND. A book used in the ancient 
Roman churches, containing the lessons 
that were to be read ; also a chronicle or 
register of the lives of saints. 

LEGEND (among Antiquarians). The 
inscription on the edge of a medal or 
coin. 

LEGERDEMAIN, or Slight or Hand 
Tricks which, from the dexterity of the 
performer, are made to deceive the ob¬ 
server. 

LEGION (in the Roman army) A 
body of 6000 foot and 300 horse, or less 

LEGUMEN. A11 manner of pulse. 

LEGUMEN (in Botany). That species 
of seed vessel vulgarly termed a pod, as 
the seed vessel of the pea, vetch lupi se, 
Sec. 

LEMMA. A proposition in Mathematics, 
which serves to prepare the way for the 
demonstration of som e theorem. 

LEMMING. A species of animals of the 
rat kind; the Lapland lemming migrates 






LEIN 


tt the approach of winter, and rather than 
deviate from his straight course he will 
perish In attempting to surmount obstacles 
that lie in his way. 

LEMONADE. A drink made of water, 
lemons, and sugar 

LEMON. An acid fruit of the lemon 
tree, belonging to the genus citrus. It 
grows in Florida and Louisiana, and also 
in the south of Europe. 



LEMUR. A genus of quadrupeds some¬ 
what resembling the monkey in the form 
of the feet, but widely different from that 
animal in its manners and temper. Two 
of these animals brought from India lately, 
and exhibited in Boston, would walk back¬ 
ward and forward on a small tight cord, 
using their tails for balance poles. 



LENS. A piece of glass or other trans¬ 
parent substance of the figure of a lentil, 
which either collects the rays of light into 
a point, in their passage through it, or dis¬ 
perses them according to their form and 
the laws of refraction. The convex lens 
converges the rays of light, and the con¬ 
cave disperses the rays. If only one side 
is convex and the other plane, it is called 
a plano-convex lens, such as A in the fol¬ 
lowing figure ; if convex on both sides, it 
is n double convex lens, as B. The con¬ 
cave lenses are also divided into the plano¬ 
concave, as U, concavo concave, as D. and 


LET 225 

the meniscus, which is concave on ©■• 
side and convex on the other, as fi. 



LENT. A time of fasting and abstinence 
for forty days before Easter. 

LENTILS. A sort of pulse. 

LEO (in Astronomy). A constellation 
and one of the twelve signs of the zodiac 
marked thus 

LEOPARD. An African animal of the 
cat kind covered with black spots upon a 
yellow ground, so disposed, as to resemble 
the print of its foot. It is one of the mos 
beautiful of all quadrupeds. 



LEPIDOPTERA. An order of insects 
in the Linnsean system, which have their 
wings imbricated with scales, as the but¬ 
terfly, moth, &c. 

LEPROSY (in Medicine). A foul cuta¬ 
neous disease, appearing in dry, white, 
thin, scurfy scabs. 

LEPUS (in Astronomy). The Hare, a 
constellation in the southern hemisphere. 

LE ROY LE VEUT,i. e. The king wills 
it. In England the form of words by which 
the king signifies his assent to the bills 
that have passed the two houses, after 
which they acquire the force of laws. 

LE ROY S’AVISERA, i. e. The king 
will consider of it. The form of words by 
which he refuses his assent to any bills 
that are presented to him. 

LETHARGY. A disease arising from 
cold, phlegmatic humours which oppress 
the brain, and cause an incessant drowsi¬ 
ness. 

LETHE. A river in hell, which, accord¬ 
ing to the poets, caused all wh® drank of 
it to forget the past. 

LETTER (in Grammar). A character 
in the alphabet, used to express the simple 
sounds of the voice which in every lan 
guage are collected mto a series called the 













LEV 


LEV 


*24 

alphabet. Letter* are composed of vowels 
and consonants, and form words. 

LETTER (in Printing). The type or 
character which is used in composing. 

LETTER (in Commerce). Any writing 
sent from one person to another. 

LETTER OF ADVICE. A letter written 
t>y a merchant to his correspondent, ad¬ 
vising or giving him notice of what bills 
he has drawn upon him. 

LETTER OF ATTORNEY (in Law). 
A writing whereby a person constitutes 
mother to do a lawful act in his stead, as 
to receive debts, Ac 

LETTER OF CREDIT (among Mer¬ 
chants). A writing by one merchant to 
another, desiring him to credit the bearer 
with a certain sum of money. 

LETTER OF MARQUE. A commis¬ 
sion given to private ships, by a govern¬ 
ment, to make reprisals on the ships of 
another state. 

LEUCHTENBERGITE. A mineral 
of a yellow color and pearly lustre. Its 
constituents are silica, alumina, mag¬ 
nesia, peroxide of iron, lime, and water. 

LEUCITE. A stone of the garnet kind. 

LEVEL. An instrument used to make 
a line parallel to the horizon. The plumb 
level is that which shows the horizontal 
line by means of another line perpendicu¬ 
lar to that described by a plummet or 
pendulum, which instrument consists of 
two legs or branches, joined together at 
right angles, whereof that which carries 
the thread and plummet is about a foot 
and a half long, the thread is hung towards 
the top of the branch. A telescope is 
placed on the horizontal branch of the in¬ 
strument, having a hair placed horizontally 
across the focus of the object glass, which 
determines the point of the level. The 
telescope is fastened by a ball and socket. 



LEVER. In England, a company of the 
nobility, gentry, Ac. who assemble to pay 
their respects to the king. It consists of 
gentlemen only, by which it is distin¬ 


guished from a drawingroom, where lad lei 
as well as gentlemen attend. The term 
is also applied to the evening assemblies 
at the president’s house in Washington. 

LEVELLING. The art of finding a line 
parallel to the horizon at one or more 
stations, in order to determine the height 
of one place in respect to another. The 
subjoined figure shows the manner of find¬ 
ing the difference of the level of a place, 
where there is a level line and two sights 
level with each other, whereby the per¬ 
pendicular distance between the surface of 
the ground and any point in the level line 
may be discovered. The art of levelling 
is particularly applied to the laying out 
grounds even, regulating descents, drain 
ing morasses, conducting water, Ac. 



LEVELLING (in Fortification). The 
reducing an uneven surface to that of a 
plane, so that the works may be of a cor¬ 
responding height and figure. 

LEVER. One of the six powers, which 
may consist of any instrument, as a straight 
bar of iron or wood, as A B, supported 
upon a fulcrum or prop, C, having a 
weight, W, at one end, a power, P, at the 
other. Then A C and B C are the arms 
of the lever. Of this kind are balances, 
scales, pincers, Ac. 


AC B 



LEVERET. A young hare. 

LEVIGATION. The mechanical pro¬ 
cess of grinding the parts of bodies to a 
fine paste, by rubbing the flat face of a 
stone called a muller, upon another stone 
called the table or slab. 

LEVITE. One of the tribe of Levi, c* 
belonging to the priestly office. 

LEXICOGRAPHY. The art of writing 
dictionaries. 

LEYDEN PHIAL, or L*vdbx Ja? 


















LIB 


LIG 


225 



do called from M. Vankleigli, of Leaden, ■ 
who first observed its properties, A glass 
jar, having the outside and the inside 
coated with tin foil, and a brass wire, the 
upper part of which terminates in a ball 
of the same metal, and the lower part 
in a chain that communicates with the in¬ 
side. This jar admits of being charged so 
as to produce the electrical shock and 
various other experiments illustrative of 
the power of electricity. 



LIBATION. A sacrifice among the 
Greeks and Romans, which consisted in 
offering up some liquid to the gods. 

LIBEL (in Law). An injurious reproach 
or accusation written or published against 
the government, a magistrate, or a private 
person. 

LIBEL (in the Civil Law). The decla¬ 
ration or charge drawn up in writing, as 
is used in the ecclesiastical courts. 

LIBERAL ARTS. Such as are fit for 
gentlemen and scholars. 

LIBERTY (in Law). A privilege by 
which men enjoy some favour or benefit, 
beyond the ordinary subject. 

LIBERTY OF CONSCIENCE. The 
Jiberty of following any profession of reli¬ 
gion, which ove pleases, without any con¬ 
trol from government. 

LIBERTY (in the Manege) A void 
space in the middle of a bitt of a bridle, to 
give place to the tongue of a horse. 

LIBRA (in Astronomy). A constellation, 
and one of the twelve signs of the zodiac, 
marked thus (^b). 

LIBRARIAN. One who has charge of 
a library 

LIBRARY. A large collection of books, 
also the place which contains them. The 
first library spoken of in history was that 
formed by Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. 
Eumenes, king of Pergamus, also formed 
a library of 200,000 volumes; but the li¬ 
brary of Alexandria, formed by Ptolemy 
Philadelpaus, contained 700,000. Among 
Jie libraries of the moderns, that of the 


Biblistheque Imperial, of Paris, is 
the most celebrated. It was begun 
in the middle of the 14th Century with 
ten volumes, but has been augmented, 
till it now contains 1,200,000 printed 
Volumes and 84,000 manuscript volumes. 

LIBRATION. In astronomy, an ap¬ 
parent irregularity of the moon’s mo¬ 
tion, by which she appears to librate 
about her axis. 

LIBRETTO. A little book containing 
the words of an opera. 

LICHEN. In botany, an order of 
plants of very low organization, which 
grow on the bark of trees, on rocks, and 
on the ground. In pathology, an erup¬ 
tion of the skin; a cutaneous distemper. 

LICTOR. A Roman officer, who bore 
an axe and fasces or rods, as ensigns of 
his office. 

LIEBERKUHN. A metallic mirror at¬ 
tached to the object-glass end of a mi¬ 
croscope for the purpose of throwing 
down light on opaque objects; a reflector 

LIEUTENANT. In the army or navy, 
one who supplies the place and dis¬ 
charges the duty of his immediate su¬ 
perior in his absence. 

LIEUTENANT GENERAL. In the 
United States, an officer next in rank 
below the Governor of a State and du¬ 
ring the absence of the Governor per- 
forms his duties. 

LIEN. A legal claim; the right by 
which the possessor of property holds 
it against the owner in satisfaction of a 
demand. 

LIEVRITE. A brownish-black miner¬ 
al, occui'ring in long, vertically striated, 
pi’ismatic crystals. 

LIGAN. In law, goods sunk in the 
sea, but tied to a cork or buoy, in order 
to be found again. 

LIGAMENT. In anatomy, a strong 
elastic membrane or substance connec¬ 
ting the extremities of the movable 
bones. In conchology, an external sub¬ 
stance, generally of a compact fibrous 
texture, by which the two valves oi 
bivalvular shells are united. 

LIGNINE. The proximate chemical 
principle of wood; the fibre of wood, 
forming about 95 per cent, of barked 
wood, and the chief ingredient of cot¬ 
ton, linen, and paper. 

LIGNITE. Fossil wood carbonized, 
and converted into a kind of coal. 

LIGNUM VIT2E. A very hard and 
close-grained wood, of the plant Guaiac- 
um officinale, remarkable for the direc¬ 
tion of its fibres, each layer of which 
crosses the preceding diagonally. A 
native of S. Amei’ica and the W. Indies. 

LIGULA. In botany, a membraxxous 
appendage at the apex of the sheathing 
petiole of gi’asses. In Entomology, the 
lower lip of insects; also, the name of a 
genus of Entozoa. forming the family 
Cestoidea, Ligulated flowers, in botany, 
are such as have a monopetalous slit on 
one side, and open flat, as in the Dan¬ 
delion. 




























226 


LIM 


LIN 




LIGATURE (in Surgery). The disposing 
•i bandage* for closing wounds 

LIGATURE (among Printers). Type 
consisting of two letters in one piece, as 
if, &c. 

LIGHT (in Optics). The sensation 
which arises from beholding any object, or 
the cause of that sensation. The nature and 
properties of light, and the changes which 
it undergoes in passing through bodies, 
form a principal part of the science of op¬ 
tics. 

LIGHT (in Painting). That part of a 
piece which is illumined. 

LIGHT (in Architecture). Lights are the 
apertures in a house. 

LIGHT (in Military Affairs). An epithet 
for soldiers lightly armed, as lighthorse, or 
lightinfantry. 

LIGHTER. A large vessel for carrying 
goods. 

LIGHTERAGE. Money paid for the 
carrying goods in a lighter. 

LIGHTERMAN. One who conducts a 
lighter. 

LIGHTHOUSE. A tower or lofty build- 
in g on the seacoast, having a light in it, 
for the guidance of mariners at night. 

LIGHTNING. In physics, the flash 
that precedes thunder; an electric 
phenomenon produced by the passage 
of electricity between one cloud and 
another, or between a cloud and the 
earth. 

LILASINE. A chemical principle dis¬ 
covered in lilac. 

LILIACE2E. A natural order of Endo- 
gens, containing many of the most 
beautiful floral plants of that class of 
the vegetable kingdom, of which the 
Lilium, or Lily, is the type. 

LILY ENCRINITE. In geology, the 
fossil zoophyte, one of the most beauti¬ 
ful of the Crinoidean family, found in 
the Muschelkalk; so termed from the 
resemblance it bears to the head of a 
lily when the arms are folded. 

LIMACIANS. A name comprehending 
the genera of Slugs. 

LIMB. In astronomy, a term applied 
to the edge of a planet. 

LIMBERS. In the artillery service, 
two-wheel carriages having boxes for 
ammunition. 

LIMBAT. A name in the island of 
Cyprus applied to a cooling wind, blow¬ 
ing from 8 A. M. till mid-day or later; 
the local sea-breeze. 

LIMBO, or LIMBUS. A region border¬ 
ing on hell; purgatory. Ariosto makes 
it the place of all lost things; Milton 
the paradise of fools; and Shakspeare. 
hell itself. 

LIME (in Mineralogy). An earthy sub¬ 
stance, which is found purest in limestone, 
marble, and chalk, and is procured by 
burning in " white heel It is of a white 


colour, and easily reduced to a powder. 
If water be poured on newly burnt lime, 
it swells and falls to a powder, in which 
state it is called slacked lime. 

LIME (in Botany). A tree ofthe orang* 
kind, that grows in warm climates. 



LIME KILNS. Furnaces in which lime¬ 
stone is converted into lime by burning. 

LIMESTONE. The native carbonate 
of lime, which is generally rather blue, 
from the presence of iron 
LIMIT (in Mathematics). A determi¬ 
nate quantity, to which a variable one 
continually approaches 
LIMITATION (in Law). A certain time 
prescribed by statute, within which an 
action must be brought 
LIMNING The art of painting in wa¬ 
ter colours. 

LINCHPIN, or LINSPIN. An iron pin 
that keeps the wheel on the axle-tree. 

LINE (in Geometry). A quantity ex 
tended in length only Lines are eithei 
curves or right lines. 

LINE (in Fortification). Whatever is 
drawn on the ground of the field, as a 
trench, ora row of gabions, &c. 

LTNE (in Military Affairs). Regular 
troops, in distinction from the militia, 
volunteers, &c. 

LINE, or a Ship of ths Link (in Naval 
Affairs). Is any vessel of war large 
enough to be drawn up in the line of battle 
LINE (in Geography). Another name 
for the equator, or equinoctial line. 

LINE OF BATTLE. The dispositioi 
of an army for battle. 

LINEN. A kind of cloth made of flax 
LING. A sort of cod fish. 

LINN A3 AN SYSTEM. A system of 
natural history, so called from Linnaeus, 
the Swedish naturalist. It comprehends a 
scientific arrangement of all natural ob¬ 
jects, as animals, plants, and minerals into 
three kingdoms, subdivided into classes, 
orders, genera, species, and varieties, with 






LIV 


LIS 

a (lesciiptioi of their generic and specific 

characters. 

LINNET. A small singing bird, of the 
finch kind. The bird in America called 
indigo bird is a variety of the linnet 



LINSEED. The seed of hemp or flax, 
from which an oil is extracted. 

LINT. Linen scraped into a soft, wool¬ 
ly substance, fit for applying to wounds. 

LINTEL. The upper part of a door or 
window frame. 

LION. The fiercest and noblest of all 
wild beasts, which is made to be the em¬ 
blem of strength and valour, and is on that 
account the most frequently borne in coats 
of arms. It is a native of Africa and In¬ 
dia, and being nearly allied to the cat 
tribe, is classed by Linnteus under the 
sun# genus. 



LIQUIDS (in Chemistry). Fluids which 
are not elastic, nor diminish sensibly in 
bulk, in distinction from gases or elastic 
fluids. 

LIQUIDS (in Grammar). The letters 
1, m, n, r, so called from their soft and 
melting sound. 

LIQUOR. Any thing liquid that may 
be drank, particularly what is of a spiritu¬ 
ous nature. 

LIQUORICE. A shrub, the root of 
which is full of a sickly sweet juice. 

LIST. A roll or catalogue of names. 

LIST, Civil (in England). The whole 
of the king’s revenue. 

LIST (among Mariners). An inclination 
to one side, applied to a ship. 

LIST (among Clothiers). A border or 
edge ef cloth. 


ttJ 

LIST, or LISTELL (in AreMtecture). 
A small band or square moulding, serving 
to crown larger mouldings. 

LISTS. A place enclosed with rails, 
within which tournaments or feats of arms 
were exhibited. 

LITANY. A general supplication or 
prayer sung or said in churches, especially 
that in the Book of Common Prayer. 

LITERARY PROPERTY. The right 
which authors have in their works. 

LITHARGE. The scum or dross that 
arises in purifying silver with lead. It i» 
an oxide of lead. 

LITHIC ACID. An acid extracted from 
the urinary calculi. 

LITHOGRAPHIC. An epithet for what 
pertains to engraving on stone, as litho¬ 
graphic impressions, those which are taken 
on paper from engravings on stone. 

LITHOGRAPHY. The art of cutting 
or engraving on stone, from which impres¬ 
sions are taken on paper. 

LITHOMARGE. An earth of the clay 
kind, which is known by the name of 
fuller’s earth and potter’s clay. 

LITHOTOMY (in Surgery). The ope 
ration of removing a calculus or stone from 
the bladder. 

LITMUS (in Chemistry). A substance 
from which is formed a tincture that serves 
as a test of the presence of an acid or an 
alkali. All acids and salts change the 
natural violet of the litmus into red, and 
all alkalies restore it to its natural colom 
the violet. 

LITURGY. A set form of prayer, or a 
formulary of public devotion. 

LITTORAL. In geology, applied to 
operations and deposits which take 
place near the shore,in contradistinction 
to those of a deep-water character; in 
botany, growing on the sea-shore or on 
the banks of a river; Littoral Zone, that 
zone of marine life which lies between 
high and low water mark, varying in 
extent according to the rise and fall or 
the tide, and shallowness of the shore. 

LITURGY. The established formulas 
for public worship. 

XIVER. In anatomy, a large abdom¬ 
inal organ, of a deep red color, lying 
under the false ribs on the right side; 
its principal use is to secrete the bile, 

LIVERYMEN (of London). A certain 
number of pers'-*'* chosen from among the 
freemen of each tympany in the city. Out 
of this body are chosen the common coun 
cil, sheriff, and ether superior officers of 
the city, and they alone have the privilege 
of voting at the election of member* oi 
parliament. 

LIVERY STABLES. Public lUfien 
where horses are let out to hare. 






128 


LOA 


LOO 


LIVRE. A money of account formerly 
used In France, equal to twenty sous, or 
twenty cents 

LIXIVIUM. A lye made of ashes. 

LIZARD. An extensive tribe of ani¬ 
mals, classed by Linnaeus under the genus 
lacesta, comprehending the crocodile, bas¬ 
ilisk, chameleon, and salamander. The 
lizard, properly so called, is a little reptile 
of a green colour, and is frequently to be 
met with in gardens or under dunghills, &c. 



LLAMA (in Natural History). An ani¬ 
mal of the camel kind in Peru and Chili, 
which has a bunch on the breast, long, 
soft bair, and defends itself by ejecting its 
saliva 



LLANDELLO FORMATION. In geol¬ 
ogy, the lowest series of the Silurian 
system. 

LLANOS. A term applied to extensive 
treeless plains which extend along the 
banks of the river Orinoco,in S. America. 

LLOYD’S. A part of the Royal Ex¬ 
change in London, appropriated to the 
use of underwriters and insurance 
brokers; so called from Lloyd’s coffee¬ 
house having been the original place of 
meeting. 

LOADSTONE. A sort of ore dug out 
of iron mines, on which the needle of the 
mariner’s compass is touched, to give it a 
direction nortn or south it is a peculiarly 
rich ore of iron, found in large masses in 
England, and most other places where 
there are mines of that metal. It is of a 
deep Iren gray, and when fresh broken, it 
is often tinged with a brownish or reddish 
colour. 

LOAF. A lump of bread of a certain 
weight, worked by the baker into a par- 


LOASACE7E. In botany, the Chili- 
nettle family, an order of plants, alli¬ 
ance Cactales. The Lo'asacese are all 
natives of North and South America. 

LOAF (among Sugar-bakers). A lump 
of sugar of a conical form. 

LOAM, or LOME. A particular kind 
of fat, unctuous, and tenacious earth, tlia> 
is used much by gardeners in making com 
post. 

LOAN. In general, any thing intrusted 
to another to be returned again; particu 
larly money. 

LOAN (in Political Economy). Sums 
of money borrowed from individuals oi 
public bodies for the service of the state. 
This practice of borrowing money to defray 
the extraordinary expenses in time of war 
which has been adopted in Great Britain 
during several of her late wars, has given 
rise to the national debt. All loans on the 
part of government in England, are con 
traded for by the Chancellor of the Exche¬ 
quer, and afterwards confirmed by parlia¬ 
ment. Loans used formerly to be granted 
by public bodies to the king in considera¬ 
tion of certain privileges that were secured 
to them, but now money is commonly 
advanced by individuals, in consideration 
of receiving interest. 

LOBBY (in Architecture). A kind of 
passage, room, or gallery, as the lobby in 
a theatre 

LOBBY (in Naval Architecture). A 
small room near the bread-room In a 
vessel of war, appropriated to the use o' 
the surgeon. 

LOBE (m Anatomy) A division in any 
body, as the lungs or liver 

LOBE (in Botany) A division in seeds, 
such as beans, peas, &c. 

LOBSTER. A small crustaceous fish, 
having a cylii irical body, with a long tail 
and long anten. te. Lobsters are found on 
most of the rocky coasts of England, and 
are abundant in this country 



LOCAL (In Law). Tied or joined to a 
place; thus real actions are local, because 
they must b® brought in the country where 
the lands, &c. lie. 

LOCAL COLOURS (in Painting). Sue., 
as are natural and proper for each par 
ticular object in a picture 







LOC 


LOO 


229 


LOCAL PROBLEM (in Mathematics). 
That which admits of innumerable solu¬ 
tions 

LOCK (among Smiths) A piece of iron 
work, which is looked upon as a master¬ 
piece in snithery, as much art and nicety 
is required in contriving and varying the 
springs, bolts, and different parts to the 
U9es for v\ bich they are intended. Locks 
intended ter outer doors are called stock- 
locks, those on chamber doors spring-locks, 
oesides which there are padlocks, trunk- 
locks, Ac. The principle on which all 
’ocks depend is the application of a lever, 
‘.hat is the key, to an interior bolt, by 
means of a communication from without; 
and the security of locks depends upon 
the impediments which may be interposed 
between this lever and the bolt. These 
impediments have commonly been pro¬ 
duced by means of the wards of the key 
so artfully contrived as to preclude the 
access of all othei instruments besides the 
key to the bolt. As these contrivances 
have not, however, been always an effec¬ 
tual bar, Mr. Bramah has constructed a 
lock on such a principle that the office 
which in other locks is performed by the 
extreme point of the key is here assigned 
to a lever, which cannot approach the bolt 
until every part of the lock has undergone 
a change ol position. 

LOCK, or vVeir (in Inland Navigation) 

4 name for all works of wood or stone 
which are made to confine or raise the 
water of a river or canal. In artificial 
navigations the lock consists of two gates, 
the upper one called the sluice gate, arid 
the under one the flood gate. 

LOCK (among Gunsmiths). That part 
ol amu8net by which the is produced for 
the discharge of the piece. 

LOCKED JAW. A spasmodic affec¬ 
tion which prevents the motion of the 
jaws. 

LOCKER (among Mariners). A box or 
chest m which things are stowed. 

LOCHABER-AXE. A formidable weap¬ 
on of war, formerly used by the High¬ 
landers of Scotland, consisting of a 
short pole with a sharp axe at one end. 

LOCHIA. In medicine, the discharge 
that flows from the uterus and vagina 
after child-birth "while the mucous 
membrane is returning to its former 
condition. 

LOCULAMENT. In botany, the cell 
in the pericarp of a plant, in which the 
seed is lodged. 

LOCUS. In geometery, a line or sur¬ 
face over which a point may travel so 
as always to be in a position which sat¬ 
isfies some given condition; the linei 
generated by a point, moving according' 
to a fixed law. 


LOCUST. A voracious insect, like the 
grasshopper, which in some parts, particu¬ 
larly in Africa and Asia Minor, fall like a 
cloud upon the country, and lay waste all 
before them. They are no less terrible 
dead than alive, for their putrified carcas¬ 
ses cause a pestilence where tl happen 
to alight 



LODE. In mining, a metallic vein, or 
any regular vein or course; a cut or 
reach of water. 

LODGMENT. The a,ct of lodging, or 
the state of being lodged; accumulation 
or collection of something deposited or 
remaining at rest. In military affairs, 
an encampment made by an army; a 
work cast up by besiegers during their 
approaches, in some dangerous post. 

LOGAN. In geology, a large rock so 
balanced as to be easily moved; a large 
rocking stone. 

LOGANIACE7E. In botany, a natural 
order of dichlamydeous Exogens, of 
which Logania is the type. 

LOG (among Mariners). A flat piece of 
wood, with lead at one end ani a line at 
the other, for measuring the rate of a ship’s 
sailing. 

LOGARITHMS. Numbers bo contrived 
and adapted to other numbers, that the 
sums and differences of the former shall 
correspond to and show the products and 
quotients of the latter, or more properly a 
series of numbers in arithmetical progres¬ 
sion answering to another series in geo 
metrical progression, thus, 

0, 1,2, 3, 4, 5, &c. Indices or Logarithms. 
1,2, 4, 8, 16, 32, Ac. Geomet. Progression 
Or, 

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Ac. Indices or Logs 
1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, Ac. Geomet. Prog. 

Or, 

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, Ac. Indices or Log 

1, 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, Ac. Geom. Prog. 
Where it is evident that the same numbers 
in arithmetical progression, which are the 
logarithms or indices, serve equally for any 
geometrical series, consequently there may 
be an endless variety of systems of loga¬ 
rithms to the ssm? common numbers, by 
only changing the second term, 2, 3, 10, 
Ac. of the geometrical series. If cny two 
indices he added together their sum will 
be equal to the product of the two terms i® 





2W 


LOW 


LOO 


geometrical progression with which those 
indices correspond, thus, 2 and 3 added 
together are equal to 5, and the numbers 
4 and 8 corresponding with those indices 
being multiplied together are equal to 32, 
which is the number answering to the 
index 5. So if any index be subtracted 
from another, the difference will be the 
index of that number, which is equal to 
the quotient of the two terms to which 
those indices belong, thus the index 
6 —4=2, then 64 divided by 16, the teuns 
corresponding to these two indices leaves 
the quotient 4, which answers to the index 
2. Logarithms being the exponents of 
ratios are on that account called indices, 
thus the logarithm 2 is the exponent or 
index of the several numbers in the geo¬ 
metrical series over which it stands, as 2 2 » 
or the square of 2 equal to 4 in the first 
series, 32 or square of 3, that is 9, in the 
second series, and 10 2 or the square of 10 , 
that is 100 , in the third series; so likewise 
3 is the index or exponent for the cube 
numbers 8 , 27, 1000, &c. over which it 
stands. 

LOG-BOARD. A table on which an 
account of the ship’s way is marked. 

LOG-BOOK. The book in which the 
account of the log is transcribed. 

LOGIC. The art which teaches the right 
use of reason, and treats of the several 
operations of the mind which are em¬ 
ployed in argumentation or reasoning. 

LOG LINE. The line fastened to the 
log, which is divided into certain spaces 
fifty feet in length, by knots or pieces of 
knotted twine, unreeved between the 
strands of the line, which show, by means 
of a half-minute glass, how many of these 
spaces or knots are run out in half a 
minute, and as the distance of the knots 
bears the same proportion to a mile that 
half a minute does to an hour, whatever 
number of knots the ship runs in half a 
minute, the same number of miles she runs 
in an hour. 

LOGOGRAPHY. A method of printing 
in which the types form whole words in¬ 
stead of letters. By this method the me¬ 
mory of the compositor is less burdened, 
and the business proceeds with more ex¬ 
pedition and less liability to err. It is also 
said that the logographic method is not 
more expensive than the common method. 

LOGWOOD. A sort of wood used by 
dyers, called also Campeche wood, be¬ 
cause it was originally brought fn m Cam- 
pechy, in New Spain. Logwood is very 
dense and firm in its texture, exceedingly 
heavy, so as to sink into water, of a deep 
red colour, and admits of a fine polish 


It yields its colour both to spirituous and 
watery menstrua, but alcohol extracts it 
more readily than water. Acids turn its 
dye to a yellow, alkalies deepen its colour, 
and give it a purple or violet hue. 

LOMENTACEA2 (in Botany). The 
name of the thirty-thi-d natural order in 
Linnaeus’s Fragments, consisting of plants 
many of which furnish beautiful dyes, and 
the pericarpium of which is always a pod 
containing seeds that are carinacenus, o? 
meally, like thoseof the bean, as the cassia, 
the wild senna, logwood, mimosa, or the 
sensitive plant, &c. 

LONDON PRIDE. A p’ant be?ring a 
small flower. 

LONG (in Music). A note equal ‘c , .'"o 
breves. 

LONG BOAT (among Mariners) The 
strongest and longest boat belcr.g i ng t"» a 
vessel of war. 

LONG BOW An ancient 00 w that was 
once much used. 

LONGIMETRY. The meaeorir»y of 
lengths or distances, both accessible and 
inaccessible. 

LONGITUDE (in Astronomy). Ar. 
of the ecliptic intercepted between tlv 
beginning of Aries and the if ttw 

ecliptic cut by the circle of long’.tuce ’.be¬ 
longing to any star. 

LONGITUDE (in Geography Th* «: 
tent of the earth from east to v.eai 

LONGITUDE OF A PLACE. Ar are 
of the equator intercepted between some 
given point called the first merid nr. zrd 
the meridian passing through tne proposed 
place. This may be either east o. west, 
according as it is reckoned on ths ei* or 
west side of the first meridian. 

LOOF. A sea term for the after par- of 
a ship’s bow. 

LOOKING-GLASS. A plain glass 
mirror, whicli being impervious to the 
light, reflects the images of things placed 
before it. 

LOOM (among Weavers) A frame by 
which the process of weaving is per¬ 
formed. 

LOOM. A sea term for a ship whTL 
when seen at distance, appears big. 

LOOP (in Gunnery). A small iron Ur j, 
in the barrel of a gun. 

LOOP (in the Iron Works). A pan, ot 
a sow or block of cast iron, broken or 
melted off from the rest. 

LOOP. A sea term for the nooee in a rp; a. 

LOOPHOLES (among Mariners' Holes 
in the coamings of the hatches of a ship 
for firing muskets through. 

LOOPHOLES (in Fortification). Little 
holes in the walls of a castle or fbrtific*- 



LUS 


LOU 

lion, through which arrows were dis¬ 
charged. 

LORD. In England, any peer of the 
realm} also a title of honour sometimes 
given to persons by virtue of their office, 
as the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Chief 
Justice, the Lord Mayor. 

LORD OP A MANOR (in England). A 
person that had a fee, and consequently 
the homage of the tenants within his ma¬ 
nor, and also the privilege of holding a 
court baron. Lords of the manor still re¬ 
tain some of the old manorial rights. 

LORY. A bird of the parrot kind. 

LOTE TREE. A kind of tree which 
from its jagged leaves was called the nettle 
tree. 

LOTION. The washing or cleansing of 
any medicine with water; also a wash for 
the skin 

LORCHA, Alight coasting vessel used 
in China, and the Eastern seas, having 
the hull built on a European model, but 
rigged like a Chinese junk. 

LOTE-TliEE. The African shrub Zizy- 
phus lotus, the lotus of the Lotophagi, 
or Lotus-eaters. The fruit, is used as 
food for cattle, and converted into bread 
by the natives. 

LOTUS. A genus of leguminous 
plants, the name of which was applied 
to an Egyptian plant (the Water-lily of 
the Nile), and to the several species of 
the genus lotus. 

LOW PRESSURE. A term applied to 
a steam-engine, the motive force of 
which is produced by forming a vacu¬ 
um within the cyliilder by drawing off 
the steam into another vessel called the 
condenser, and there condensing it. 

LOZENGE (in Heraldry). A figure 
which is used to contain the coats of arms 
of all maidens and widows. 



LOZENGE (in Geometry). A quadri¬ 
lateral figure, having two angles acute and 
die two opposite ones obtuse. 

LOZENGE (in Pharmacy). A medicine 
made to be held in the mouth, which was 
originally in the form of a lozenge. 

L. S. An abbreviation for locus sigilli, 
the place of the seal. 

LOUIS, St., Order of. An order of 
knighthood instituted 1693, by Louis XIV 


231 

( LOXA BARK. In botany, a pale Peru¬ 
vian bark, the product of Cinchona con- 
I daminea. 

LOXODROMICS. The art of oblique 
sailing by the rhomb, which always 
makes an equal angle with every meri¬ 
dian. 

LUGGER. A small vessel carrying eithej 
two or three masts, with a running bow¬ 
sprit, upon which lugsails are set, and 
sometimes topsails adapted to them 



LUMBAGO. A rheumatic affection of 
the muscles about the loins. 

LUNACY. A kind of madness, so called 
because supposed to be influenced by the 
moon. 

LUNAR. Belonging to the moon, as a 
lunar eclipse, month, year, &c. 

LUNATICS. Are properly such as have 
diseased imaginations, which deprive them 
of the use of their reasoning faculty, some¬ 
times altogether and sometimes only on 
particular subjects. 

LUNATION, otherwise called the Sy¬ 
nodical Month. A revolution of the 
moon, or the time between one new moon 
and another. 

LUNE (in Mathematics). A geometrical 
figure in form of a crescent. 

LUNGS (in Anatomy). A viscus in the 
animal body, composed of two lobes or 
divisions, which are spongy bodies, situ¬ 
ated in the chest, and serving the purpose 
of respiration. 

LUPINE. A sort of pulse, which bears 
a papilionaceous flower. Theie are several 
species of lupines cultivated in gardens, as 
the white lupine, the small blue lupine, 
and the great blue lupine, &c. which are 
all annuals except one species, called by 
distinction the perennial lupine. 

LUPUS. The Wolf in Astronomy, a 
constellation in the southern hemisphere. 

LURID^E (in Botany). A natural order 
of plants in the Linnaean system, which 
are poisonous, as the nightshade, digitalis, 
&.c. 

LUSTRATION. The ceremony of purl 
fication performed by the ancient Romani 




































MAC 


232 MAC 

every five years; whence that space was 
called a lustrum. 

LUSTRE (in Mineralogy). One charac¬ 
ter of mineral bodies, which in that respect 
are distinguished into splendent, shining, 
glistening, glimmering, and dull. 

LUTE. A stringed instrument, contain¬ 
ing at first only five rows of strings, to 
which were afterwards added six more. 
It was formerly much used. 

LUTE (in Chemistry). A compound 
paste made of potter’s clay, sand, and 
other materials, for the purpose of closing 
up the necks of retorts, receivers, &c. in 
different chemical experiments. 

LUTHERANISM. The doctrines of 
Martin Luther, the German reformer, 
which form the creed of all the protestants 
in Germany who are not Calvinists. 

LYCOPODIUM, or Ci.ub Moss. A 
sort of moss, the seeds of which when 
ignited burn oft’ like a flash of lightning. 
It is used in the London theatres. 

LYDIAN STONE A stone of a gray¬ 
ish black colour, which is found in Bohe¬ 
mia and other parts of Germany, and also 
in Scotland. When polished, it is used as 
a test stone for determining the purity of 
gold and silver. It was used for that pur¬ 
pose among the ancients, by whom it 
received this name, because it was found 
only in the Tmolus, a river of Lydia 


LYE. A composition of ashes and wa 
ter for washing or scouring. 

LYMPH (in Anatomy). Aclearlympid 
humour, secreted from the blood, which 
is carried by the lymphatic vessels into the 
thoracic duct, where it mixes with the 
chyle. 

LYMPHATICS. The lyn phatic ve* 
sels. 

LYNX. A wild beast, of a tawny brown 
colour, with black spots, and very quick 
sighted, which in its habits resembles the 
wild cat. 





LYRA. The lyre, a constellation inth 
northern hemisphere. 

LYRE. A musical stringed instrument, 
much used by the ancients. 

LYRIC. Pertaining to the harp, as lyric 
verse, poetry made for or set to the harp 


M, the thirteenth letter of the alphabet, 
which as a numeral stands for mille, a 
thousand, and with a stroke over it, thus 
M, it stood for 1,000,000. As an abbre¬ 
viation M. A. stands for Master of Arts, 
M. D. Doctor of Medicine, D. Mus. Doctor 
of Music, MS. Manuscript, MSS. Manu¬ 
scripts. 

MACADAMIZING. A method of mak¬ 
ing roads, introduced by Mr. Mac Adam, 
which consists in breaking the stones so 
small that they may bind with the earth 
into a solid smooth mass. 

MACARONIC POEM. A sort of bur¬ 
lesque poetry. 

MACAROON. A sweetmeat made of 
almonds. 

MACCAW. A kind of parrot. 

MACE (in Botany). A sort of spice, the 
Becond coat of the kernel of the nutmeg, 
a thin membranaceous substance, of an 
oleaginous nature,, a yellow colour, an 
extremely fragrant aromatic perfume, and 
it pleasant but acrid and oleaginous taste. 

MACE fin State Etiquette). In England, 


an ornamented staff, borne as an ensign 
of honour before a magistrate. 

MACERATION (in Pharmacy). An 
infusion of ingredients in any liquid, in 
order to soften them. 

MACHINE. An engine composed of 
several parts, put together by mechanical 
art and contrivance, for the purpose of 
raising bodies, assisting, regulating, or 
stopping their motions, &c. Simple ma¬ 
chines comprehend the six mechanical 
powers. Compound machines are com¬ 
posed of the simple. Machines are like¬ 
wise distinguished according to the pur¬ 
pose for which they are used into the 
architectural machine, electrical machine, 
hydraulic machine, &,c. 

MACHINE INFERNAL. A machine 
used in modern warfare, for the purpose 
of blowing up bridges, &.c. 

MACKEREL. A well known fifch, that 
visits the shores of the ocean in the sum¬ 
mer Beason in vast shoals. 

MACKEREL-GALE. A strong breeze 
that is very favourable for mackerel fishing 







MAG 


MAG 


MACULA! (in Astronomy) Dark spots 
appearing on the .uminous surfaces of the 
sun and moon, and even some of the 
planets. 

MACULA! (in Medicine). Discolora¬ 
tions on the surface of the body. 

MADDER. A substance used in dying, 
which is extracted from the root of a 
plant botanically distinguished by the 
name of rubia. The madder root grows 
in France and other countries of Europe, 
that of Zealand is the best of European 
growth, but that which comes from the 
Levant is still more esteemed. 

MADEIRA A rich wine made in the 
island of Madeira. 

MADRIGAL. A short amorous poem 

MAGAZINE (in Commerce). A ware¬ 
house for all sorts of merchandise. 

MAGAZINE (in Military Affairs). A 
storehouse for arms, &c. 

MAGAZINE (in Literature). A periodi¬ 
cal work containing miscellaneous matter. 

M AGGOT. The larva of flies, bees, See. 

MAGI. Astrologers and priests among 
the Persians and Asiatics. 

MAGIC. The black art, or the pre¬ 
tended art of producing supernatural ef¬ 
fects, derived from the Persian magi. 

MAGIC SQUARE (in Arithmetic). Fi¬ 
gures so disposed into parallel and equal 



ranks as that the sums of each row, a i well 
diagonally as laterally, shall be equal. 

MAGIC LANTERN. An optical ma¬ 
chine, by means of which are represented 
on an opposite wall in a dark room, mon¬ 
strous figures, magnified to any size at 



pleasure This eontrf zanee consists of a 
common lantern with a candle in it, as in 

20 * 


the subjoined figure, to which is added a 
tube, and a lens that throws the light on 
the object, and another lens which magni 
fies the image on the wall. Then by con 
tracting the tube, and bringing the glass 
nearer to the object, the image will be 
enlarged. 

MAGNA CHARTA (in England). Or 
the great charter of liberties first granted 
by King John in the seventeenth year of 
his reign, a. d. 1215. This was afterwards 
renewed, with some alterations, by his 
son and successor Henry III. and repeated¬ 
ly confirmed both by this king and King 
Edward I. The Magna Charta which is 
the first statute given in the statute books, 
is the same as that granted by Henry III 
in the ninth year of his reign. 

MAGNESIA. A white, soft powder,and 
one of the primitive earths, having a me¬ 
tallic basis called magnesium. It is mostly 
extracted from talc, asbestos, boracite, and 
other stones. 

MAGNESIUM. See Manganese 

MAGNET. See Loadstone. 

MAGNETIC or MAGNETICAL. Per¬ 
taining to the magnet or loadstone, as 
magnetic attraction, magnetic needle, See 

MAGNETICAL MERIDIAN. A great 
circle in the heavens, which intersects the 
horizon in the points to which the mag 
neticai needle, when at rest, directs itself 

MAGNETIC NEEDLE. See Needle 

MAGNETISM. The property of attract¬ 
ing and repelling iron, as the loadstone 
does, which was partially known to the 
ancients, but it does not appear that they 
knew any thing of its directive power, 
which has been so usefully employed by 
the moderns. The natural magnet has the 
power of communicating its properties to 
iron or steel, which then becomes a magnet 
itself, and is employed as such on most 
occasions. 

MAGNETISM, Animal. A pretended 
science, which professed to cure diseases, 
particularly nervous disorders, by commu¬ 
nicating a sort of magnetical fluid or virtue 
from one body to another. 

MAGNIFYING (in Philosophy). The 
making objects appear larger by t'.e means 
of glasses than they do to the naked eye ; 
convex glasses, which have this power, 
are called magnifying glasses, of which 
microscopes are made. 

MAGNITUDE. The extension of any 
thing, whether it be in one direction, as a 
line ; in two directions, as a surface j or 
in three directions, as a solid. 

MAGNOLIA. A plant, of which the 
magnolia grandiflora, or the great mag¬ 
nolia, is the principal species. It is a 




































MAL 


284 MAL 

■ative of Florida, and bears a beautiful 
milk white flower. 

MAGPIE. A cunning, variegated bird 
common in Europe and found in the wes¬ 
tern region* of the United States. 

MAHOGANY (In Botany). A beautiftil 
wood, belonging to a tree that grows in 
America and the West Indies, known by 
the botanical name of the svvetenea raa- 
hogani, or the mahogany tree. 

MAHOMETANS. Believers in the doc¬ 
trines and divine mission of the Impostor 
Mahomet 

MAIDEN-HAIR. A plant, native of til* 
south of France. 

MAJESTY. A title given commonly to 
kings. It was first used in England In 
the reign of Henry VIII. instead of high¬ 
ness. 

MAIHEM, or MAYHEM. A corporal 
wound or hurt, by which a man loses tho 
use of any member. It originally applied 
to such corporal injuries as rendered a 
man less fit for war. 

MAIL, or Mail Bag. A leathern bag 
for the conveyance of letters. 

MAIL-COACH. A coach of a particular 
construction for expeditious travelling, 
several of which are employed by govern¬ 
ment for the conveyance of letters to all 
parts of England. Mail coaches were first 
brought into use in 1784. In the United 
States the coaches belong to proprietor* 
with whom the government contracts to 
carry the mail. 

MAINPRIZE (in Law). Receiving a 
person into friendly custody who might 
otherwise be committed to prison, on secu¬ 
rity given for his forthcoming on a day 
ippointed •, a sort'of bail. 

M AINTENANCE (in Law). The wrong- 
ill upholding another in a cause. 

MAJOR (in Military Affairs). An officer 
ibove a captain. 

MAJOR-GENERAL. He who receives 
ihe general’s order. 

MAJOR OF A BRIGADE. The officer 
who receives the orders from the major- 
general. 

MAJOR OF A REGIMENT. The offi¬ 
cer next the lieutenant-colonel. 

MAJOR, Town. The third officer of a 
garrison. 

MALACHITE. A mineral, the green 
carbonate of copper, found frequently 
crystallized in long slender needles. It 
consists of t /pper, carbonic acid, oxygen, 
and water. 

MALACOLITE. A mineral found in the 
silver mines in Sweden, and also in Nor¬ 
way, consisting of a liea, lime, magnesia, 
alumina, oxide of iron, &c. 


MAJUSCULiE. Capital letters,in wliich 
Latin manuscripts, before the sixth cen 
tury, were written. 

MALTHA. A term applied to slaggv 
mineral pitch, as distinct from fluid 
petroleum, and from solid asphalt. 

MALTHUSIAN. Pertaining to Mal- 
fchus, who taught that population in¬ 
creased more rapidly than the means of 
subsistence could be made to increase, 
and consequently the undue increase 
of population should be checked, and 
early marriages discouraged. 

MAMALUKE. A term applied to a 
military force in Egypt, which was 
destroyed by Mehemet Aliin 1811. 

MAMMEA. The Mammee apple, the 
produce of a fruit-tree of tropical Am¬ 
erica. 

MALLEOLI. In military science, 
bundles of wood, made of combustible 
materials, for setting on fire at night, to 
discover the position of an enemy. 

MALTHA. In mineralogy, a soft glut¬ 
inous substance which smells like 
pitch; mineral pitch. 

MALVACE2E. In botany, a natural 
order of exogenous plants, of which the 
Malva, or Mallow tree, is the genus. 

MAMMALIA, In zoology, the first 
grand division of vertebrated animals 
which suckle their young. Mammalogy 
is the science of mammiferous animals. 

MAMMOTH. A fossil elephant of im¬ 
mense size, the bones of one of which 
were discovered buried in ice in the 
north of Russia. 

MAN. In zoology and natural history, 
the great epitome of all science and art; 
the sole specific example of the only 
genus Homo, as contained in Cuvier’s 
order Bimana. The great naturalist, 
Blumenbach, divides this species into 
five varieties. 1. The Caucasian va¬ 
riety, which includes all the ancient 
and mpdern Europeans, except the 
Fins; the former and present inhabi¬ 
tants of Western Asia, as far as the 
River Oby, the Caspian Sea, and the 
Ganges (that is, the Assyrians, Medes, 
and Chaldeans; the Sarmatians, Scyth¬ 
ians, and Parthians; the Philistines, 
Phoenicians, Jews, and the inhabitants 
of Syria, generally; the Tartars, prop¬ 
erly so called; the tribes actually occu¬ 
pying the chain of the Caucasus; the 
Georgians, Circassians, Mingrelians, and 
Armenians; the Turks, Persians, Ara¬ 
bians, Afghauns, and Hindoos of high 
castes), and the Northern Africans, the 
Egyptians, Abyssinians, and Guanches. 
2. The Mongolian variety which in¬ 
cludes the tribes of Central and North¬ 
ern Asia; a3 the Mongolians, Calmucks, 
and Buriats; the Mantchoos, Da-urians, 
Tungooses, andCoreans; the Samoides, 
Yukagers, Koriaes, Tschuktschi, and 
Kamtschadales, the Chinese and Japan¬ 
ese, the inhabitants of Tibet and Bootan, 
of Tonquia, Cochin-China, Ava, Pegu, 
Cambodia, Laes, and Siam; the Finnish 
race# of Northern Europe, as thy Lap- 



M A N 


MAN 


231 


land or s and the tribes of Esquimaux. 
3. The Ethiopian variety, comprehend- 
all the nations of Africa not included 
In iae first variety. 4. The American 
variety, including all the native Ameri¬ 
cans except the Esquimaux. 5 . The 
Malay variety, which includes the in¬ 
habitants of Malacca, Sumatra, Java 
Borneo, Celebes, and the adjacent 
Asiatic Islands; of the Molucca, La- 
drone, Philippine, Marian, and Caroline 
groups; of New Holland, Van Diemen’s 
Land, New Guinea, New Zealand, and 
ot all the islands of the South Sea. 
Cuvier’s arrangement, however, differs 
from that of Blumenbach; he distin¬ 
guishes only three principal divisions— 
the Caucasian, the Mongolian, and the 
Ethiopian; leaving the Malay and Am¬ 
erican varieties as doubtful. 

MANCHOO, or MANTCHOO. The lan¬ 
guage spoken in Manchooria, and at the 
court of China. 

MANITOU. The name given by the 
American Indians to their spirits or gods. 


MANDAMUS (in Law). A writ original¬ 
ly granted by the king, so called from the 
first word, Mandamus, we command, com¬ 
manding corporations and inferior courts, 
or other persons, to do some particular 
thing, as to admit any one to an office and 
the like. 

MANDARIN. A Chinese magistrate. 

MANDATE. A judicial command of 
the king. 

MANDIBLE The jaw of brutes; in 
Ornithology, the bill of birds. 

MANDRAKE. A plant, whose divided 
root bears some resemblance to the legs 
and thighs of a man. 

MANDRIL, or MANDERIL. A wooden 
pulley, part of a turner’s lathe. 

MANEGE. A riding school; also the 
art of horsemanship, or the management 
of both the horse and the rider. 

MANEUUIN (in the Fine Arts). A 
little statue or model, usually made of 
wood or wax, and so contrived as to be 
put into posture at pleasure. 

MANGANESE. A mineral which, when 
pare, is of a grayish white colour, and 
considerable brilliancy; it has neither 
taste nor smell, is of the hardness of iron, 
and very brittle, when reduced to powder 
it is attracted by the magnet. The ore of 
manganese is remarkable for its sponta¬ 
neous inflammation with oil. It is much 
used by glassmakers and potters, and is 
sometimes called soap of glass. 

MANGE. A cutaneous disease incident 
to horses, dogs, xnd other domestic ani¬ 
mals ; it is attended with eruptions and 
o*e of hair 


MANGEL WURZEL. A son of turnip 
that is nearly in the shape of a carrot, but 
much larger; it is reckoned a good winter 
fodder for cows, and has been sometimes 
used in Germany as the food of man in 
times of scarcity, whence it derives Its 
name, signifying literally root of scarcity. 

MANGER. A trough out of which 
horses eat their corn or dry food. 

MANGER (among Mariners). A place 
on the deck of a vessel for receiving the 
sea water. 

MANGROVE TREE. A tree of Suri¬ 
nam, which, like the banium tree, sends 
forth numerous branches, that take root in 
the earth and form fresh trees, so as tc 
make a wood out of one main stock. 

MANICHEES. The followers of a Per¬ 
sian impostor in the third century, whc 
taught that there were two independent 
principles or gods, one good and one evil. 

MANIFEST (in Commerce). The 
draught of the cargo of a ship. 

MANIFESTO. A public declaration 
made by a prince, explaining his reasons 
for going to war or adopting any hostile 
measure towards another country. 

MANILLE. A large brass ring, like a 
bracelet, which was given by the Euro¬ 
peans in their traffic for slaves on the 
African coast. 

MANIS. An Indian animal having no 
teeth, a body covered above with scales, 
and a round extensile tongue, with whick 
it catches insects 



MANNA. The food sent from heaven 
for the support of the Israelites in the 
wilderness. 

MANNA (in Botany). A sweet Juice or 
gum which flows from many trees ana 
plants in Syria, and also in Calabria, 
where it exudes from two species of the 
ash. Its smell is strong, its taste rather 
nauseously sweet, if exposed in hot coals 
it swells up, takes fire, and leaves a light 
coal, which affords a fixed alkali. It is 
dissolved by water, and affords by distilla¬ 
tion water, acid, oil, and ammonia. 

MANOMETER, or Manoscope. An 
instrument for showing the alterations in 
the rarity and density of the air. It differs 
from the barometer, in as much as the latter 
only serves to measure the weight of the 






236 


MAP 


MAR 




atmosphere, but the former the density of 
the air in which it is found. 

MANOR (in Law). In England, a noble 
sort of fee anciently granted by the king to 
some baron to dwell upon, and to exercise 
a jurisdiction greater or less within that cir¬ 
cuit: this was in part let out to the lord’s 
tenants, and part was reserved for the use 
of his family, which latter was called terra 
dominicalis, or demesne. Some part was 
left uncultivated, which was called the 
lord’s waste. 

MANSION (in Law) The lord of the 
manor’s chief dwelling house within his 

fee. 

MANSLAUGHTER (in Law). The 
killing a man by misadventure without 
malice prepense. 

MANTELETS (in Fortification). A 
kind of moveable parapets used in a siege. 

MANTIS. A sort of insects, of which 
there are numerous species, distinguished 
by the difference and singularity of their 
shape. The chief species in Europe is the 
camel cricket, or praying mantis, so called 
because when sitting it holds up its two 
fore legs as if in the attitude of prayer. 
This is a rapacious insect, that attacks 
other insects with great fierceness. 

MANUAL. Pertaining to the hand, as 
manual operation, an operation performed 
by the hand. 

MANUAL,Sio.\ (in Law). Thesigning 
of a deed or writing, underhand and seal. 

MANUAL (in Literature). Any book 
■mall enough to be carried in the hand, 
which contains a compendium of science. 

MANUFACTURE. Any commodity 
made by the hand, or any thing formed 
from the raw materials or natural pro¬ 
ductions of a country, as cloths from wool, 
and cotton or silk goods from the cotton 
and silk, &c. 

MANUFACTURER One who employs 
his capita! in manufacturing goods 

MANUMISSION (in Law). The act of 
enfranchising, 01 setting a slave or bond¬ 
man free. 

MANURE. Whatever serves to enrich 
the ground and fit it for husbandry pur¬ 
poses, as dung, loam, soap ashes, &c 

MANUSCRIPT, abbreviated MS. or in 
the plural MSS. A book or copy written 
with the hand, in opposition to a printed 
copy. 

MAP. A plant figure representing the 
surface of the earth, or any part thereof, 
togetner with the several divisions of land 
and water, and the several countries, 
towns, and the like. It Is called a univer¬ 
sal map when It represents the whole sur¬ 
face of the earth, or the two hemispheres, 


and a particular map when it on y repre 
sents particular regions or countries A 
map is properly a representation of land 
as distinguished from a chart, which only 
represents the sea or seacoast. 

MAPLE (in Botany). A tree of whicl 
there are numerous species, classed by 
Linnaius under the scientmc name acer. 


The acer sacharinum, or sugar maple, in 
North America, is one of the most remark¬ 
able species, from which, by tapping the 
trees early in the spring is procured a vast 
quantity of sugar, a tree of an ordinary 
size yielding in a good season from twenty 
to thirty gallons of sap 


MARABUTS, or MARABOOTS. Amon 


tlie North. 


Africans, 


a kind of saints o. 


sorcerers held in high estimation; niar- 
aboot feathers, or marabou, fine delicate 
feathers, the white kind being very val¬ 
uable, much used in the dress of ladies, 
obtained from a large crane of Asia and 
Africa. 

MaRACAN. A species of parrot in 


Brazil. 

MARAI. In the Pacific Islands, a sacred 
enclosure or temple. 

MARAJAH, or MAHARAJAH. A Hin¬ 
doo sovereign prince. 

MARASCHINO. A spirit or liquor 
made from the marasca cherry of Dal¬ 
matia. 


MARBLE. A calcareoits stone or min¬ 
eral, of compact texture, and suscepti¬ 
ble of a beautiful polish; a little ball of 
marble. There are many varieties of 
marble, the finest ol which are the Car¬ 
rara and Parian, as used by the ancient 
Greeks. 

MARC. The refuse matter of grapes 
or other fruit from which the juice has 
been expressed. 

MARCASITE. Iron pyrites, occurring 
crystallised in modified rhombic prisms, 
in stalactite crusts, &c., nearly tin- 
white, and more strongly metallic in 
lustre than ordinary pyrites, used in 
the manufacture of sulphur and sul¬ 
phuric acid, also for ornameutal pur¬ 
poses. 

MAREMME, An Italian term for those 
unwholesome sea-marshes which dif¬ 
fuse with more or less virulence pestil¬ 
ential exhalations along the whole west 
coast of Italy. 

MARCELINE. A mineral of a green¬ 
ish-black color and vitreous lustre, con¬ 
sisting of silica, oxide of manganese, 
oxide of iron, and alumina. 

MARGARAMIDE. A substance ob¬ 
tained from ammonial soap. 

MARGARATE. A salt formed of mar- 
garic acid and a base. 

MARGARIC, MARGARITIC. In chem¬ 
istry. noting a fatty acid prepared from 
hog’s lard and potash. 




' 35 




MaR 


231 


MAR 

MARINER. One accustomed to a sea 

life. 

MARINES. Soldiers wlio serve on board 
a ship, and trained to fight either by sea 
or on land. 

MARITIME. Bounded by the sea, as a 
maritime province or county, that is, one 
bounded by the sea; so likewise maritime 
countries, such as England or Holland. 

MAItGARITE. In mineralogy, pearl 
mica, a thinly-laminated mineral of a 
greyish, reddish, or yellowish-white 
color: sp.gr. 3 0; H=3-5—i-5, 

MARGARON. In chemistry, a solid 
fatty matter, obtained by distilling 
margaric acid with excess of lime. 

MARGIN ATE, MARGINATED. In 
conchology, denoting a prominent mar¬ 
gin or border. In entomology, an 
epithet used when the sharp edge is 
marginated on the outside, and sur¬ 
rounds the surface with a narrow border 

MARL. A sort of fat earth, consisting 
of clay and the carbonate of lime, in which 
rhe latter prevails. Maries are particularly 
useful as manures in barren lands. 

MARLINS. A sea term for lines of 
untwisted hemp well tarred, to keep the 
ends of the ropes, &c. from unravelling. 

MARMOTTE. An animal between a 
rabbit and a mouse, which abounds in the 
Alps. The animal common in the United 
States called woodchuck, is a species of 
marmotte; the prairie dog, found in the 
plains of Missouri is another species of 
marmotte. 



MARQUTS (in England). A title of 
honour next to a duke, first given to those 
who governed the Marches of Wales, who 
were called Lords Marchers. The title of 
Marquis was first given in the reign of 
Richard II. The coronet of a marquis has 
flowers and pyramids with pearls on them 
intermixed. 



MARQUE. See Letter* of Marque. 
MARQUETRY. A curious kind of in¬ 
laid work, composed of several fine, hard 
pieces of wood, of various colours fastened 


in thin slices on the ground, and some¬ 
times enriched with silver, ivory and 
other matters. * 

MARROW. A fat and oleaginous sub¬ 
stance in the bones of animals. 

MARS (in Astronomy). One of the seven 
primary planets, distinguished by tne red 
colour of his light, and usually marked by 
this character £ . He performs his revo¬ 
lution in his orbit in 686 days 23 nours 
30 minutes and 39 seconds, and his revo¬ 
lution on his axis in 24 hours 40 minutes. 

MARS (in the Heathen Mythology) 
The son of Jupiter and Juno, and tne god 
of war, whose common attributes are his 
helmet, spear, and sword 



MARTEN. A species of swallow, that 
builds under the eaves of houses, but not 
in chimneys. 

MARTEN, or Martlet. A large kind 
of weasel found in Northern countries 
It has a small head, an agile body, and 
lively eyes. The fur of the marten is val¬ 
uable. There are two kinds in America, 
the Pine marten, and Pennants marten, 
called Fisher 



MARSHAL (in England 1 ! The chief 
officer of arms, as the Earl Marshal a great 
officer of the crown, who takes cognizance 
of all matters of the law of arms; the name 
also of other officers, as the Knight Marshal 
or Marshal of the King’s House, Marshal 
of the King’s Bench, who has the custody 
of the King’s Bench prison, and Marshal 
of the Exchequer, to whom the king’s 
aebtors are committed. In this country, 
the term is applied to the executive officer, 
attendant upon the United States Courts. 








238 


MAS 


MARSHAL, or Field Marshal (in 
Military Affairs). In England, the highest 
officer in the army. 

MARSHALLING (in Heraldry). The 
disposing of the several coats of arms be¬ 
longing to distinct families in one and the 
same escutcheon, together with their orna¬ 
ments; one branch of the science of heral¬ 
dry. 

MARSIIALSEA (in England). A court 
originally instituted to hear and determine 
causes between the servants of the king’s 
Household and others within the verge of 
the court, that is within twelve miles 
round Whitehall, in London. 

MARTIAL LAW (in England). The 
law that has to do only with soldiers and 
seamen where the king’s army is on foot. 
This law differs from .he common law, in 
as much as it depenus upon the pleasure 
of the king. In cases of riots and rebel¬ 
lions, Martial Law is sometimes proclaimed 
when the civil power is not strong enough 
to preserve the peace. 

MARTINGALE (in the Manege). A 
thong of leather fastened at one end of the 
girts under the belly of the horse. 

MARTINGALE. A sea term for a rope, 
extending from the jib boom to the end 
of the bumkin. 

MASCULINE GENDER. The gender 
>f nouns that denote the male sex. 

MASH. Bran scalded in hot water and 
given to a horse or cow, &c 

MASHES OF A NET. Holes formed 
&y the strings of a net. 

MASHING. The mixing the malt and 
* it water together in brewing. 

MASK. A covering for the face. 

MASONRY. The art of hewing, cutting, 
or squaring stones, and fitting them for the 
use of buildings; also of joining them to¬ 
gether with mortar. 

MASONS, or Workers in Stone. 
Were incorporated in London about the 
year 1419. 

MASONS, Free, or Accepted Masons. 
A fraternity of great antiquity, so called 
because the first founders of that society 
were persons of that profession. They 
are bound by an oath of secrecy not to 
reveal any thing that passes within the 
society, and the members throughout the 
whole world are known to each other, by 
certain secret signs. 

MASORITES. The rabbies who, under 
Esdras the scribe, are supposed to have 
purged the Hebrew Bible of the errors 
that crept into it during the Babylonish 
captivity. They divided the canonical 
books into twenty-two, and these twenty- 


M AS 

two books into chapters, and the chapter* 
into verses. 

MASQUE (in Architecture). Certain 
pieces of sculpture representing hideous 
forms, which serveto fill up vacant spaces. 

MASQUERADE. An exhibition in 
which persons, having masks or vizards, 
meet together and represent different cha¬ 
racters. 

MASS (in Ecclesiastical Affairs). The 
ritual or service of the Romish church; 
when the- prayers are simply rehearsed, 
without singing, it is called Low Mass: 
but when the prayers are sung by choris¬ 
ters, and the service is performed by a 
deacon and subdeacon, it is called High 
or Grand Mass. 

MASSES (in Painting). The parts of a 
picture containing great lights and shad¬ 
ows. 

MASSICOT. A yellow oxide of lead. 

MASS-PRIEST. The name for priests 
who are kept in chantries or at particulai 
altars, to say so many masses for thesoul9 
of the deceased. 

MAST. The upright beam or post on 
the deck of a vessel, to which the yards 
sails, &c. are fixed. The mainmast is the 
largest mast in the ship; the foremast is 
the next in size, standing near the stem of 
the ship; the mizenmast, the smallest of 
the three, stands between the mainmast 
and the stern. 

MASTER (in England . The name of 
several officers who preside in their severa 
departments, as Master of the Assay 
Master of the Ceremonies, Master of the 
King’s Household, &.c. 

MASTER OF THE FACULTIES (in 
England). An officer under the Archbish¬ 
op of Canterbury, who grants licenses and 
dispensations. 

MASTER OF THE HORSE (in Eng¬ 
land). A great officer of the crown, who 
orders all matters relating to the king’s 
stables. 

MASTER OF THE ORDNANCE (in 
England). A great officer who has charge 
of all the kings ordnance and stores. 

MASTER OF THE ROLLS (in Eng¬ 
land). The chief assistant of the lord 
chancellor and lord keeper. He has the 
keeping of all the rolls and grants, &c. 

MASTER OF A SHIP. An officer m 
a public ship who inspects the provisions, 
stores, &c. 

MASTER AT ARMS. Inashipof war, 
he who has charge of the small arms, and 
exercises the petty officers, &c. 

MASTER OF ARTS. The second de¬ 
gree taken up at Cambridge andOxfordis 



MAS 


MAT 


England, to which candidates are not ad¬ 
mitted until they are passed seven years 
standing. In the Scotch, and other uni¬ 
versities, this is the first degree. 

MASTERS IN CHANCERY. In Eng- 
Assietants to the Lord Chancellor, ol 
which there are twelve ordinary masters, 
who sit in court every day during term, ta¬ 
king atftdavits and acknowledgments of 
deeds, &.c. To them are referred all inter¬ 
locutory orders and computing damages, 
&c. There are also Masters Extraordinary 
appointed to act in every county beyond 
ten miles distant from London. 

MASTICATORY. A medicine that re¬ 
quires to be chewed, to promote the saliva. 

MASTICK, or MASTIC. A resinous 
substance in the form of tears, of a very 
pale yellow colour, and farinaceous ap¬ 
pearance, having little smell and a bitter 
astringent taste. It exudes mostly from a 
tree ofthe turpentine kind, called in botany 
pistacia lentiscus, which grows in Turkey. 

MASTICOT (in Painting). A yellow 
colour, prepared from tin. 

MASTIFF. A kind of dog with pendu¬ 
lous lips and a robust body 



MASTODON, or MAMMOTH. This 
animal, which must have been many times 
larger than the elephant, is now extinct, 
and all that remains to attest its former 
existence, are the bones w hich a>-*> found 
deeply imbedded in the earth These 
bones have been discovered in various parts 
of the United States, but as yet only one 
nearly entire skeleton has been obtained. 
This was dug up near Newburg, in the 
State of New York, and is now in the 
museum at Philadelphia. 

It is impossible to determine to what race 
this huge animal belonged, except that its 
formation and modes of living were analo¬ 
gous to those of the elephant. That he 
was not of the same species, is probable ; 
that he was nearly allied to the rhinoceros 
and hippopotamus, is also probable 

The bones of prodigiously large animals 
•f the elephant kind have been found in 
Siberia, and those ef th« mastodon have 


29b 

been found in various parts of Europe 
The following striking observations on 
this subject, are by Dr. Godman. 

‘The emotions experienced, when foi 
the first time we behold the giant relics o f 
this great animal, are those of unmingled 
aw'e. We cannot avoid reflecting on the 
time when this huge frame was clothed 
with its peculiar integum6 Us, and moved 
by appropriate muscles ; when the mighty 
heart dashed forth its torrents of blood 
through vessels of enormous caliber, and 
the mastodon strode along in supreme do¬ 
minion over every’ other tenant of the 
wilderness. 

‘However we examine what is left to 
us, w’e cannot help feeling that this animal 
must have been endowed with a strength 
exceeding that of other quadrupeds, as 
much as it exceeded them in size; and, 
looking at its ponderous jaws, armed with 
teeth peculiarly formed for the most effec¬ 
tual crushing of the firmest substances, we 
are assured that its life could only be sup¬ 
ported by the destruction of vast quantities 
of food. 

‘ Enormous as were these creatures dur¬ 
ing life, and endowed with faculties 
proportioned to the bulk of their frames, 
the whole race has been extinct for ages. 
No tradition nor human record of their ex¬ 
istence has been saved, and but for the 
accidental preservation of a comparatively 
few bones, we should never have dreamed 
that a creature of such vast size and 
strength once existed, nor could we have 
believed that such a race had been extin¬ 
guished forever Such, however, is the 
fact; ages after ages have rolled away, 
empires and nations have arisen, flourish¬ 
ed, and sunk into irretrievable oblivion, 
while the bones of the mastodon, which 
perished long before the periods of their 
origin, have been discovered, scarcely 
changed in colour, and exhibiting all the 
marks of perfection and durability 

‘That a race of animals so large, and 
consisting of so many species, should be¬ 
come entirely and universally extinct, is a 
circumstance of high interest; for it is not 
with the mastodor. as with the elephant; 
which still continues to be a living genus, 
although many of its species have become 
extinct; the entire race of the mastodon 
has been utterly destroyed, leaving noth¬ 
ing but the “ mighty wreck” of their skel 
etons, to testify that they once were amonf 
the living occupants of this land.* 

MATCH (in Gunnery). A rope slightly 
twisted and prepared with inflammable 
ingredients, which will burn for a length 
of time without going out. 




240 


MAT 


MAT 


MATCHLOCK. A kind of harquebuss, 
which was fired with a match. 

MATE. An assistant officer on board a 
vessel 

MATER. See Alma Mateh 
MATERIALIST One who maintains 
that the soul is material 
MATERIA MEDICA. All that is used 
in the art of medicine for the prevention 
or cure of diseases, whether prepared from 
vegetables, minerals, or animals. 

MATHEMATICS. The science which 
teaches or treats of whatever is capable of 
being numbered or measured, and is di¬ 
vided into arithmetic, or that branch which 
has numbers for its object, and geometry, 
which treats of magnitude. It is also dis¬ 
tinguished into Pure Mathematics, which 
consider quantities abstractedly, and with¬ 
out any relation to matter, and Mixed 
Mathematics, which treat of the properties 
of quantity, as applied to material or sen¬ 
sible objects, and interwoven with physi¬ 
cal considerations, as astronomy, geogra¬ 
phy, navigation, mechanics, surveying, 
architecture, &c. 

The following list of the writers who 
have distinguished themselves in the diffe¬ 
rent branches of the mathematical science 
will furnish the best historical view of 
mathematics in general. 

B C. 

722 Confucius, the Chinese philosopher 
600 Thales, a Greek astronomer. Anaxi¬ 
mander, an inventor of globes. 

500 Cleostratus, an astronomer. Anaxa- 
oras, a philosopher Anaximines, a 
iallist. Pythagoras, an astronomer and 
geometrician. 

400 Plato, a geometrician. Euctemon, an 
astronomer. Meton, the inventor of the 
Metonic cycle Hippocrates, a geome¬ 
trician. Oenopides, a geometrician. Zen- 
odorus, a geometrician. 

300 Aristotle, a philosopher. Calippus, an 
astronomer, and inventor of the Calyppic 
period. Dinocrates, an architect. Theo¬ 
phrastus, a philosopher. Xenocrates, a 
philosopher. Eudoxus, an astronomer 
and geometrician. Pytheas, an astrono¬ 
mer. Archytas, a philosopher. Aristieus, 
a geometrician. Denostratus, a geome¬ 
trician. Menechmus, a geometrician. 
200 Apollonius, a geometrician, author of 
the Conic Sections. Archimedes, a ge¬ 
ometrician, and inventor of machines. 
Aristarchus, an astronomer. Eratosthe¬ 
nes, a mathematician. Euclid, a geom¬ 
etrician, author ofthe Elements. Aratus, 
an astronomer and poet. Aristdlus, an 
astronomer. Nicomedes, a geometri¬ 
cian, the inventor of the conchoid 
140 Hipparchus, an astronomer, numbered 
the stars. Ctesibius invented water 
pumps Hero invented the clepsydra 
aad a fountain 


A. D. 

Cleomedes, a Roman astrontmer. Gem 
inus, an astronomer of Rhodes. Manil- 
ius, astronomer and poet. Manlius, a> 
astronomer. Vitruvius, an architect. 
Julius Cffisar, the reformer of the calen¬ 
dar. Sosigenes, an Egyptian astronomer. 
Menelaus, a writer on spherical trigo¬ 
nometry. Possidonms,a mathematician 
Theodosius, a writer on spheres. Jam 
blichu8, a Syrian philosopher. 

100 Nicomachus, a Greek mathematician. 
Sextus Frontinus, an engineer. Ptole¬ 
my, an Egyptian astronomer and geogra¬ 
pher, author of the Almagist. Hypsicies, 
a Greek mathematician. 

200 Diophantus, a Greek algebraist. 

300 Jainblichus, a Syrian philosopher. 
Pappus, a Greek commentator on Apol¬ 
lonius, &c. Theon, a Greek commenta¬ 
tor on Ptolemy, &c 

400 Hypatia, daughter of Theon, a com¬ 
mentator on Diophantus. Proclus, a 
Greek commentator on Euclid. Diodes, 
a Greek geometrician, discoverer of the 
cissoid. Serenus, a Greek geometrician. 

500 Marinus, a geometrician of Naples 
Arithemius, an architect. Eutocius, a 
Greek geometrician. Isodorus, an ar¬ 
chitect. 

600 The Venerable Bede, an English monk 
and philosopher. 

700 Almansor the Victorious, an astrono¬ 
mer. Hero the Younger, a Greek geom¬ 
etrician. 

800 Ai Maimon the Caliph, an astronomer 
A1 Raschid, a Persian astronomer. Al 
fragan, an Arabian astronomer. AJba 
tegni, an Arabian astronomer. 

900 Pope Silvester, II. a mathematician 

1000 Ibn Ionis, an Arabian astronomer. 
Geber Ben Alpha, an Arabian coalmen 
tator on Ptolemy’s Almagest. 

1100 Alhazen, an Arabian optician and 
astronomer. 

1200 Leonard de Pisa, an Italian, and the 
first European algebraist. Nassir Eddin, 
a Persian astronomer. Alphonsus, king 
of Castile, an astronomer, and author of 
the Alphonsine tables. John Halifax 
or Sacrobosco, an English mathematici 
an. Jordanus Nemorarius, an arithme¬ 
tician Roger Bacon, an English philos¬ 
opher Campanus, an astronomer. Vi- 
teilio, an optician. 

1300 Albano, an Italian mathematician 
Ascoli, an Italian mathematician. John 
of Saxony, an astronomer. 

1400 Bkinchini, an Italian astronomer 
Moschopulus, a modern Greek arithme¬ 
tician. Purbach, an astronomer. Regi¬ 
omontanus, or Muller, an astronomer of 
Vienna. Cardinal Cusa, an astronomer 
Henry, son of John king of Portugal, the 
inventor of charts. Ulug Beg, a Persian 
astronomer. Lucas de Burgo, or Pacci- 
oli, a German algebraist. Bernard, an 
Italian astronomer. Dominic Novera, 
an Italian astronomer. 

1500 Copernicus, a German astronomer, 
and the reviver ofthe solar system. Peter 
Apian, or Appian, a German astronomer 
Cardan, an Italian algebraist. 



MAT 


MAT 


241 


t D. 

1500 Commandine,aii Italian commentator 
on Euclid and other ancient matin»matici- 
ans. Ferreus, an Italian mathematician 
Maurolycus, an Italian mathematician. 
Nonius, a Portuguese mathematician. 
Sturmius, a German arithmatician. Tar- 
taglia, an Italian algebraist. Vieta, a 
French algebraist Ferrari, an Italian 
algebraist. Stevinus, a Flemish mathe¬ 
matician. Mercator, a German geogra¬ 
pher. Ramus, a French mathematician. 
Recorde, an English algebraist. Stifeli- 
us, a German algebraist. Uba.di Guido, 
an Italian mathematician. Tycho Bra¬ 
he, a Danish astronomer. Lord Bacon, 
an English philosopher. Galileo, an 
Italian philosopher. Bombelli, an Italian 
algebraist. Castelii, an Italian mathe¬ 
matician. Clavius, a German geometri¬ 
cian. Digges, an English philosopher. 
1600 Briggs, an English arithmetician, tlie 
inventor of logarithms. Des Cartes, a 
French geometrician and algebraist, 
discovered the equation of curve lines. 
Kepler, a German astronomer, explained 
the laws of celestial motion. Napier, a 
Scotch arithmetician, improved the sys¬ 
tem of logarithms. Torricelli, an Italian 
philosopher and discoverer of the barom¬ 
eter. Bayer a German astronomer. 
Gassendi, a French astronomer. Longo- 
montanus, a Danish mathematician. 
Harriot, an English algebraist, llorrox, 
an English astronomer. Kircher, a 
German philosopher. Oughtred, an En¬ 
glish geometrician and arithmetician, 
rorta Baptista, the inventor of the cam¬ 
era obscura. Cavalerius, a Milanese al¬ 
gebraist. Brouncker, an Irish mathe¬ 
matician. Fermat, a French arithmeti¬ 
cian, wrote on the theory of numbers. 
Pascal, a French philosopher, introduced 
the doctrine of chances. Wallis, an 
English mathematician, first treated on 
the arithmetic of infinite quantities. 
Bulialdus, a French astronomer. Des- 
chales, a French geometrician. Girard, 
a French algebraist. J. and D. Gregory, 
a Scotch family of mathematicians, the 
first of whom invented a telescope, &c. 
the second edited Euclid. Hevelius, a 
Prussian astronomer. Horrebow, a Da¬ 
nish astronomer. Mersenne, a French 
geometrician. Riceioli, an Italian as¬ 
tronomer, geometrician and chronolo- 
gist. Roberval, a French geometrician. 
Tacquet, a French mathematician. Seth 
Ward, an English geometrician and 
arithmetician. John de Witt, a Dutch 
mathematician James Bernoulli, a 
Swiss mathematician. Barrow, an En¬ 
glish mathematician. Hooke, an En¬ 
glish philosopher, made many discove¬ 
ries in mechanics. Huygens, a geome¬ 
trician, diallist, and hnrologist, discover¬ 
ed the evolute of curves. Leibnitz, a 
German geometrician and arithmeti¬ 
cian, wrote on the differential calculus. 
L’Hopital. a French mathematician. 
Flamstead, an English astronomer. 01- 
denburgh, an English mathematician 
and astronomer. Boyle, an English 
31 


A. D 

philosopher. Ozanam, a French math 
ematiciau. Pell, an Englisn algebraist 
Schooten, a Dutch mathematician 
Wren, an English architect. 

1700 Newton, author of a new system ol 
philosophy. John Bernoulli, a Swiss 
mathematician. Bradley, an English 
astronomer, discovered the aberration ol 
the stars. Cotes, an English geometri 
cian. Taylor, an English arithmetician 
and optician. Cassini, D. and J., French 
astronomers. Gravesande, a Dutch 
mathematician. Ke ll, a Scotch astron¬ 
omer. La Hire, a French geometrician 
and astronomer. Saunderson, an En¬ 
glish mathematician. Saurin, a French 
mathematician. Wolfius, a German 
mathematician. Clairaut, a French 
mathematician. Maclaurin, a Scotch 
algebraist. De Moivre, a French arith¬ 
metician. Simpson, an English mathe¬ 
matician. Bellidor, a French engineer. 
Bernoulli, N. and D., Swiss philoso¬ 
phers. La Caille, a French astronomer 
Collins, an English mathematician 
Doliand, an optician. Maupertius, a 
French astronomer and geometrician. 
Meyer, a German astronomer, and 
author of some tables. Robins, an 
English mathematician and engineer; 
Simson, a Scotch geometrician, trans 
lator and editor of Euclid’s Elements 
D’Alembert, a Fren n mathematician 
Euler, a German geometrician and alge¬ 
braist. Landen, an English algebraist, 
author of the Residual Analysis. La- 
lande. a French astronomer. Maske- 
lyne, an English astronomer. Waring, 
an English ark. metician. Bailly, the 
French historia of astronomy. Berke¬ 
ley, an English philosopher. Boscovitch 
an Italian m thematician and philoso¬ 
pher. Erne son, an English arithmeti¬ 
cian and algebraist. Montucla, a French 
mathematician, and the historian of 
mathematics. Horsley, an English 
mathem tician. 

1800. During the present Century, 
works on Mathematics, have been 
numerous. We can only mention a 
few of the writers. Chastles, Brus¬ 
sels, 1837; Plucker, 1828-31; Ponceld, 
Paris, 1822; Steiner, Berlin, 1832; 
Benjamin Pierce, Boston, 1858; Charles 
Davis, New York, 1855; Mulcahy, 1864. 
MATERIA MEDICA. In medical 
science, that branch which treats of 
the articles employed in the practice of 
medicine, and explains the nature and 
mode of action of those substances 
which are had recourse to for the res¬ 
toration of health. 

MATICO. The leaves of a Peruvian 
plant, used as a powerful styptic. 

MATRICE, or MATRIX. The womb; 
the cavity in which anything is formed, 
and which gives it shape; the mould 
or form in which printers’ types are 
cast. In mineralogy, the place where 
anything is deposited or formed. In 
dyeing, a term applied to the five simple 
colors. 





*42 


ME A 


MEC 


MAUVE. A purple dye obtained from 
aniline and benzol, two of tbe constitu¬ 
ents of coal-tar. 


MATRON (in Law). A married woman 
sf experience, who is in certain cases em- 
•annelled upon juries 

MATT. Rope yarn, junk, &c. beaten 
flat and interwoven to save the yards, &c. 
from galling. 

MATTE- Peruvian tea, much used in 
South America. 

MATTER. That which is the object of 
our senses, and appears under the diverse 
forms of solids, fluids, and gases. 

MAUNDY THURSDAY (in Eng¬ 
land). The Thursday before Good Friday, 
in which the king is accustomed to give 
alms to the poor. 

MAUSOLEUM. A stately sepulchre 
built by Artemisia, queen of Caria, for her 
husband Mausolus; also any pompous 
sepulchral monument. 

MAXIMUM (in Mathematics). The 
greatest quantity attainable in any case. 

MAY. The fifth month in the year. 

MEAD. An agreeable drink, made of 
honey and water boiled and fermented. 

MEADOW. Ground covered with grass, 
which is commonly left for hay. 

MEADOW SWEET. A herb with 
crumpled leaves, something like those of 
the elm, growing in meadows. Its flower 
expands in the form of a rose 

MEAL. The edible part of corn, par¬ 
ticularly of barley. 

MEAN (in Mathematics). The middle 
between two extremes, as a mean motion, 
mean distance, arithmetical mean, geomet¬ 
rical mean, &c. 

MEAN ARITHMETICAL. Half the 
sum of the extremes. 

MEAN GEOMETRICAL, or A Mean 
Proportional. The square root of the 
product of the two extremes. 

MEAN HARMONICAL. Double a 
fourth proportional to the sum of the ex¬ 
tremes. 

MEAN TIME, or E<iual Time. That 
which is measured by an equable motion, 
as a clock. 

M EASLES A disorder incident to chil¬ 
dren, consisting of a fever, attended with 
inflammation, cough, and difficulty of 
breathing 

MEASURE- Any given quantity by 
which the quantity, length, breadth, thick- 
aess, and capacity of other things may be 
estimated. 

MEASURE (in Geometry Any cer¬ 


tain quantity assumed as one, or unify t< 
which the ratio of otner similar quantiser 
is expressed, thus the measure of a line is 
the extension of a right line at pleasure 
which is to be considered as unity, as an 
inch, a foot, or a yard. 

MEASURE (in Arithmetic). A certain 
number or quantity, which being repeated 
a certain number of times is equal to ano 
ther that is bigger, to which it has relation, 
as 6 is the measure of 36. 

MEASURE (in Music). That note, ac 
the semibreve, by which all the other 
notes are measured or adjusted to its val 
ue. 

MEASURE (in Poetry). A certain 
number of syllables metrically measured 

MEASURE (in Commerce). Determi¬ 
nate quantities, by which all things that 
are bought and sold are measured as to 
their quantity, and estimated as to the** 
rate: these are various in different com- 
tries. 

MECHANICAL Pertaining to me¬ 
chanics. 

MECHANICAL AFFECTIONS 
(among Philosophers). Such properties of 
matter or body as arise from its figure, 
bulk or motion. 

MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY. Tha» 
which explains the phenomena or appea' 
ances of nature from mechanical princ 
pies, viz. from the motion, rest, size, fig 
ure, &c. of the small particles of matter. 
This is the same as the corpuscular philos 
ophy. 

MECHANICAL POWERS. The six 
simple machines to which all others, how 
complex soever, may be reduced, and of 
the assemblage whereof they are all com 
pounded j these are the simple lever, the 
wheel and axis, the pulley, the inclined 
plane, the wedge, and the screw. These 
six might be reduced to two, for the pulley 
and wheel are only assemblages of levers, 
and the wedge and screw are inclined 
planes. 

MECHANICAL SOLUTION OF A 
PROBLEM (with Mathematicians). Is a 
construction or proof not done in a strictly 
geometrical manner, but by the help of 
instruments. 

MECHANICS. The science of motion, 
or that branch of mixed mathematics 
which treats of the effects of powers or 
moving forces, and applies them to ma¬ 
chines and engines. Newton divides this 
science into practical and rational; the 
former of which relates to the mechanical 
powers, namely, the lever, balance, wheel 
and axis pulley, wedge, screw, inclined 




ME C 


MED 


plane, fee (ees Mechanical Powers); 
and the latter, that is, rational mechanics, 
relates to the theory of motion, showing 
when the forces and powers are given, 
how to determine the motion that will re¬ 
sult from them; and conversely, when the 
circumstances of the motion are given, 
how to trace the forces or powers from 
which they arise. 

As to the practical part of mechanics, 
this was doubtless one of the first branch- 
»s of knowledge which necessity would 
lead men to acquire, it being impossible to 
pursue any of the mechanic arts success¬ 
fully, without the aid of mechanical pow¬ 
ers in raising weights or exerting forces. 
J'liat all the mechanical powers were well 
known to the ancients is certain from the 
number and perfection of the machines 
which they had in use. The theoretical 
part of mechanics appears, however, not 
to have engaged their attention before the 
time of Archimedes, who particularly ap¬ 
plied himself to this subjectand, in his 
book on Equiponderants, has given us the 
theory of the lever, the inclined plane, the 
pulley, and the screw. From his time to 
the sixteenth century, the theory of the 
mechanical science remained, with little 
or no addition or change. Stevinus, a 
Flemish mathematician, revived the sub¬ 
ject by treating on the laws of equilibrium, 
of a body placed on an inclined plane, 
&c. ; and Galileo afterwards, in his trea¬ 
tise on statics, extended his researches on 
the theory of the inclined plane, the screw, 
and all the mechanical powers, but moie 
particularly on the theory of accelerated 
motion. Torricelli, a pupil of Galileo, 
added several propositions concerning pro¬ 
jectiles ; Huygens treated of the motion of 
bodies along given curves ; and, in 1661, 
Huygens, Wallis, and Sir Christopher 
Wren all discovered the true laws of per¬ 
cussion, without any previous communi¬ 
cation with each other. Henceforth the 
study of mechanics, like every other 
branch of the mathematical science, was 
illustrated and enlarged by different wri¬ 
ters of great name : as by Newton, in his 
Principia; Leibnitz, in his Resistentia 
Solidorum ; Deschales, in his Treatise on 
Motion ; Parent, in his Elements of Me¬ 
chanics and Physics ; Oughtred, in his 
Mechanical Institutions ; Keil, in his ln- 
j’oduction to True Philosophy ; De la Hire, 
in his Mechanique ; Ditton, in his Laws 
of Motion ; Gravesande, in his Physics ; 
Euler, in his Tractatus do Motu ; Mus- 
chenbrock, in his Physics; Boseu, in his 
MechaPiques ; Lagrange, in his M4chani- 


que Analytique ; Atwood, in his Treatise 

and recently by Wood, Wbewell, and 
Mosely. 

MEDAL. An ancient coin, or a piece 
of metal in the form of a coin, stamped to 
preserve the memory of some illustrious 
person, or of some distinguished event 

MEDALLION. A very large medal, 
supposed to be anciently struck by the 
emperors. 

MEDICINE. The art of preserving 
health, curing diseases, and alleviating 
maladies. It is an art that assists nature 
in the preservation of health by the use ol 
proper remedies. 

MEDIETAS LINGUyE (in England) 
A jury consisting of half natives and half 
foreigners, which is empannelled in cases 
where the party to be tried is a foreigner 

MEDIMNO. A corn measure in the 
Levant, equal to nearly four English 
quarters. 

MEDIUM (in Physics) That space or 
region through which a body in motion 
passes to any point; thus, ether is suppo¬ 
sed to be the medium through which the 
heavenly bodies move ; air is the medium 
through which bodies move near the earth , 
water the medium wherein fishes live and 
move. 

MEDIUM, AStherial. A subtle medi¬ 
um supposed by Newton to occupy every 
part of space, in which the planetary me 
tions are performed- without resistance 
and by means of which light is reflected, 
inflected, and refracted, heat is propagated 
and increased, and, in short, all the great 
operations of nature are supposed to be 
carried on through the agency of this uni¬ 
versal medium. 

MEDLAR. The fruit of a tree called, 
in Botany, the Mesfilus Gekmanica, 
which in its leaf resembles a laurel. The 
fruit, which in shape resembles an apple, 
is not eatable until it is in a state of rotten 
ripeness. 

MEDULLA CEREBRI The soA sub¬ 
stance of the brain, covered externally 
with a cortical substance of an ashy colour. 

MEDULLA OBLONGATA. The be¬ 
ginning of the spinal marrow, or an ex 
tended portion of the brain. 

MEDUSA (in Mythology). One of thv 
three Gorgons, said to have been bora 
with snakes on her head instead of locfci 
of hair. Perseus cut oflT the head of Me¬ 
dusa, ar d placed it in the shield of Miner¬ 
va. 

MEDUSA. A sort of worms which, 
causing when touched a slight tingling an« 
redness, are denominated sea-nettles 




Hi 


MEN 


MER 


MEERSHAUM. A fine sort of Turkish 
clay, of which pipes are made in Germany 
of vario rs forms. It assumes a beautiful 
brown colour after it has been used for 
smoking for some time 

MELLITE, or Honet-Stone. A mine¬ 
ral found first in Thuringia, which is of a 
honey-yellow colour, and is usually crys¬ 
tallized in small octaedrons. 

MELLITIC ACID A substance pro¬ 
cured from mellite. 

MELODY (in Music). The agreeable 
sensation produced by a regular succession 
of different sounds. 

MELOE. A sort of insects, of which 
the two principal species are the oil beetle, 
so called because, on being handled, it ex¬ 
udes from its legs, drops of a clear, deep 
yellow oil or fluid, of a very peculiar and 
penetrating smell; and the meloe vesica- 
torius, or Spanish fly, which is used in 
raising blisters 

MELON. A plant of the cucumber tribe, 
the flower of which consists of one bell¬ 
shaped leaf cm into several segments. The 
fruit is mostly of an oval shape, and filled 
with seeds. 

MEMBRANE. (in Anatomy). A broad, 
nervous, and fibrous substance, which 
serves as a covoing for different parts of 
the body, particularly the brain and the 
viscera. 

MEMENTO \ hint to awaken the 
memory. 

MEMOIRS. Histories written by those 
who have been witnesses of the transac¬ 
tions, and acquainted with the persons, 
which they describe. 

lilEMORANDUM. A short note, for 
the better remembrance of a thing. 

MEMORIAL. A monument, or what¬ 
ever else serves to call a thing or person 
to remembrance 

MEMORY, Artificial. A method of 
assisting the memory by some artificial 
contrivance, as that of forming certain 
words, the letters of which shall signify 
the date or era to be remembered. Various 
devices of this kind have been hit upon at 
different times. 

MENDICANTS. Monks so called, who 
go about begging alms. 

MENSTRUUM. A liquid which serves 
to extract the virtues of any substance, by 
infusion, decoction, &c. Water is the men¬ 
struum of all salts, oils of resins, acids of 
alkalies and the like. 

MENSURATION. The art of measur¬ 
ing lines, superficies, and solids, which, in 
consequence of its extensive application to 
the purposes of life, is considered as of the 
peatest importance. 


Euclid treats of mensuration, as far a* 
regards surfaces, only of the measuring of 
triangles; and in regard to curvilinear 
figures, he attempted the measuiement ol 
the circle and the sphere. Archimedes 
carried this subject to a much greater ex¬ 
tent: he found the area of a parabola to 
he two thirds of its circumscribing triangle ; 
which, with the exception of the lunulee 
of Hippocrates, was the first instance of 
the quadrature of a curvilinear space He 
likewise determined the ratio of spheroids 
and conoids to their circumscribing cylin¬ 
ders, and has left us his attempt at the 
quadrature of the circle. He demonstrated 
that the area of a circle is equal to the 
area of a right-angled triangle, of which 
one of its sides about the right angle is 
equal to the radius, and the other to the 
circumference; and thus reduced the qua¬ 
drature of the circle to the determining the 
ratio of the circumference to the diameter, 
a problem, in the solution of which he 
could only arrive at an approximation to 
the truth, showing that the ratio between 
the circumference and the diameter was 
less than that of 7 to 22. What Archimedes 
failed to effect in this respect has continued 
to this day unattainable, notwithstanding 
the efforts which have been made by sub¬ 
sequent mathematicians, particularly with¬ 
in the last three centuries, to arrive at a 
greater approximation. As all hopes of ac¬ 
curately squaring the circle and some other 
curves were at length given up, mathema¬ 
ticians applied themselves to the finding 
the most convenient series for approxima¬ 
ting towards their true lengths and quadra¬ 
tures ; and the science of mensuration has 
in consequence assumed a more consistent 
form. 

MERCAPTAN- A liquid composed of 
sulphur, carbon, and hydrogen. 

MEPHITIC. Poisonous, like the Me¬ 
phitis, or Damp, as it is called by the 
miners; as Mephitic Air, another name for 
nitrogen gas, on account of its noxious 
quality ; and Mephitic Acid, carbonic acid, 
so called because it cannot be respired 
without causing death 

MERCATOR’S CHART. A sea chart, 
in which the parallels of latitude and the 
meridians are represented by straight 
lines. 

MERCER. One who deals in wrought 
silks. The mercers’ company in London 
was incorporated in 1393 

MERCHANT. In England, one that ex- 
ports and imports merchandise. In the 
U S., the term is applied to large dealers 
generally 




MES 


MET 


24 « 


MERCURY. In mythology, the god of 
eloquence and trade, and the messenger 
of the gods. 



MERCURY. In astronomy, the planet 
nearest the sun, from which he is dis¬ 
tant about 36,000,000 miles. His mean 
sidereal revolution is performed in 
78-969258 mean solar days. His diameter 
is about 3,1#) miles. He revolves on 
his axis in 24 hours, 5 min. 28 sec. In 
mineralogy, a white metal which is 
fluid at common temperatures ; quick¬ 
silver. Its specific gravity is 13-5; its 
equivalent is 200. Formula, Hg. 

MERGANSER. An aquatic fowl, the 
goosander. 



MERIDIAN. In astronomy and geog¬ 
raphy, an imaginary great circle of the 
sphere, passing through the earth’s 
axis and the zenith of the spectator, 
dividing the spere into two hemis* 
pheres, eastern and western, and cross¬ 
ing the equinoctial at right angles. In 
geography, the meridians are as numer¬ 
ous as the places on the earth, and the 
first meridian is that from which the 
reckoning commences. This is fixed 
differently by different nations, the cap¬ 
ital of each country being mostly chosen 
as the first meridian for their respec¬ 
tive globes. Meridional distance is the 
difference of the longitude between the 
meridian under which the ship is at 
present, and any other she was under 
before. 

MESMERISM. Another term for ani¬ 
mal magnetism; an agent (as taught by 
its advocates) by which one person can 
communicate certain influences at will 


to the mind of the person mesmerized, 
or put into a state of sleep, in which 
questions are answered. Mesmeriza- 
tion, is the act of producing the mes¬ 
meric state. 

MESOZOIC. In geology, an epithet 
applied to the middle period of the 
earth’s crust as relates to animal re¬ 
mains. 

METAGENESIS. In zoology, the 
changes of form which the representa¬ 
tive of a species undergoes in passing 
from an imperfect to a more perfect 
state. 

METAL. An undecompounded body 
of peculiar lustre, insoluble in water, 
fusible by heat, and capable, in the 
state of an oxide, of uniting with acids, 
and forming with them metallic salts. 
Metals are distinguished, in different 
degrees, by malleability, ductility, fusi¬ 
bility, tenacity, elasticity, and crystal¬ 
line texture. Gold, silver, iron, copper, 
mercury, lead, and tin were known to 
the ancients from the earliest periods. 
Gold and silver were called noble metals; 
the rest base metals. 

Metals are distinguished into dif¬ 
ferent classes, which have been thus 
arranged by Hoblyn:—1. Metallic bases 
of the alkalies, viz., potassium, sodium, 
and lithium. The oxides are termed 
alkalies, and the metallic bases alkaline 
or alkaligenous metals. 2. Metallic 
bases of the alkaline earths, viz , bari¬ 
um, strontium, calcium, and magne¬ 
sium, and their oxides are termed al¬ 
kaline earths. 3. Metallic bases of the 
earths, viz., aluminium, zirconium, 
glucinium, silicium. yttrium, and 
thorium. 4. Metals yielding oxides, 
which are neutral salifiable bases, viz., 
gold, silver, mercury, copper, lead, iron, 
tin, platinum, palladium, nickel, cad¬ 
mium, zinc, bismuth, antimony, cobalt, 
and manganese. 5. Metals which are 
acidifiable by combination with oxygen, 
viz., tellurium, arsenic, chromium, 
molybdenum, tungsten, columbium, 
and selenium. 6. Metals magnetic, 
viz., iron, nickel, and cobalt. Metals 
are termed native when found in an 
nncombined form; mineralized, when 
combined with other bodies; com¬ 
pounds of two or more metals, except 
mercury, are called alloys, and possess 
the characteristic properties of pure 
metals; those of mercury with other 
metals are called amalgams. Metals 
are the best reflectors of caloric, and 
the worst radiators. 

METAPHYSICS. The philosophy of 
mind, as distinguished from that of 
matter; a speculative science, which 
soars beyond the bounds of actual ex¬ 
perience. The science has been divided 
into six parts—ontology, cosmology, 
authropophosy, psychology, pneuma- 
tology, and metaphysical theology. 

METEOR. A general term for the phe¬ 
nomena of the atmosphere, but particu- 









246 


MEZ 


MIL 


iarly foi such sudden and luminc/us appear¬ 
ances as are occasionally visible, such as 
fireballs or luminous bodies of considerable 
magnitude, that are frequently to be seen 
in the tropical climates; shooting ox falling 
stars, that are of common occurrence ; and 
the ignis fatuus, seen in marshes. 

METEORIC STONES. Heavy, stony 
bodies, that are supposed to fall from the 
fireballs after they have exploded. These 
stones, which are looked upon by some as 
concretions formed in the atmosphere, are 
by a chymical analysis found to contain 
silica, oxide of iron, magnesia, sulphur, 
lime and oxide of nickel. 

METEOROLOGY. The doctrine of me¬ 
teors in general, or the study of the vari¬ 
able phenomena of the atmosphere. The 
changes to which the atmosphere is most 
subject are such as respect its temperature, 
weight, moisture, and electricity, which 
are marked and measured by the barome¬ 
ter, thermometer, hygrometer, and electro¬ 
meter. The results of these changes are 
winds, rains, snow, heats, colds, dews, &c. 
The intensity of the winds is measured by 
the aerometer, and the quantity of rain is 
measured by the pluviometer or rain-gauge. 

METER, or Coal-Meter. A measurer 
of coals 

METONIC CYCLE, OR METONIC 
YEAR. A period of nineteen years in 
which the lunations of the moon return 
to the same days of the month. 

METRIC SYSTEM. The system of 
weights and measures first adopted in 
Erance, the important points in which 
are—1. that it is a decimal system; 
2. that the units of length, superficies, 
solidity, and weight are correlated. 

METROGRAPH. An apparatus on 
a railway-engine to indicate the speed at 
which the train is traveling, and time of 
arrival and departure at each station. 

METROLOGY. Science of weights 
and measures, or a treatise on them. 

METONYMY (in Rhetoric). A figure 
of speech, whereby one thing is put for 
another, as the cause for the effect, the 
part for the whole, and the like. 

METRE (in Poetry). A system of feet 
composing 3 verse; as pentameter, a verse 
of five feet, hexameter, a verse of six 
feet, &c. 

METRE (in Commerce). A French 
measure, equal to rather more than thirty- 
nine inches. 

METROPOLIS. The chief city of a 
kingdom or province. 

METROPOLITAN. A bishop of the 
mother church; an archbishop, who is 
bishop of the metropolis 

MEZZOTINTO. A particular kind of 
engraving, so called from its resemblance 


to drawings in India ink This is pev 
formed by punching the copper plate* 
with the grounding tool, scraping them 
with the scraper, and then rubbing them 
with the burnisher or smooth piece of 
steel, to produce the effect desired 

MICROPHONE. An instrument for 
magnifying wrnak sounds. In its best 
form it consists of a stick of gas-carbon 
laced vertically and supported loosely 
etween two small blocks of carbon 
fastened to a piece of thin board. When 
an electric current passes through the 
carbon, an ordinary telephone being in 
circuit, the slightest jar, and even the 
vibrations of the voice, is sufficient to 
interrupt the contact on the surfaces. 

MICROSCOPE. An optical instrument 
which magnifies objects, so that the small¬ 
est may be distinctly seen and described. 
The invention of microscopes, like main 
other ingenious discoveries, has been 
claimed for different authors. Huygens 
informs us that Drebell, a Dutchman, con 
structed the first microscope in 1621 ; but 
Borelli states, in a letter to his brother, 
that when he was ambassador in England 
in 1619, Cornelius Drebell showed him a 
microscope, which he said was given him 
by the archduke Albert, and had been 
made by Jansen, whom he considers to 
have been the real inventor, although F 
Fontana, a Neapolitan, claimed, in 1646, 
the honour of the invention to himselt, 
and dated it from the year 1618. 

MIDRIFF, or Diaphragm (in Anato¬ 
my). A membrane which divides the trunk 
of the body into the thorax and abdomen, 
the upper and lower cavity. 

MIDSHIPMAN. An officer in the navy, 
who assists on all occasions, both in stow¬ 
ing and rummaging the hold, sailing the 
ship, &.c 

MIDSUMMER. The summer solstice. 
The 24th of June is the Midsummer Day, 
which is also quarter day. 

MIDWIFERY. The art of assisting 
women in childbirth. 

MILE. A long measure, which, in Eng¬ 
land, contains 8 furlongs, or 1760 yards, 
or 5280 feet. 

MILIARY GLANDS. The small and 
infinitely numerous glands, which secrete 
the perspiration. 

MILITARY. A name for the whole 
body of soldiery, with their equipments, 
&c. 

MILITARY. An epithet for what belongs 
to soldiers, as Military Architecture, Mili¬ 
tary Exercises, &c. 

MILITARY ARCHITECTURE. See 
Fortification 




RUM 


MIN 


141 


MILITARY EXECUTION Ravaging 
i country that refuses to pay the contribu¬ 
tion levied upon it; also the punishment in¬ 
dicted by the sentence of a court-martial. 

MILITARY ROAD or WAY. A road 
nade for the passage of armies, like those 
•onstructed by the Romans in Britain. 
MILITIA. A military force raised 
for the permanent defence of a 
fountry. 

MILK. A fluid which serves for the 
nourishment of young animals. It is se- 
*reted by particular glands in the female 
of all animals which suckle their young, 
which, on that account, are denominated 
mammalia. The constituent parts of cows’ 
milk, procured by chemical analysis, are, 
aroma, an odorous, volatile principle; 
water, which forms a considerable part; 
bland oil, from which the cream is formed ; 
curd, or animal gluten ; sugar or the serum 
of milk ; and some neutral salts. Human 
milk is the thinnest of all, and next to 
that, asses’ milk, which is prescribed for 
lonsumptive persons. 

MILK-THISTLE. A biennial, the leaves 
of which are eaten as a salad. 

MILKY WAY, or Via Lactea (in As¬ 
tronomy). A broad track or path encom¬ 
passing the whole heavens, which is easily 
discernible, from its milky-white appear¬ 
ance. 

MILL. A machine for grinding wheat,&c. 
of which there are different kinds, accord¬ 
ing to the different methods of putting them 
in motion, as watermills, windmills, horse- 
mills, handmills, and also steammills. 
They are also distinguished according to 
the uses they serve, as commills, cotton- 
mills, papermills, barkmills, &c. Corn is 
ground by two millstones placed one above 
the other without touching, the space be¬ 
tween them being made greater or less, ac¬ 
cording as the miller would have the flour 
finer or coarser. 

MILLENNIUM. A thousand years, 
generally taken for the thousand years of 
Christ’s reign here on earth. 

MILLET. A plant that bears an immense 
number of small grains. In Central Afri¬ 
ca, it is the common food of the inhabi¬ 
tants 

MILLING. The same as fulling. 
MILLING. The stamping of coin by 
means of a mill. This is one part of the 
process in coining. 

MILLION The number often hundred 
thousand. 

MILLREA A Portuguese gold coin¬ 
equal to one dollar and live cents, 

MIMOSA, or Thb Plant, 


so called on account of the sensibility of 
its leaves. It is a numerous tribe of plants, 
which are all natives of warm climates. 
They have all the singular property that 
their leaves recede from the touch, and 
run rapidly together; in some, the foot¬ 
stalks and all are affected. The humble 
sensitives instantly fall downward, as 1 . 
fastened by hinges. These plants have all 
winged leaves, each wing consisting of 
many small pinnte. From the Mimosa 
Nilotica, represented underneath, is pro 
cured the gum arabic. 



MINE. A deep hollow, running unde 
ground, whence various minerals, particu 
larly the metallic kind, are dug out 
These mines are mostly dug through vari¬ 
ous strata or beds of substances, of which 
the interior of the earth is composed. In 
these strata are found innumerable fissures, 
called by the miners lodes, which contain 
the metal sought for. The passage or de¬ 
scent to the mine is by means of a pit 
called a shaft. The principal signs, by 
which metallic veins are discovered, are 
mineral waters, pieces of ore found on the 
surface of the ground, warm exhalations, 
metallic sands, &c. 

MINE (in Fortification) A subterrane 
ous passage dug under the wall or rampart 
of a fortification, for the purpose of blow¬ 
ing it up by gunpowder. The place where 
the powder is lodged is called the chamber. 

MINER. One who digs mines or works 
in mines. 

MINERALOGY That science which 
treats of the solid and hard component 
parts of the earth. Minerals have been 
variously classed by different writers. The 
system ofWemer comprehends them under 
the four classes of earths, salts, inflamma 
bles, and metals. To this Linnteus ha* 
added a fifth class of petrifactions. 

MINERAL WATERS. Springs fan 
pregnated with mineral substances. 

MINERVA. The daughter of Jupiter 
and goddess of wisdom and the fine arts 







248 


MIS 


MIT 


She is commonly represented with all the 
emblems of war, as the helmet, spear, and 
shield. 

MINERVALIA. Presents among the 
ancients, made by the boys to their mas¬ 
ters before the feast of Minerva. 

MINIATURE. A delicate kind of paint¬ 
ing, consisting of little points or dots in¬ 
stead of lines, commonly done on ivory, 
and used in taking portraits; also the por¬ 
trait itself. 

MINIM (in Music) A measure of time 
marked thus, equal to two crotchets. 

MINIMUM (in Mathematics) The least 
quantity attainable in a given case 

MINISTER OF STATE. In England, 
one who conducts the affairs of state by an 
authority from the king 

MINISTER, Forkion. A person sent 
into a foreign country, to manage the af¬ 
fairs of the state by which he is sent. 

MINIUM, or Red Lead. An oxide of 
lead, procured by exposing this metal to a 
great heat and a free access of air. 

MINK. An animal of the weasel kind, 
common in North America, that frequents 
the banks of streams. 

MINOR (in Law). An heir, male or 
female, within the age of twenty-one 

MINORITY (in Law). A state of non¬ 
age ; also the smaller number of persons 
who give their votes on any questions. 

MINSTREL. A player on any musical 
instrument; an itinerant performer 

MINT (in Botany). A pot-herb, which 
has a creeping root and a strong aromatic 
scent. 

MINT. The place where coin is made. 

MINUTE (in Geometry, marked thus( / ) 
The sixtieth part of the degree of a circle ; 
also the sixtieth part of an hour. 

MIRACLES. Work3 effected in a man¬ 
ner different from the ordinary course of 
nature, by the immediate power of the 
Almighty, for some particular purpose. 

MIRROR. The surface of any opaque 
oody polished, and adapted to reflect the 
'ays of light which fall upon it, and to 
epresent objects. Mirrors are either flat, 
as looking-glasses ; concave, for the pur¬ 
pose of converging the rays of light; or con¬ 
vex, for the purpose of diverging the rays 
of light. 

MISADVENTURE (in Law). A sort 
of homicide against the mind of the kill¬ 
er, partly by negligence and partly by 
chance 

MISCELLANE/E. One of Linnteus’s 
natural orders of plants, comprehending 
such as were not included in the other 
orders 

MISCHIEF (in Law) Damage or inju¬ 


ry done to the property of another, net fen 
gain, but with a malicious intent. 

MISDEMEANOUR. An offence lex 
than felony. 

MISLETOE. A plant which always 
grows on trees, and was thought, therefore, 
to be an excrescence of the tree; but it 
has been found to be propagated by ihe 
seed or berry which is conveyed by the 
misletoe thrush from one tree to another: 
this bird being fond of these seeds, it 
sometimes happens that the viscous pari 
of the berry sticks to his beak, and, in his 
attempts to disengage himself from it by 
striking his beak against the bark of the 
tree, the berry sticks to the latter; and if 
it happen to light on a smooth part, it will 
take root, and sprout out the next winter 
This plant adheres most readily to the ash 
and other smooth-rinded trees, as the 
apple, &c. 

MISNAII The code or collection of 
the civil law of the Jews 

MISNOMER (in Law). The giving a 
person a wrong name. 

MISPRISION. In general, a neglect, 
as misprision of treason, a neglect to reveal 
treason y which was formerly high treason 
in England. 

MISSAL. The book of the Romish cer¬ 
emonies. 

MISSILE. Any weapon thrown or dis¬ 
charged from a machine, as stones from a 

sling 

MISSIONARIES. Ministers sent into 
any country to preach Christianity. 

MISTS. Vapours hovering over the 
earth, which are either drawn upwards by 
the rays of the sun, or fall down by their 
own weight in the shape of dew, or, in 
cold weather, in that of hoar frost. 

MITE. One of the smallest insects, that 
is scarcely visible to the naked eye, except 
by its motion. As seen through a micro¬ 
scope, it is found to have eight legs, two 
eyes, one on each side of the head, and 
two jointed tentacula. It mostly lives in 
cheeses 



MITE (in Commerce). A small coin 
formerly current, equal to about one third 
part of a farthing; also a weight amor j 
the moneyers, equal to the twentieth part 
of a grain. 

MITRE (among Carpenters). An angU 
just 45 degrees, or half a right angle 



MOL 


MON 


MITRE A sacerdotal ornament worn 
n the head by bishops on solemn occa¬ 
sions ; it is a cap of a conical form 



MIZEN. See Mast 

MNEMONICS. Precepts, rules, and 
common-places, to help the memory 

MOA'P (in Fortification). A deep trench 
dug round the ramparts of a fortified place. 

MOCKING-BIRD. A sort of American 
ihrush, which has the faculty of imitating 
the notes of other birds. This bird is so 
perfect an imitator, that it will catch parts 
of tunes fVom a flute, and repeat them 
with great sweetness and accuracy. It 
seldom migrates farther north than Penn¬ 
sylvania 

MODE (in Music). A regular disposition 
of the tune in relation to certain principal 
sounds, which are called the essential 
chords of the bass. 

MODEL. An original pattern, or the 
shape or design of any thing in miniature; 
particularly applied to an artificial pattern 
made in wood, stone, plaster, or other 
matter, with all, its parts and proportions, 
n order to give a full idea of the work 
chat is to be executed. 

MODERNS. A name given generally 
to those who have distinguished them¬ 
selves since the revival of learning, as 
compared with the ancients, and also with 
those of the middle ages 

MODULE (in Architecture). A certain 
measure by which the proportions of col¬ 
umns are regulated. 

MODUS DECIMANDI. In England, 
something paid as a compensation for 
tft’.es, on the principle of a moderate 
equivalent. 

MOHAIR. The hair of a kind of goat 
at Angora in Turkey, of which the natives 
make carnblets 

MOlDORE. A Portuguese coin, equal 
to $6,50 

MOLASSES The gross fluid matter 
that remains of sugar after boiling; the 
scum of the sugar-cane. 

MOLE (among Mariners). A long pier 
or artificial bulwark of masonry, extending 
obliquely across a harbour 


249 

MOLE An anima> that lives undei 
ground, and, on account of the smallness 
of its eyes, was formerly supposed to be 
blind 



MOLLUSCA An order of animals an 
der the class vermes in the Linnaean sys¬ 
tem, comprehending naked simple animals 
not included in a &heli, but furnished with 
limbs, as the snail, star-fish, cuttle-fish, 
sea-urchin, &c 

MOLTING The changing of feathers, 
hair, or horns, in birds and beasts. 

MOLYBDATES Salts formed from 
molybdic acid in combination with earths, 
alkalies, &c. 

MOLYBDENUM. A metal which ex¬ 
ists, mineralized by sulphur, in the ore 
called the ore of Molybdena Molybdenum 
has hitherto been obtained only in small 
globules. 

MOMENTUM The quantity of motion 
in a moving body. 

MONADELPHIA (in Botany). One of 
the Linnsan classes, consisting of plants 
in which all the stamens are united below 
into one cylindrical body 



MONANDRIA (in Botany) One ol 
the Linnfean classes, consisting of plants 
that have only one stamen 



MONARCHY. A government in whieh 
the supreme pcwer la vested in one person 











•0 


MO JN 


MON ASTERY. A college of monks or 
oans; a house of religious retirement. 

MONDAY. The second day of the 
week. 

MONEY. Whatever is made the me¬ 
dium of trade for oetermining the value 
of commodities in buying or selling. It 
consists eitn ' of coins, or pieces of stamped 
metal, or of paper money or moneys of 
account. Paper money is called paper 
’.urrency, to distinguish it from specie, 
metallic currency, or cash: it comprehends 
notes of hand, bills of exchange, bonds, 
mortgages &c. Moneys of account are 
imaginary moneys, used only in keeping 
accounts 5 such was the English pound 
until sovereigns were coined. 

M0NEA2RS. In England, officers in 
the king’s mint, who make and coin the 
money. 

MONGREL. Any creature of a mixed 
breed. 

MONK. One of a religious community; 
one who dwells in a monastery, under a 
vow of observing the rules of the order he 
belongs to. 

MONKEY. A well known animal, with 
a long tail, cheeks pouched, and haunches 
naked. The cut below represents a small 
■pecies, called the striated monkey 



MONKEY (in Military Affairs). A 
machine used for driving large piles of 
wood. 

MONKSHOOD, or Aconite. A poi¬ 
sonous plant bearing a fine blue flower. 

MONOCEROS. One of the new con¬ 
stellations in the northern hemisphere. 

MONOCHORD. A musical instrument 
with one string. 

MONODY. A funerai ditty. 

MONOGYNIA (in Botany). An order 
in the Linnaean system, comprehending 
plants that have only one pistil or stigma 
in a flower 

MONOECIA (in Botany). One of the 
Linnteanclassss,including plants that have 
male and female flowers on the same plant, 


MOO 

as the plane-tree, hazel, chestnut, cucum 
ber, &c 



MONOLOGUE. A soliloquy, or scer.f 
where one only speaks. 

MONOPETALOUS. One-petalled, ap¬ 
plied to flowers the corolla of which con 
sists of one petal only. 

MONQTREMES. In zoology, a family 
of edentate Mammalia, with one externa] 
aperture for the passage of the semen 
urine, and other excrements. It con 
sists of two genera, the Echidna and 
Ornithorh.vnc.hu 8 . 

MONOSYLLABLE A word of one 
syllable. 

MONOTONY. Sameness in the tone of 
the voice ; a fault in elocution or delivery 
MONSOONS, or Trade-Winds. Peri¬ 
odical winds in the Indian sea, that blow 
one half the year one way, and the other 
half on the opposite points. These points 
and times of shifting are different in differ¬ 
ent parts of the ocean. 

MONTH (in Chronology). The twelfth 
part of a year, otherwise called a calendar 
month, to distinguish it from the astronom¬ 
ical month, which is either solar or lunar 
A solar month, or the time in which the 
sun passes through a whole sign of the 
zodiac, is 30 days 16 hours 29 minutes 
5 seconds; a lunar month, or the period 
of one lunation, is 29 days 12 hours 4 4 
minutes. 

MOOD (in Grammar). The manner of 
forming a verb, or the manner of the 
verb’s inflections, so as to express the dif¬ 
ferent forms and manners of the action, or 
the different intentions of the speaker; as 
the indicative mood, which declares a 
thing; the imperative mood, by which 
one commands; the subjunctive mood, 
which implies a conditional action; the 
potential mood, which denotes the possi 
bility of doing the thing; and the infinitive 
mood, which expresses the action indefi 
nitely. 

MOON. One of the secondary planets, 
and a satellite to the earth, marked thus (J ; 
is in diameter 2144 miles, and fifty times 
less than the earth. The surface of the 
moon is diversified with mountains and 
valleys. Her sidereal or periodical motion 
on her own axis she performs in 27 day? 
7 hours 43 minutes and 11 seconds; hej 







MOS 


MOT 25 


•ynodical motion, or her motion in her 
orbit round the earth, she performs in 
39 days 12 hours 44 minutes 12 seconds: 
the former is called the periodical, and 
the latter the synodical month. 

MOONSTONE. A pure kind of feld¬ 
spar, found in Ceylon and Switzerland. 

MOOR-COCK. A bird of the grouse 
tribe, inhabiting the heaths of Scotland 
and the north of England. 

MOOR-HEN. A water-fowl of the coot 
tribe 

MOORING. Laying out the anchors 
for the secure riding of the ship 

MOOSE. See Gu, 

MORAVIANS, or Hernhutters. A 
sect of professing Christians, who prevail 
in Germany, and are distinguished both 
by the singularity of their doctrine and 
their manners. 

MORDANTS (in Dyeing). Substances 
combined with the vegetable or animal 
fibre, in order to fix the dye-stuff. 

MOROCCO. A fine kind of leather 
prepared from the skin of an animal of 
the goat kind, and imported from the Le¬ 
vant. 

MOROXYLIC ACID. An acid pro- 
cured from the white mulberry. 

MORSE. A species of sea animal of the 
seal kind, of which there are several va¬ 
rieties inhabiting the northern seas. The 
most remarkable of these is the walrus, 
or great morse. 

MORTALITY, Bills of. See Bills. 

MORTAR. A thick, short cannon, hav¬ 
ing a large bore, and mounted on a low 
strong carriage, which serves for throwing 
bombs, &c 

MORTAR (with Apothecaries). A strong 
▼easel for pounding things in with a pestle. 

MORTAR (among Masons). Lime,sand, 
and hair mixed together, so os to make a 
cement. 

MORTGAGE (in Law). A dead pledge, 
or a pawn of lands and tenements, or any 
thing immovable, given on condition that 
it should be the creditor’s for ever, if the 
money be not paid on the day appointed. 

MORTISE, or MORTOIS (among Car¬ 
penters). A kind of joint consisting of a 
hole of a certain depth cut in a piece of 
timber so as to receive another piece 
called the tenon. 

MORTMAIN. In England, an aliena¬ 
tion of lands and tenements to any guild, 
corporation, or fraternity, and their succes¬ 
sors, which may not be done without the 
King’s license 

MOSAIC, or Mosaic Work. An as¬ 
semblage of little pieces of glass, marble, 
W*eious stones, & c., of various colours, cut 


square and cemented on a ground ot stucct 
in imitation of painting. 

MOSQUE. A temple or place of reli¬ 
gious worship among the Mahometans 
The church of St. Sophia at Constantino 
pie is converted into a Turkish mosque. 

MOSQUITO. A large kind of gnat in 
warm climates, which inflicts deep wounds 
on those whom it attacks. 

MOSS. A parasitic plant, something 
like down, that adheres to the trunks of 
trees, and was formerly supposed to be 
merely an excrescence, but is now found 
to be a perfect plant, having roots, flower, 
and seeds, yet cannot be propagated by 
seed. It is oftentimes very injurious to 
fruit trees, and ought to be scraped off in 
the spring season and in moist weather. 

>4 



MOTH. An insect something similar to 
the butterfly, but not so large. It is very 
injurious to cloth and furniture. 

MOTHER. The mouldy lees of wine, 
beer, &c. 

MOTHER OF PEARL* The shell of 
pearl fish. 

MOTION (in Physiology). A change of 
place, which is absolute if it be indepen¬ 
dent of any other body, and relative if it 
changes the relative place of a moving 
body, as in the case of two vessels sailing 
in the same or contrary directions with 
different velocities. Animal motion is that 
by which the situation, figure, magnitude 
of the parts of animals is changed, which 
takes place in the act of their growth. 

MOTION (in Law). An application in 
court, either by the parties themselves oi 
their counsel, in order to obtain some 
order or rule of court. 

MOTION (in Congress or any other 
public assembly). The proposing of any 
matter for the consideration of those 
present. 

MOTTO. A word or short sentence, put 
to an emblem or device, or to a coat of 
arms in a scroll, at the bottom of the 
escutcheon. 





tot 


MOU 


MUL 


MOVABLES. Personal goods. 

MOVEMENT (in Military Affairs). The 
regular, orderly motion of an army, for 
some particular purpose. 

MOVEMENT (in Music). The progress 
of sounds from grave to acute, or from 
acute to grave. 

MOVEMENT (among Watchmakers). 
A name for the inner works of a watch, 
&c., that move. 

MOULD (in Horticulture). Earth mixed 
with dung, &c., fit for the reception of 
seeds. 

MOULD (among Mechanics). A form 
or frame in which any thing is cast, as 
glaciers’ moulds, tallowchandlers’ moulds, 
and the like. 

MOULDINESS. A term applied to 
bodies, as bread, &c., which are in a state 
of corruption, from the action of the damp 
or air. This shows itself by a white down, 
which, when seen through a microscope, 
appears, like the moss, to be a kind of 
plants, although some have imagined it to 
look like animalciilte. 

MOULDINGS (in Architecture). Pro- 
jectures beyond the naked wall, such as 
cornices, door-cases, &.C., which are cut so 
as to be ornamental. 

MOUND (among Antiquarians) A ball 
or globe with a cross upon it, which kings 
are represented as holding in their hands, 
to designate their sovereign majesty 



MOUND (in Fortification). Any thing 
raised, as a bank of earth, &.C., to fortify 
or defend a place. 

MOUNT An artificial elevation of 
earth. 

MOUNTAIN ASH. An ornamental 
tree, which in it* leaf resembles the com¬ 
mon ash ; but it bears a clustered flower, 
that is succeed©! by a beautiful red berry. 

MOUNTAINS. Extraordinary eleva¬ 
tions of the earth, such as the Alps and 
Pyrenees in Europe, the Caucasus and 
Uralian mountains In Asia, and the Andes 
in America. Mountains mostly consist of 
■tone. 

MOUNTING (in Military Affairs) Go¬ 
ing upon some arduous or specific duty, 
■« mounting a breach, that is, running up 


J to it; mounting the trenches, going upor 
duty in the trenches, &x.; but mounting 
a cannon Is setting it on its carriage. 

MOUSE. A little animal that haunts 
houses and fields. It is nearly allied to 
the rat, and is classed with it under the 
name of Mus in the Llnnsean system 
Field mice are frequently white. 



MOUSE-EAR. A plant very similar to 
chickweed; but the flower is larger, and 
the fruit shaped like an ox’s horn, gaping 
at the top. 

MOUTH. The aperture in the head of 
any animal at which the food is received, 
and by which the inspiration and expira¬ 
tion of the air is performed ; also the aper 
ture of many other things, so called from 
the similarity of situation or use, as the 
mouth of a cannon, where the powder and 
ball go in and out; the mouth of a river, 
where the water passes in and out; and 
the mouth of a vessel, <Stc. 

M. P An abbreviation for Member of 
Parliament. 

MS. An abbreviation for Manuscript. 

MSS. An abbreviation for Manuscripts 

MUCILAGE. A slimy substance of suf 
ficient consistence to hold together, as a 
solution of gum or any tenacious liquid, 
or a viscous extraction from roots and 
other parts of vegetables. 

MUCUS. A viscous fluid secreted by 
certain glands in the body. 

MUFFLE. A small earthen oven used 
for cupellation. 

MUFTI. The chief priest among the 
Mussulmen, appointed by the grand seign 
lor himself. He is the oracle in all doubt¬ 
ful questions of their law. 

MULATTO. Any one born of a black 
man and white woman, and vice versa. 

MULBERRY TREE. A large, spread 
ing tree, the fruit of which resembles the 
raspberry in its seedy make, but is much 
larger. The white mulberry is cultivated 
in France, Italy, and the United States, 
for its leaves, to feed silkworms, but the 
Persians make use of the common black 
mulberry for this purpose. 

MULE. A mongrel kind of quadruped 
.generated between ar ass and a mare 






















M UN 


MUS 


and sometimes between ahorse and a she- 
ass. Mules are hardy, sure-footed animals, 
•aed much in mountainous countries, as 
about the Alps and Pyrenees ; but they 
are incapable of propagating their species. 



MULE (in Botany). Any flower or fruit 
nroduced from two sorts. 

MU LETEER. A driver of mules. 

MULLET. A fish with a head almost 
■quare, and a silvery body. 

MULTIPLE. A number which includes 
another a certain number of times, as 6, 
the multiple of 2. 

MULTIPLICATION One of the four 
•imple rules of arithmetic, which consists 
in the increasing of any one number by 
another as often as there are units in that 
number by which the one is increased. 
The number multiplying is the multiplier; 
the number multiplied, the multiplicand ; 
and the result of the operation is the pro¬ 
duct. 

MULTIPLYING-GLASS. A glass other¬ 
wise called a polyhedron, being ground 
into several planes that make angles with 
each other, and cause objects to appear 
increased in number. 

MULTUM IN PARVO. Much in a 
■mall compass. 

MUM. A kind of liquor made of wheat, 
and brought from Brunswick in Germany. 

MUMMIES. The name of dead bodies 
which have been preserved for ages from 
corruption in Egypt, by a particular me¬ 
thod of embalming; also the liquor run¬ 
ning from such mummies, which ap¬ 
proaches more or less to a state-of solidity. 

MUNDIC. A sort of copper ore; a sul- 
phuret of copper of a greenish yellow 
colour. 

MUNICIPAL (in the Civil Law). An 
epithet signifying ‘invested with the civil 
rights of a citizen with us, it is an epi¬ 
thet for what belongs to a town or city, 
as mur.cipal laws, laws enjoyed by the 
inhabitants of a free town or city , and in 
22 


2 » 

an extended sense, municipal law is the 
law by which any particulai itate or coun 
try is governed. 

MURAL CROWN. A crown among 
the Romans, given to him who first scaled 
the walls of a city 



MURDER (in Law). The wilful an 
felonious killing a man with malice pre¬ 
pense. 

MUREX. A shell-fish noted among the 
ancients for its purple dye ; in the LinniEan 
system, it is a genus of insects under the 
class vermes, the animal of which is a 
limax: the shell is univalve and spiral. 

MURIATES. Salts formed from muri 
atic acid with certain bases, as the muriate 
of ammonia, of soda, &c. 

MURIATIC ACID (otherwise called 
Spirit ok Salt). An acid procured from 
salt, consisting of hydrogen combined with 
chlorine gas. Its odour is pungent, and its 
taste acid and corrosive. If an inflamed 
taper be immersed in it, it is instantly 
extinguished: it is also destructive of hu¬ 
man life. 

MURRAIN. A wasting, contagious dis¬ 
order among cattle 

MUS (in Zoology) A generic term, in 
the Linnsan system, for a tribe of animals 
of the class mammalia, and order glires, 
distinguished principally by their teeth. 
The most remarkable species are the com¬ 
mon rat and mouse, the musk rat, the 
Norway rat, &c 

MUSCI. Mosses; one of the families 
into which Linnanis has divided the vege¬ 
table kingdom. It is of the class crypto- 
gamia, and comprehends a vast variety of 
species, as the earth-moss, bristle-moss, 
spring-moss, water-moss, &c. 

MUSCLE (in Anatomy). A fleshy,fibrous 
part of the body, consisting of a bundle of 
thin, parallel plates, divided into a great 
number of fasciculi, or little threads and 
fibres, so constructed as to admit of relax¬ 
ation and contraction, and serving as th« 
organ of motion. The extremities of the 
muscles are inserted into the bonea. 



MUSES (in the Heathen Mythology) 
Divinities supposed to presiJe over the 











Ha 


MUS 


MUS 


arts and sciences. They were nine in 
number, namely, Clio, to whom they at¬ 
tributed the invention of history; Me’po- 
mene, the inventor of tragedy ; Thalia, of 
comedy ; Euterpe, of the use of the flute ; 
Terpsichore, of the harp; Erato, of the 
lyre and lute ; Calliope, of heroic verse ; 
Urania, of astrology ; Polyhymnia, of rhe¬ 
toric. Herodotus divided his history into 
nine books, to each of which he gave the 
name of one of the muses. 

MUSEUM. A collection of rare and 
Interesting objects, particularly in the de¬ 
partments of Natural History; also the 
place where the collection is deposited. 
Tie term was originally applied to a study, 
or a place set apart for learned men, in the 
royal palace of Alexandria, by Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, who founded a college, and 
gave salaries to the several members, add¬ 
ing also an extensive library, which was 
one of the most celebrated in the world. 

MUSHROOM. A plant, the generic 
name of which, in the Linnaean system, 
is agaricus. It is a spongy substance 
which grows up to its bulk on a sudden, 
l’he seeds of mushrooms have not long 
oeen discovered 



MUSIC. The science which treats of 
the number, time, division, succession,and 
combination of sounds, so as to produce 
harmony. It is divided into Theoretical 
Music, which inquires into the properties 
of concords and discords, and explains 
their combinations and proportions for the 
production of melody and harmony; and 
Practical Music, which is the art of apply¬ 
ing the theory of music in the composition 
of all sorts of tunes and airs. 

MUSIC, IIistohy of. The first traces 
of music are to be found in Egypt, where 
musical instruments, capable of much va¬ 
riety and expression, existed at a time 
when other nations were in an uncivilized 
state. Tiie invention of the lyre is by them 
ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus, the Mer¬ 
cury of the Egyptians, which is a proof 
of its antiquity ; . bin a still greater proof 
ef the existence of musical instruments 


amongst them at a very early period la 
drawn from the figure of an instrument 
said to be represented on an obelisk, 
erected, as is supposed, by Sesostris at 
Heliopolis. This instrument, by means ot 
its neck,was capable,with only two strings, 
if tuned fourths, of furnishing that series ol' 
sounds called by the ancients a heptachord ; 
and if tuned fifths, of producing an octave. 
As Moses was skilled in all the learning 
of the Egyptians, it is probable that the 
Israelites, who interwove music in all 
their religious ceremonies, borrowed much 
from that people. That the Greeks took 
their first ideas of music from the Egyp¬ 
tians is clear from this: that they ascribed 
the invention of the lyre to Mercury, al¬ 
though they made Apollo to be the god of 
music, and gave him that instrument to 
play upon. In no country was music so 
much cultivated as in Greece. The muses, 
as well as Apollo, Bacchus, and other gods 
and demigods, practised or promoted it in 
some way or other. Their poets are sup¬ 
posed to have been like the Celtic and 
German bards, and the scalds of Iceland 
and Scandinavia, who went about singing 
their poems in the streets, and the palaces 
of princes. In this manner did Orpheus, 
Homer, Hesiod, Sappho, and others recite 
their verses; and iu alter times, on tire 
institution of the games, Simonides, Pin¬ 
dar, and other poets celebrated in public 
the exploits of the victors. The instrument* 
known in the time of Homer were the 
lyre, flute, syrinx, and trumpet. The in¬ 
vention of notation and musical characters 
is ascribed to Terpander, a poet and yiusi 
cian,who flourished (571 years before Christ 
We afterwards find philosophers, as well 
as poets, among the number of those who 
admired and cultivated music,theoretically 
as well as practically, as Pythagoras, Plato, 
Aristotle, Aristoxenus, Euclid, and many 
others. Pythagoras is celebrated for hi3 
discoveries in this science ; namely, for 
that of musical ratios, and the addition of 
an eighth string to the lyre. The former 
of these he is supposed to have derived 
from the Egyptians. He also explained 
the theory of sounds, and reduced it to a 
science. Aristoxenus is the most ancient 
writer on music of whose works there are 
any remains. Euclid followed up the idea 
of Pythagoras’ ratios, which he reduced 
to mathematical demonstration. To this 
list of Greek writers may be added Ni- 
cliomachus Gerasenus, Alypius, Gaudenti- 
us, Bacehius senior, Ptolemy the astrono¬ 
mer,and Aristides Quintilian whose work* 
are still extant. These wrote under the 
Roman emperors, many of whom cultiv* 




M US 

icd music and followed the theory of the 
Greeks. Among the Roman writers may be 
reckoned Vitruvius, who, in his architec¬ 
ture, touches lightly on this subject; also 
MartianusCapellaand Boethius,who wrote 
on the decline of the empire. After them 
some centuries elapsed before the science 
of music met with any particular attention. 
Its introduction into the church service 
prevented it from falling, like other arts, 
into total neglect. Instrumental music 
was introduced into the public service of 
the church under Constantine the Great. 
The practice of chanting the psalms was 
aegun in the western churches by St. Am¬ 
brose, about 350 years after Christ; three 
hundred years after, the method of chant¬ 
ing was improved by St. Gregory the 
Great, it was probably introduced into 
England by St. Augustine, and greatly 
unproved by St Dunstan. The use of the 
irgan probably commenced in the Greek 
ihurch, were it was called hydraulicon, 
s>r the water-organ. The first organ known 
in Europe was sent as a present to King 
Pepin from the emperor Constantine Co- 
arcnymus. It came into general use in 
France, Germany, and England, in the 
.entli century. Soon after this, music be¬ 
gan again to be cultivated as a science, 
particularly in Italy, where Guido, a monk 
of Arezzo, first conceived the idea of coun¬ 
terpoint, or the division of music into 
parts by points set opposite to each other, 
and formed the scale afterwards known 
by the name of the gamut. This was fol¬ 
lowed by the invention of the time-table, 
tnd afterwards by regular compositions of 
anisic. But the exercise of the art was 
'or a long time confined to sacred music, 
during which period secular music was 
r ollo\ved by itinerant poets and musicians, 
after the manner of the ancients. Of this 
lescription were the troubadours in France, 
the Welsh bards or harpers in England, 
tnd the Scotch minstrels. 

MUSICIAN. A professor of, and prac¬ 
titioner in music; one who performs on 
any musical instrument The musicians 
in London form one of the city compa¬ 
nies. 

MUSK An oily, friable, brownish sub¬ 
stance, generated in the body of the musk, 
of the most powerful and penetrating 
ainell, which is used as a perfume. It is 
partially soluble in water, which receives 
its smell, and also in alcohol,to which, how¬ 
ever, it does not communicate its odour. 

MUSK. A quadruped, in size and figure 
resembling a small roebuck It is a native 
of Thibet and other parts of Asia, and is 
remarkable for having an oval bag in the 


MUT t56 


lo (ver part of its belly, containiit s per¬ 

fume called musk 



MUSK-APPLE and MUSK-PEAR A 
sort of apple and pear having tne perfume 
of musk ; also other plants or flowers, so 
called from their having the same perfume, 
as the musk cranesbill, and the musk ochra, 
a West Indian plant. 

MUSKET. A commodious sort of fire¬ 
arms used by soldiers. The regular length 
or’ a musket is 3 feet 8 inches from tne 
muzzle to the pan. 

MUSKET-SHOT. The distance that» 
musket will carry, which is anout 120 
fathoms. 

MUSK-OX. An animal with short legs, 
and long hair, that resembles the Bison, 
and inhabits the frigid regions of North 
America. 

MUSK-RAT. An animal of the beaver 
kind, which yields an oily fluid, having 
the perfume of musk. Its fur is vr'uable. 

MUSK-ROSE. A sort of rose, from 
which a highly odorous oil is extracted at 
Tunis 

MUSLIN. A fine sort of cotton cloth. 

MUSQUETEERS. Soldiers armed will 
muskets. 

MUSSEL. A testaceous animal found 
lodged in limestone, or in deep beds under 
water 

MUSSULMAN,or Moslem, i. e Faith 
ful. The name assumed by Mahometans 

MUST. The newly pressed j-.ice of the 
grape, which, by a chemical analysis, is 
found to contain water, sugar, jelly, glu 
ten, and bitartrate of potash 

MUSTER. A review of soldiers under 
arms. 

MUSTER-ROLL. A specific list of the 
officers and men in every regiment, troop, 
or company. 

MUTATIS MUTANDIS. Things being 
changed as they ought to be. 

MUTE (in Law). Not answering direct¬ 
ly to the arraignment, on an indictment for 
felony A prisoner is said to stand mut« 









N At5 


SA6 NIK 

when be will not put himself upon the 
Inquest. 

MUTE (in Mineralogy). An epithet for 
minerals which do not ring when they are 
struck. 

MUTES (in Grammar). Letters which 
cannot form a sound without a vowel after 
diem, as b, c, d, g, k, p, q, t. 

MUTES (in the Grand Seignior’s Se¬ 
raglio). Dumb officers, who are sent to 
strangle, with the bow-string, bashaws or 
other persons who fall under the sultan’s 
‘spleasure. 

MUTES (among Undertakers). Those 
men who are employed to stand at the 
ioor of the deceased, until the body is 
:arried out. 

MUTINY. A revolting from lawful au- 
hority, particularly among soldiers and 
sailors. 

MYRMELEON. a genus of insects in 
the Linnaian system, one species of which 
is remarkable on account of its larva, 


which has the property of preparing a k- 
of pitfall for the ensnaring of other insects 

MYRRH. A resinous concrete juice 
procured from a tree growing in Arabia 
and Abyssinia. The sort of tree which 
yields this substance is not exactly known 
but, according to Bruce, it is a sort of 
mimosa. Myrrh is in the form of tears, 
brittle, of an aromatic taste, not melting 
when heated, and burning with difficulty ; 
yields oil by distillation, and forms a ye) 
low solution with water. 

MYRTLE. A fragrant shrub, which, 
among the ancients, was sacred to Venus 
The common myrtle is a native of Asia. 
Africa, and Europe. 

MYRTUS. The generic name of tbe 
myrtle in the Linnrean system; includes 
also among its species the pimento or all¬ 
spice tree. 

MYTHOLOGY The fabulous history 
of the heathen deities and heroes, and 
divine honours paid to them 


N. 


N, the thirteenth letter of the alphabet, 
stood as a numeral for 900, and, with a 
dash over it, thus, N, 9000. N. or No. 
stands as an abbreviation for numero, 
number; also for north, note, noun, &c. 

NABOB, or NAVOUB. An Indian 
word for a deputy ; a title of dignity and 
power applied to those who act under the 
•oubahs or viceroys. 

NABONASSAR. First king of Baby¬ 
lon, in whose reign, according to Ptolemy, 
astronomical observations were made; 
whence an sera was formed from this 
king’s reign, celled the sera of Nabonas- 
sar, dated 747 years before Christ. 

NADIR (in Astronomy). That point in 
the heavens opposite to the zenith, and 
directly under our feet, or a point in a 
right line, supposed to be drawn from our 
feet through the centre of the earth, and 
terminating in the lower hemisphere. 

NAIL (in Anatomy). The horny lamina 
on the extremity of the fingers and toes. 

NAIL (with Ironmongers). Spikes of 
iron and brass, having heads, and fitted for 
binding several pieces of wood together. 

NAIL (in Commerce). A measure of 
length, containing the sixteenth part of a 
yard. 

NAKED. A '.erm in Architecture, ap¬ 
plied either to a column or a wall, to 
denote the face or plain surface from 
which the projections take their rise. 


NANKIN A well known stuff, so call¬ 
ed from Nanking, a city in China. 

NAPE. The hinder part of the neck. 

NAPHTHA. A native combustible li¬ 
quid, and one of the thinnest of the liquid 
bitumens issuing from the earth, and found 
on the borders of springs on the shores of 
the Caspian Sea, and many other places 
It feels greasy, has a bituminous smell, 
takes fire on the approach of flame, and is 
so light as to float on the water. 

NARCISSUS. A genus of plants, which 
is cultivated in gardens on account of its 
sweet-smeiJihg flowers, which are either 
yellow or w.ote. 

NARCOTICS (in Medicine). Soporife- 
rous and stupifying medicines, as opium 
and its preparations. 

NARROW A small passage between 
two lands. 

NARVAL. An animal of the whale 
tribe, remarkable for its single tooth stand¬ 
ing out like the horn of the unicorn. 



NASTURTIUM. A plant, which is cul¬ 
tivated in gardens, and bears a flower of 
a deep crimson colour The seeds, when 






N A V 


N A V 

< ruiaea, have a pungent smell that cauiea 
sneezing. 

NATIONAL DEBT. Loans advanced 
to government, which constitute the funds 
or stocks, for which interest is paid from 
revenues set apart for the purpose. 

NATRON. Native carbonate of soda. 

NATURAL HISTORY. That branch 
of knowledge which treats of the charac¬ 
teristics or distinctive marks of each indi¬ 
vidual object, whether animal, vegetable, 
or mineral; as also of its peculiar habits, 
qualities, uses, &c. 

NATURALIZATION (in Law). The 
admitting of an alien into the number of 
natural subjects. 

NATURAL ORDERS (in Botany). A 
asode of classifying plants accordin-g to 
their natural or more obvious character¬ 
istics. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY That 
branch of science which treats of the pow¬ 
ers of nature, the properties of natural 
bodies, and their actions on one another, 
comprehending under it the several divi¬ 
sions of astronomy, chymistry, electricity, 
gulvanism, hydraulics or hydrostatics, 
magnetism, mechanics, optics, pneuma¬ 
tics, &,c. 

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. The sci¬ 
ence of ship building, comprehending the 
theory of delineating marine vessels upon 
a plane surface, and the art of framing 
them upon the stocks according to the 
proportions exhibited in a regular design. 

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, Histort 
or. The first example of any construction 
fitted to be borne up by the waters is re¬ 
corded in Scripture in the case of the ark 
Duilt by Noah under the divine assistance 
and commands. As this was built by more 
than human aid, it is not surprising that 
we hear of no farther attempts at building 
vessels of any kind until the nation of the 
Egyptians was formed, who doubtless pro¬ 
fited by those arts and sciences which, as 
is generally admitted, were practised be¬ 
fore the flood, and transmitted by Noah 
and his family to his posterity. The Egyp¬ 
tians, we are told, constructed the barks 
which they used on the Nile of planks 
cut out of the acacia, or Egyptian thorn ; 
the planks were nearly square, measuring 
about three feet each way, and, being 
lapped over each other like tiles, were 
fastened together with wooden pins. The 
joints and seams were carefully calked 
with the papyrus, and benches of the same 
material were for ned for the rowers. As 
the necessity of some impelling and direct¬ 
ing forre in aid of human labour was soon 
Vt, a rudder and a sail were quickly 
S3* 


V> 

added. The sail, which was made of th* 
papyrus, was fastened to a pole serving as 
a mast, which was made of the acantha. 
As such vessels were incapable of stem¬ 
ming the current of the river when the 
wind was unfavourable, they used to be 
towed by persons on the bank, and when 
they went with the current, the Egyptians 
used to accelerate their motion by tying 
a hurdle of tamarisk to the prow of the 
vessel, and letting it down into the water t 
the stream acted on the hurdle more 
strongly than it would on the sides of the 
vessel, and thus increased the velocity of 
its motion very materially. In order tc 
preserve a due balance between the head 
and the stern, which might otherwise 
have been destroyed by the action of the 
hurdle, they caused a stone of consider¬ 
able magnitude, pierced through the mid¬ 
dle, to be suspended by a rope from the 
stern, which enabled them to swim nearly 
with an even keel. 

The first contrivance to supply the place 
of a commercial vessel is generally ad¬ 
mitted to have bfcen a kind of raft, or 
collection of trees fastened together with 
ropes, made from the bark. But as in a 
structure so rude they were altogether 
without the powerof directingtheircourse, 
they set about remedying this inconveni¬ 
ence, by putting a few thick planks to 
the depth of three or four feet in the water 
between the joists of the trees which com¬ 
posed the raft These, being raised or 
lowered at the pleasure of the pilot, served 
in some measure the purpose proposed. 
With no better contrivances than this, the 
Phaanicians are said to have visited the 
islands of Sicily, Corsica, and various 
other islands in the Mediterranean. It is 
also worthy of observation, that floats an¬ 
swering to the description of these were 
found in the south seas in the last century. 

Although the Greeks were not remark¬ 
able for a spirit of commercial enterprise, 
yet the remains of antiquity furnish us 
with ample evidence of the advances 
which they made in the art of ship-build 
in-g. They had vessels of different forms 
and sizes, distinguished, according to their 
use, into ships of passage, ships of burden, 
and ships of war. The latter were like 
wise designated triremes, quadremes, and 
quinquiremes, according to the number of 
banks of oars, which were raised in a 
sloping direction one above another. Those 
which had most banks were built highest, 
and rowed with the greatest streng’h Tim 
Greeks, in all probability, derived the; 
knowledge of ship building from the Car¬ 
thaginians, a warlike and trading peopU 



descender »ra the Phoeniciar a, who were 
celebrated Icr their skill in the construc¬ 
tion and management of vessels In con¬ 
sequence of their contests with the Romans, 
the latter, after having suffered one or two 
uefeats in naval engagements, acquired 
the art of building ships from their rivals, 
and successfully employed it to their over¬ 
throw. 

The modern art of ship-building appears 
to lia’ T e been derived from the northern 
tribes, among whom we find that trees 
hollowed out like canoes were first used. 
The crusades first gave the impulse to im¬ 
provements in ship-building, which, not¬ 
withstanding, continued for some time at 
ti low ebb. Even in the reign of Edward 
tJ ae First, ships were very insignificant in 
point of size, for it appears that forty men 
were deemed sufficient to man the largest 
vessels in England. The states of Venice 
and Genoa probably first increased the 
size of their ships, but they were soon sur¬ 
passed by the Spaniards, who first em¬ 
ployed cannon. The Hanse Towns made 
such advances in naval* architecture, that 
in the fourteenth century it was usual for 
them to let their ships out to foreign 
princes. In the reign of Henry IV. ships 
of considerable size began to be built in 
England, and they continued to increase in 
magnitude until the reign of Henry VIII. 
when two very large ships were built, 
namely, the Regent, of 1000 tons burthen, 
and the Henry Grace Dieu, which was 
larger. 

NATIMACHY. In anc. Home, a show 
or spectacle representing a sea-fight. 

NAUMANITE. A peculiar ore of 
silver, found in cubical crystals, in thin 
plates, and granular. 

^ATJSCOPY. The pretended art of 
discovering approaching ships, or the 
existence of land, at a considerable 
distance. 

NAVAL CROYYi^. A crown among 
the Romans, given to him who first boarded 
an enemy’s ship j it was a circle of gold 
representing the beaks of ships 



NAVE Tbs body or main part of a 

•feurcl) 


NAVIGATION. The art of conuac?i»g 
a vessel at sea from one port to another. 
This is navigation, properly so called, to 
distinguish it from common navigation* or 
coasting, that is, conducting vessels from 
one port to another lying on the same 
coast j and inland navigation, which is 
performed by small craft on canals There 
is also a submarine navigation, that is, the 
art of sailing under water by means of the 
diving bell, 6c c. Navugv. n is divided 
into theoretical navigaticji, which treats 
of the difference of latitude, the difference 
oflongitude .A* eckoning or distance run 
the course or numb run on, besides the 
different modes of sailing—plain sailing, in 
which the plane chart is made use of; Mer¬ 
cator’s or globular sailing, in which Merca¬ 
tor’s chart is used, Ac. Practical navigation 
has respect to the places sailed to, or the 
waters sailed over, and is either proper, 
common, inland, Ac. as before explained. 

NAVIGATION, IlisToe.r of. Naviga¬ 
tion and commerce without doubt took 
their rise together ; for the desire of gain, 
being one of the most powerful incentives 
to action, would naturally lead men to 
explore distant countries. Hence we find 
that the Phoenicians, particularly those of 
Tyre, who were the first trading people on 
record, were also the first to make fleets, 
and by the aid of astronomical observa¬ 
tions to extend their voyages to some dis¬ 
tance from their own shores. The Cartha 
ginians followed the course of their an¬ 
cestors the Tyrians, and addicted them¬ 
selves so thoroughly to trade and navigation 
that they surpassed every other nation of 
antiquity in the cultivation of these two 
arts. They first made the quadremes, or 
four-oared galleys, and probably were the 
first who made cables for their large 
vessels of the shrub spatum. They like¬ 
wise pushed their discoveries to a vast 
extent. They were perfectly acquainted 
with the Mediterranean and all the ports 
in it, and proceeded to the westward far¬ 
ther than any other nation. Britain and 
the Canaries were known to them, and in 
the opinion of some they even went as 
far as America. The formidable fleets they 
fitted out, the quantity of shipping they 
always kept in their employ, and the 
honour they so long enjoyed of being the 
masters of the sea, sufficiently attest the 
advances wh'ch they made in navigation. 
As the Greeks and Romans were more 
addicted to war than commerce, they em¬ 
ployed their shipping principally in tr ex¬ 
porting their men to the countries „ 
were going to attack, or in engaging theb 
enemies at sea. That the Athenians «i 






NAVIGATION 


eel lea all the other Greeks ? n their mari¬ 
time warfare is ev.dent from the victories 
which they gained over ‘he Persians by 
sea. As to the Romans, they are said by 
Polybius to have been utter strangers to 
naval affairs, and quite ignorant of ship¬ 
building, before the first Punic war, when 
a Carthaginian galley, having accidentally 
stranded on the coast t>f Italy, was taken 
by them, and served as a model for the 
construction of vessels. Of this they made 
so good a use as to raise a fleet of one 
rndred and twenty galleys, with which 
ley were enabled to beat the Carthagi¬ 
nians on their own element. It does not 
appear, however, that either of these peo¬ 
ple went to any distance in their vessels, 
either for purposes of trade or curiosity. 
The only voyage of discovery we read of 
in antiquity was that made by Nearchus, 
under the auspices of Alexander. In all 
other countries, navigation was encouraged 
solely for the purposes of commerce, as 
by the Egyptians and the Byzantines, and 
subsequently by the Venetians and Geno¬ 
ese until the time of the crusades, when 
a spirit of adventure was excited through¬ 
out all Europe, and preparations were 
made for voyages to the Holy Land, 
which led to the improvement of naviga¬ 
tion. The laws of Oleron, framed and 
established by our king Richard I., show 
that a system of maritime policy was now 
thought necessary. Of the progress of the 
English navy, it suffices here to observe, 
that the first statutes respecting it were 
passed in the reign of Richard II. and that 
from that period to the present it has been 
the object of government to iaise it to the 
highest pitch of perfection. As to the art 
of navigation generally, nothing contribu¬ 
ted so much to its advancement as the in¬ 
vention of the mariner’s compass, in the 
fourteenth century, which gave so great a 
facility to the exploring of unknown re¬ 
gions. From this time many considerable 
voyages were made, particularly by the 
Portuguese, under the auspices of Henry 
Duke of Visco, who was particularly 
tAilled in cosmography, and employed a 
aerson from the island of Majorca to teach 
navigation and to make instruments and 
charts. In the subsequent reign of John II. 
one Martin de Bohemia, a Portuguese, 
native of the island of Fayal, a pupil of 
Regiomontanus, calculated, about 1485, for 
the use of navigators, tables of the sun’s 
declination, and recommended the astro¬ 
labe for taking observations at sea. About 
the same time, Columbus conceived the 
idea of exploring a passage to India by 
tailing directly towards the west across 


the Atlantic ocean, and being furnished 
with a small armament of three ships by 
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, he se» 
sail in August, 145)2, and steered directly 
for the Canary Islands ; thence holding his 
course due west, he stretched away into 
unfrequented and unknown seas. After en¬ 
countering incredible difficulties and hard¬ 
ships from the elements, and a scarcity of 
provisions, but above all from the muti¬ 
nous spirit of his crew, he arrived at Gua 
nami, one of the large cluster of islands 
called the Lucaya, or Bahama Isles. He 
also discovered Cuba, Hispaniola, and seve¬ 
ral other small islands, and, having left a 
colony in a fort at Hispaniola, returned 
to Spain in March, 1493. In September 
following, he set out on his second voyage, 
and sailed by the Leeward Islands to 
Hispaniola; and in a third voyage, under¬ 
taken in 1498, he discovered the continent 
of America. In the same year, Vasco de 
Gama returned to Lisbon from a voyage 
to the East Indies by the Cape of Good 
Hope. As from practice the art of navi¬ 
gation was thus materially improved, so 
likewise additional efforts were now made 
to advance it theoretically, and to extern 
its cultivation. The emperor Charles V 
founded a lecture at Seville for the im¬ 
provement of navigation, which derived 
much advantage from the discovery of the 
variation of the compass, and the use of 
the cross staff. The subject also now be¬ 
gan to engage the pens of the learned. 
Two treatises, the first of the kind, con¬ 
taining a system of the art, were published 
in Spanish, the first by Pedro de Medina, 
at Valladolid, in 1545, called ‘Arte de 
Navegar,’ the other at Seville, in 1556, 
by Martin Cortes, under the title of ‘ Breve 
Compendio de la Sphera y de la Arte de 
Navegar, &c.’ which was translated into 
English and passed through several im¬ 
pressions. 

The finding of the longitude, which is 
still a desideratum in the art, had even 
early engaged the attention of writers ; for 
we find that Pedro Nunez, or Nonius, 
published a treatise on this subject in 1537 
in the Portuguese language, which was 
afterwards printed at Basil in Latin, under 
the title of ‘ De Arte et Ratione Navi- 
gandi.’ In this work the problem of deter¬ 
mining the latitude from two observation? 
of the sun’s altitude and the intermediate 
azimuth is resolved. In 1557, Bourne 
published his ‘ Regiment for the Sea,’ in¬ 
tended as a supplement to Cortes; and in 
1581,Michael Coignet, a native of Antwerp, 
published his ‘ Instruction Nouvelle dea 
Points plus excellent et necessaires tou 





960 


NAU 


NEE 


ehant l’Art de Naviger,’ intended as an 
improvement upon Medina. The discov¬ 
ery of the dipping-needle was explained 
by Robert Norman, in his ‘ New Attrac¬ 
tive,’ a pamphlet, to which is commonly 
subjoined William Burrough’s £ Discourse 
of the Variation of the Compass.’ In 1594, 
Captain John Davis published a small 
treatise entitled the ‘Seaman’s Secrets,’ 
which was much esteemed ut that time. 

As the errors of the plane chart had been 
much complained of by those who were 
conversant with the subject, Gerard Mer¬ 
cator was led to construct a universal map, 
for the purpose of obviating those objec¬ 
tions, the use of which was afterwards 
fully illustrated by Mr. Edward Wright of 
Cambridge, who, in his 4 Correction of cer¬ 
tain Errors in Navigation,’ printed in 1599, 
showed the true method of dividing the 
meridian from Cambridge, as also the man¬ 
ner of constructing the table, and its uses 
in navigation. The method of approxima¬ 
tion by what is called the middle latitude 
is mentioned by Gunter in his worho, 
printed in 1623, but was not brought into 
general use until some time after. The ap¬ 
plication of logarithms to navigation was 
also made by this author in a variety of 
ways; but Thomas Addison, in his 4 Arith¬ 
metical Navigation,’ is said to have been 
the first to apply logarithmic tables to the 
cases of sailing. From this time several 
writers in England and elsewhere contrib¬ 
uted to the improvement of the science, as 
Gellibrand, in a 4 Discourse Mathematical 
on the Variation of the Needle ;’ Norwood, 
In his 4 Srwan’s Practice;’ John Baptist 
Riccioli, at Bologna, in 1661; Father Mil¬ 
let Dechals, in 1674 and 1677 ; M. Bougier, 
In 1698 ; William Jones, in a 4 New Com¬ 
pendium of the whole Art of Navigation ;’ 
Peter Bouque, in his 4 Nouveau Traite 
de Navigation;’ and Dr. Robertson’s 
‘ Elements of Navigati 1 to which was 
added" a valuable preface by Dr. James 
Wilson. 

NAVIGATOR. One who follows the 
practical part of navigation ; particularly 
one who goes on voyages of discovery. 

NAUMACHIA. The representation of 
a sea fight, which among the Romans 
formed a part of the Circensian games. 

NAUTICAL. An epithet for what be¬ 
longs to the navy or navigation, as tiie 
Nautical Almanack, which in England is 
published under the direction of the Board 
of Longitude, for the use of mariners. 

NAUTILUS. A genus of testaceous 
worms, one species of which, called the 
*dfl shell, floats on the surface of the sea 
n its shell, by the nelp of a membrane 


which it extends, so as to nuke it w»m 
the purpose of a sail. 

NAVY". The whole naval establish¬ 
ment of any country, comprehending the 
ships, officers, men, stores, &.c. &c. That 
part of the navy of England, which is dis¬ 
tinguished by the title of the Royal Navy 
comprehends all ships of war and their 
crews, &c • 

NAVY BOARD (in the English Navy) 
consists of a lord high admiral or lords 
commissioners, with a number of inferior 

officers. 

NAZARENES. A term of reproach 
among the Jews for our Saviour and his 

disciples. 

NAZARITES. A sect among the Jews 
affecting certain peculiarities. 

N. B. 1. e. Nota Bunk. Take notice 

NEAP TIDES. Tides in the second 
ami last quarter of the moon, not so high 
as the spring tides. 

NEEDLE-GUN. A breech-loading 
fire-arm, which is exploded by means 
of a steel point and detonating powder, 
first used by the Prussians against the 
Austrians lii 1866 . 

NEEDLE-ORE. A native sulpliuret 
of bismuth, found in a gold mine in 
Siberia. 

NEBULAS. Spots in the heavens, some 
of which consist of clusters of exceedingly 
small stars, others appear like luminous 
spots of different forms. 

NECK. That part between the head 
and the body. 

NECK. Any thing long in the form of 
the neck, as the neck of a bottle, a violin, 

&c. 

NECROLOGY. A register of the deaths 
of benefactors in a monastery ; also a reg¬ 
ister of distinguished persons who die 
within a certain period. 

NECROMANCY. A sort of magic prac¬ 
tised by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, 
by which they attempted to raise the dead 
or make them appear. 

NECTAR (in Mythology). The drink 
of the gods, according to the poets. 

NECTAR (in Medicine). A drink of a 
delightful taste, smell, and color. 

NECTARINE. A sort of peach, having 
a smooth rind and a firm flesh. 

NECTARY. The melliferous part of a 
vegetable. 

NEEDLE. An instrument of steel for 
sewing, having a sharp point for piercing, 
and an eye to receive the thread ; also an 
instrument for knitting, which is a simple 
steel wire. 

NEEDLE, or Maonbticai, Nhedlk. 
A need»e touched with the loadstone, anrf 




NEP 


NEW 


261 


•upended on a pivot, on w inch, playing 
at liberty, it directs itself to the north and 
south of the horiton. Magnetical needles 
are called horizontal when balanced equal¬ 
ly on both sides, and incliuatory or dipping 
when they ure constructed so as to show 
the dip of the needle, or how far it points 
below the horizon. 

NEGATIVE. An epithet for what im¬ 
plies negation. 

NEGATIVE ELECTRICITY. That 
state ot bodies, in which they are deprived 
rt some portion of the electricity which 
»hey naturally contain. 

NEGATIVE PREGNANT (in Law). 
A negative which implies an affirmation, 
as when n person denies having done a 
thing in a certain manner or at a cer¬ 
tain time, as stated in the declaration, 
which implies that he did it in some man¬ 
ner. 

NEGATIVE QUANTITIES (in Alge¬ 
bra). Quantities having the negative sign 
set before them. 

NEGATIVE SIGN (in Algebra). A 
sign marked thus —, to denote less than 
nothing. 

NEGOTIATION. The conducting a 
treaty, either in political or commercial 
matters. 

NEGROES. The black inhabitants of 
Africa, having woolly hair and a peculiar 
complexion. They have hitherto been the 
objects of the inhuman traffic called the 
slave-trade. They are very numerous in 
the central parts of Africa, and it appears 
by the late Travels of Denham and Clap- 
perton and others, that powerful king¬ 
doms exist there, in a state further advan¬ 
ced toward civilization, than was suppos¬ 
ed. It has been imagined that the ne¬ 
groes are inferior in capacity to the other 
races of mankind, but a better knowledge 
of Africa may throw doubt upon this 
opinion. 

NEM. CON. An abbreviation for nom¬ 
ine contradicente, that is, no one opposing, 
applied to the decisions of the English par¬ 
liament and other public assemblies. 

NEM. DISS. An abbreviation for nem- 
ine dissentlente, no one dissenting, that 
is, with unanimous consent. 

NEPHRITE A sort of stone of the 
talc kind, of a dark leek-green colour, 
verging to blue. It is found in China, 
America, and Egypt, und is highly prized 
by the Hindoos and Chinese, by whom it 
is made into tal imans. 

NEPHRITIC. Relating to the kidneys. 

NE PLUS ULTRA, i. e. no farther. The 
extremity, or utmost extent to which any 
thing can g< 


NEPTUNE. The god of the sea, broth¬ 
er of Jupiter, in the heathen mythology, 
who is known by his trident. 



NERITA. A sort of testaceous worms, 
whose shells are adorned with a beautiful 
painting in miniature. 

NERVES (in Anatomy) Long white 
cords, the medullary prolongations of the 
brain which serve for sensation. 

NERVES (in Botany) Long tough 
strings, which run lengthways in the leaf 
of a plant. 

NERVOUS. An epithet for what re¬ 
lates to the nerves, as the nervous system, 
nervous disorders, &c. 

NEST. The lodging prepared by birds 
for incubation and receiving their young. 

iNESTORlAN. One of an ancient 
sect founded by Nestorius of Constan¬ 
tinople in the fifth century, who taught 
that the divine and human natures of 
Christ did not unite and form oneperson, 
that Mary was not the mother of God, 
but of Christ. 

NEUIIOPTERA. An order of insects 
in the Linmcan system, including those 
which have the wings reticulate, as the 
dragon (ly, the day fly, the lion ant, &c. 

NEUTRALIZATION (in Chymistry). 
The process by which an acid and an al¬ 
kali are so combined as to disguise each 
other’s properties. 

NEUTRAL SALTS. Salts which par¬ 
take of the nature of both an acid and an 
alkali. 

NEWFOUNDLANI) DOG. A very sa¬ 
gacious kind of spaniel that is web-footed, 
and an excellent swimmer 

NEWSPAPER. A periodical publica¬ 
tion, which appears once or oftener in the 
week, containing an account of the politi¬ 
cal and domestic occurrences of the time. 

NEW STYLE, abbreviated N.S. The 
Gregorian method of reckoning the days 
of the year, so a* to adjust the odd hours 
and minutes in the period of the sun’s 
revolution 





862 


NIG 


N IS 


NEWT. A small animal of the lizard 

tribe. 

NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY. The 
doctrine of the universe as explained by 
Sir Ibaac Newton, respecting the proper¬ 
ties, laws, affections, forces, motions, &,c. 
of bodies, both celestial and terrestrial. 
The chief parts of the Newtonian philoso¬ 
phy are explained by the author in his 
Principia, or Principles of Natural Philo¬ 
sophy. 

NICENE CREED. A particular creed 
formed at the first general council assem¬ 
bled at the city of Nice by Constantine 
the Great, a. d. 315. This creed has since 
been adopted by the church of England. 

NICKEL. A metallic substance, most- 
tv found in a metallic state, but sometimes 
in that of an oxide. Its ores have a cop¬ 
pery red color. 

NICKEL KUPFER,orthe Sulfhuret 
of Nickel, is a compound of nickel, 
arsenic, and a sulphuret of iron. 

NICTITANT MEMBRANE (in Com¬ 
parative Anatomy). A thin membrane 
chiefly found in birds and fishes, which 
covers the eyes of these animals, so as to 
shelter them from the dust and excess of 
ight. 

NIGHT (in Law). The period of dark¬ 
ness, when a man’s face cannot be dis¬ 
cerned. 

NIGHTHAWK. An American bird, 
that makes its appearance at evening, 
and is seen high in the air, flying about 
in pursuit of insects. It has been erro¬ 
neously supposed that it was the whip¬ 
poorwill. 



NIGHTMARE. A heavy, pressing sen¬ 
sation on the breast during the ti ght, to 
which nervous persons are subject. 


NIGHTINGALE. A small brown E* 
ropean bird, that sings beautifully daring 
the night. 



NIGHTSHADE, or Deadly Night¬ 
shade. A poisonous plant, bearing a bell¬ 
shaped corolla, from the leaves of which 
painters extract a fine green. 

NIHIL DIGIT (in Law). A failure on 
the part of the defendant to put in an an¬ 
swer to the plaintiff’s declaration, &c., by 
which omission* iudgment is of course 
had against him. 

NILGHAU, or NYLGHAU. The Per 
sian name for a species of antelope, tn* 
antiiope picta of Linnaeus, having short 
horns bent forward, and the upper and 
under parts of the neck maned 



NIMBUS (among Antiquarians). A 
circle observed on some medals, or round 
the head of some emperors, answering to 
the circles of light drawn around the ima 
ges of saints. 

NISI PRIUS. In England, a com¬ 
mission directed to the judges of assize 
empowering them to try all questions of 
fact issuing out of the courts of Westmin¬ 
ster, that are then ready for trial ; and 
as, by the course of the court, all causes are 
heard at Westminster, the clause is added 
in such writs, Nisi prius justiciarii ad capi- 
eiulasassisas veserint; that is, Unless be¬ 
fore the day fixed the justices come into 
the county in question ; whence the writ 













NOR 


NOC 

m well as the commission, have received 
♦he name. 

NITRATES. Salts formed of nitric 
acid with salifiable bases, as the nitrate of 
potash, soda, &c. 

NITRE, vulgarly called Saltpetre. 
A neutral salt, being a crystallized, pel¬ 
lucid, and whitish substance, of an acrid 
and bitterish taste, impressing a strong 
sense of coldness on the tongue. It is 
found ready formed in the East Indies and 
in the southern parts of Europe, but by far 
the greater part of the nitre in common | 
use is produced by the combination of 
substances in suitable situations, which 
tend to produce nitric acid, particularly 
where animal matter becomes decompos¬ 
ed by the air, such as slaughter-houses, 
drains, and the like. 

NITRIC ACID. A heavy, yellow li¬ 
quid, procured by the chymical combina¬ 
tion of oxygen and nitrogen gas. Diluted 
with the sulphuric and muriatic acids, it 
’•rms the well known liquid aquafortis. 

NITROGEN, or Azote. The principle 
of nitre in its gaseous state, which consti¬ 
tutes four fifths of the volume of atmos¬ 
pheric air. It has neither smell nor taste, 
and is not to be procured in a separate 
Rate ; but is remarkable for the properties 
of extinguishing flame and animal life. 

NITRO MURIATIC ACID. A com¬ 
pound of nitric and muriatic acids, for¬ 
merly called aqua regia. 

NITRO-C ALCITE. titrate of lime, 
having a greyish-white color, occurring 
in efflorescences on old walls, and in 
limestone caves. 

NITROGLYCERINE. A powerful 
blasting oil, and highly dangerous ex¬ 
plosive agent, prepared by the action of 
nitric and sulphuric acids on glycerine. 

NITURET. A body of oxygen, hydro¬ 
gen. carbon, and one atom of nitrogen. 

NOBLE. An English coin used in the 
reign of Edward III. Value about $1.75. 



NOCTANTER. By night. 
NOCTURNAL. An epithet for what 
be.ongs to the night, as a nocturnal arch, 
tne arch described by the sun pr a star in 

tb« night 


163 

NOCTURNAL, orN octurl>bium. An 
instrument used at sea for finding the lat 
itude and hour of the night. 

NODDY. A sea fowl of the tern kind. 

NODE (in Surgery). A hard tumour 
rising oat of a bone. 

NODE (in Dialling). The axis or cock 
of a dial. 

NODES (in Astronomy). Two point* 
where the orbit of a planet intersects the 
ecliptic: the Northern or Ascending Node, 
called the dragon’s head, is marked thus 
I Q, the Southern or Descending Node, the 
dragon’s tail, marked thus y. 

NOLLE PROSEQUI. An agreement 
on the part of the plaintiff not to prose¬ 
cute his suit. 

NO MAN’S LAND. A sea term for 
the space in midships, between the after 
part of the belfry, and the fore part of a 
ship’s boat, when she is stowed upon the 
boom. 

NOMENCLATURE. A catalogue of 
the most useful and significant words in 
any language or in any particular science. 

NOMINATIVE (in Grammar). The 
first case of a noun, or the name itself. 

NONAGESIMAL. The ninetieth de¬ 
gree of the ecliptic. 

NONCHALANCE. An affected indif¬ 
ference. 

NGN COMPOS MENTIS (in Law) 
Not of sound mind. 

NON CONDUCTORS (in Electricity; 
Bodies which do not become electric by 
being placed in the neighborhood of an 
excited body. 

NONCONFORMIST. In England, a 
person not conforming to the church of 
England. 

NON EST INVENTUS, i. e. literally, 
He has not been found. The answer made 
by the sheriff in the return of the writ, 
when the defendant is not to be found ir. 
his bailiwick. 

NONPLUS. A difficulty or embarrass¬ 
ment, when one cannot proceed any wav. 

NON PROS. i. e. Non prosequitur, He 
does not prosecute. A nonsuit, or the 
form of renouncing or letting fall a suit by 
the plaintiff. 

NONRESIDENCE (in Law). In Eng 
land, the not residing on their benefices, 
as applied to spiritual persons. 

NONSUIT. The letting fall or renounc 
ing a suit. 

NORMAL. A perpendicular. 

NOR ROY KING AT ARMS. In Eng 
land, the third king at arms. 

NORTH POLE. A point in the north 
ern hemisphere, ninety degrees distanl 
from the equator. 










264 


NtTO 


NUT 


NORTH POLE. In astronomy, an 
imaginary point in the northern hemi¬ 
sphere, 90° from the equator. 

NORWAY RAGSTONE. A coarse 
variety of whetstone. 

NOSING. In architecture, the mould¬ 
ing upon the upper edge of a step. 

NOSOLOGY. The doctrine of dis¬ 
eases, or their classification and nomen¬ 
clature. 

NOTATION (in Arithmetic and Alge¬ 
bra). The method of expressing numbers 
or quantities by signs or characters ap¬ 
propriated for that purpose. The Jews, 
Greeks, and Romans expressed their num¬ 
bers by the letters of their alphabet; the 
Arabians had particular characters called 
figures, which have been universally 
adopted in Europe in all arithmetical ope¬ 
rations. The Roman mode of notation is 
also still in use in marking dates, or num¬ 
bering chapters, &c. 

NOTATION (in Music). The manner 
of expressing sounds by characters. 

NOTE. Any short writing or memo- 
'•andum. 

NOTE (in Music). A character to dis¬ 
tinguish the pitch and time of a sound. 

NOTE OF HAND A writing under a 
man’s hand, by which one person engages 
to pay another a sum of money on a cer¬ 
tain day, or on demand: this may either be 
in the form of a bill or of a promissory 
note. 

NOT GUILTY (in Law) The general 
issue or plea of the defendant in a criminal 
action. 

NOTICE (in Law). The making some¬ 
thing known that a man was or might be 
ignorant of, and which it was proper he 
should be made acquainted with. 

NOV. An abbreviation for November. 

NOVEL. A narrative of fictitious events 
and characters. When the incidents and 
persons are not probable, it is called a 
romance; and if only a short story, a 
novelette. 

NOVEMBER. The eleventh month of 
the Julian year. It was called November 
because it was the ninth of Romulus’s 
year. 

NOVICE (in the Romish Church). One 
who has entered his novitiate or year of 
probation, before he takes his vow ; in a 
general sense, a learner in any profession, 
an unskilful person. 

N. S An abbreviation for new style, or 
the new mode of forming the calendar. 

NOUN (ir Grammar). A part of speech, 
the name of the thing itself, as horse, dog, 
Sec. 

NUCLEUS. The kernel of a not, See. 


NUCLEUS (in Astronomy). The body 
of the comet, otherwise called the head 

NUDE CONTRACT. A bare, naked 
contract, without a consideration, which is 
void in law. 

NUISANCE (in Law). Any annoyance 
which tends to the hurt or inconvenience 

of another. 

NUMBER (in Arithmetic). An assent 
lilage of several units or of several things 
of the same kind. Whole numbers are 
otherwise called integers, as 1,2,3. Broken 
numbers are fractions, as £. Cardinal num¬ 
bers express the number of things, as 1, 2, 
3. Ordinal numbers denote the order of 
things, as 1st, 2d, 3d, &c. Even numbers 
are those which may be divided into two 
equal parts, without a fraction, as 6, 12, 
&c. Uneven numlters are such as leave a 
remainder after being divided, as 5, 13, 
&c. A square number is the product of 
any number multiplied by itself, as 4, the 
product of 2 multiplied by 2. 

NUMBER (in Grammar). An inflection 
or change of ending in nouns and verbs, 
to denote number. Numbers are singular 
to denote one, dual to denote two, or plural 
to denote more than one. 

NUMBERS (in Poetry). Measures or 
cadences which render a verse agreeable 
to the ear. 

NUMERAL. Any character which ex¬ 
presses a number, as, 1, 2, 3. 

NUMERAL LETTERS. The Roman 
letters I. II. III. IV. Sec. which denote 
numbers. 

NUMERATION. The art of expressing 
in figures any number proposed in words, 
or expressing in words any number pro¬ 
posed in figures. 

NUMERATOR. The number in the 
upper line of a fraction, denoting the num¬ 
ber of the given parts taken, as 3 in |, that 
is, three out of the four parts of an integer. 

NUMERICAL. Relating to numbers, 
as numerical algebra, that which is per¬ 
formed by the help of numbers. 

NUMISMATICS. The science of medals 
and coins. 

NUNCIO. The pope’s ambassador. 

NUNCUPATIVE WILL. A will made 
by word of mouth. 

NUNNERY (in the Romish Church). 
A religious house for nuns, or females who 
have bound themselves by vow to a single 
life. 

NURSERY. A chamber for young chil¬ 
dren. 

NURSERY. A place set apart for young 
trees and shrubs. 

NUTATION (in Astronsmy). Atrama 
lous motion of the earth’s axis. 



OAT 


OBL 


NUTGALLS. Excrescences on the leaf 
af the oak The Aleppo galls are imported 
for the use of dyers, calico printers, &c. 

NUT HATCH. A small species of 
Woodpecker. 

NUTMEG. A spice, the fruit of a tree 
as big as a pear tree, growing on the island 



9U 

of Banda, in the Eastern Oceaa. It is one 
of the finest of spices, and is carried to all 
parts of the world as an article of com¬ 
merce The nutmeg is the kernel of 
the fruit, not unlike the peach, the rind or 
coat of which is called mace. 

NUX VOMICA. A fiat, compressed, 
round fruit, about the breadth of a shilling, 
brought from the East Indies ; it is a cer¬ 
tain poison for dogs, cats, &c., and is one 
of the ingredients unlawfully infused inte 
beer, to give it a stupifying quality. 

NYL GHAU. See Nil Ghau. 

NYMPHA2. The chrysalis, or third stage 
of insects, between the grub and the fly. 

NYMPHS. The goddesses of the woods, 
according to the poets. They were ce¬ 
lestial and terrestrial, the former guiding 
the heavenly bodies, the latter presiding 
over the woods. They are represented as 
beautiful creatures, inhabiting every forest 
and glen. 


O. 


O, the fourteenth letter of the alphabet, 
used as a numeral for eleven, and with a 
stroke over it, thus 0, for eleven thou¬ 
sand. 

OAK. A tree celebrated for its timber, 
which is so tough that the sharpest tools 
will scarcely penetrate it. It is also re¬ 
markable for its slowness of growth, bulk, 
and longevity. Oaks have been found to 
grow only from fourteen to twenty inches 
in diameter in the space of eighty years. 
The live oak is a species particularly val¬ 
uable for ship-building. Great quantities 
are obtained in Florida. 

OAKUM. Old ropes untwisted and made 
into loose hemp for calking ships. 

OAR. A long pole with a flat, thin end, 
by which boats are driven along in the 
water. 

OATH (in Law). A solemn affirmation 
or denial of a thing, accompanied with 
an appeal to God. 

OATH OF ALLEGIANCE. In Eng¬ 
land, the oath which the subject takes 
when required to bear true allegiance to 
the king 

OATH OF SUPREMACY. In Eng¬ 
land, the oath which establishes the supre¬ 
macy of the king over every other power, 
temporal or spiritual, within the realm, 
whereby the supremacy of the pope was 
renounced at the Reformation. 

OATH OF ABJURATION. An oath 
which expressly establishes the succession 
S3 


of the reigning family to the throne of 
England, to the exclusion of the Stuart 
family or any other. 

OATS. A grain, the peculiar food of 
horses, and in Scotland and the north of 
England, also the food of man. Oatmeal, 
the flour of the oats, is also much used 
medicinally. 

OBELISK (in Architecture). A square 
stone growing smaller from the base to the 
summit. 

OBELISK (among Printers). A mark 
of reference, thus (|). 

OBJECT GLASS. A glass in a tele¬ 
scope or microscope, at the end of the tube 
next to the object. 

OBIT (in the Romish Church). A» 
annual service for the dead. 

OBITUARY. A register of the deaths 

OBLATE. Flattened, an epithet for a 
sphere or spheroid. 

OBLATION. What is laid on an alta» 
or given at the altar by way of offering. 

OBLIGATION (in Law). A bond con¬ 
taining a penalty on condition of not per 
forming certain covenants annexed. 

OBLIQUE. Deviating from a perpen 
dicular line or direction, as an oblique 
angle, &c. that which is not a right one 

OBLIQUE CASES (in Grammar). Tbs 
cases of nouns declined from the nomina¬ 
tive. 

OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC 
The angle which the eclir*ic makes wit* 




566 OCC 

the equator, being now estimated at some¬ 
thing less than 23 degrees 28 minutes, as 
the ecliptic approaches nearer to a paral¬ 
lelism with the equator at the rate of 
about 42 seconds in 100 years. 

OBOLUS. A small Grecian coin, equal 
to about three cents. 

OBSERVATION. The observing the 
phenomena of the heavenly bodies by 
means of any instrument. 

OBSERVATORY. A place erected in 
some lofty situation, and fitted up with 
‘.elescopes, quadrants, Ac. for the purpose 
of making astronomical observations, such 
is the observatories at Greenwich, Paris, 
Munich and Cambridge, which are the 
most celebrated among the modern ob¬ 
servatories. _ The ancient Chaldeans 
had also similar places. 

OBSERVATORY, EQUATORIAL, or 
Portable. An instrument for solving ma¬ 
ny problems in astronomy, as finding the 
meridian, pointing the telescope on a star, 
though not in the meridian, in full day¬ 
light, Ac. 

OBSIDIONAL CROWN. A crown 
made of the grass that grew in a besieged 
place, which the Romans gave to the 
general by whom the town was taken. 



OBT. An abbreviation for obedient. 

OBTUSE ANGLE. Any angle greater 
than a right angle. See Angle. 

OCCIDENT. Westward, as the Occident 
equinoctial, Ac. 

OCCIPUT. The back part of the head. 

OCCULTATION. The obscuration of 
any star or planet by the interposition of 
any other body, as the moon, Ac. 

OCCULTATION, Circle op. An ima¬ 
ginary circle round the poles, which con¬ 
tains these stars that are not visible in our 
hemisphere. 

OCCULT DISEASES. Diseases, the 
causes and treatment of which are not 
understood. 

OOOULT QUALITIES. Qualities in 


OES 

bodies which do not admit of any ratioa A 

explanation. 

OCCUPATION (in Law). The posses 
sion and use of lauds or tenements. 

OCEAN. A vast collection of salt and 
navigable waters, enclosing the continents 
or quarters of the globe, Europe, Asia, 
Africa, and America, and comprehended 
under the several divisions of the Atlantic, 
the Pacific, Indian, Northern, and South¬ 
ern Oceans. 

OCELOT. A very fierce, but beautiful 
animal of the cat kind, found in South 
America. 

OCHRE. A sort of earth consisting of 
alumina and red oxide of iron. 

OCTAGON. A figure of eight sides and 
angles. 



OCTAHEDRON. One of the five regu¬ 
lar bodies, consisting of eight equal and 
equilateral triangles. 

OCTANDRIA (in Botany). One of the 
Linnaean classes, consisting of plants hav¬ 
ing eight stamina to each flower. 



OCTANT. An aspect of two planets 
when they are distant from each other 45 
degrees, or the eighth part of a circle. 

OCTAVE (in Music). The eighth inter¬ 
val in a scale of sounds. 

OCTAVO, i. e. in eight, expressed by 
printers thus, 8vo. The form of a page 
by folding a sheet into eight leaves, so os 
to make it consist of sixteen pages. 

OCTOBER. The eighth month in th« 
year, containing thirty-one days. 

OCULIST. One who cures tne disorder* 
of the eyes. 

ODD. An epithet for any number in the 
series of 1^ 3, 5, Ac. 

ODE. A poem written to be sung to 
music. 

ODOUR. The scent or smell. 

OEDEMA. Any tumour or swelling. 

OESOPHAGUS. The gullet, a mem¬ 
branaceous canal, reaching from tLc fauoas 
to the stomach. 


\ 



OIL 


OMN 


*67 


OFFENCE (In Law). The violation of 
ay law; this is capital, if punished with 
death, and not caitlal, if visited with any 
other punishment. 

OFFERINGS ' ! n Law). In England, 
Church dues, payable by custom, as the 
Easter offerings, or the offerings at mar¬ 
riages, &c. 

OFFICE. That function by virtue 
whereof a man bath some employment, 
either in th* public affairs or those of a 
private individual. 

OFFICER (in Law). One filling an 
office or post under government. 

OFFICER (in Military and Naval Af¬ 
fair*). One acting under government in 
a military or naval capacity. 

OFFICERS, Commissioned (in the Ar¬ 
my). Appointed by commission. 

OFFICERS, Commissioned (in the Eng¬ 
lish Navy), hold their commissions from 
ine Lord High Admiral or Lords of the 
Admiralty. 

OFFICERS OF THE CROWN. The 
great officers of the crown in England are 
the Lord High Chancellor, the Lord High 
Steward, the Lord High Treasurer, the 
J«ord President of the Council, the Lord 
Privy Seal, the Lord Chamberlain, the 
Lord High Constable, and the Earl Mar¬ 
shal. 

OFFICIAL (in Law) A deputy ap¬ 
pointed by the archdeacon for the execu¬ 
tion of his office 

OFFICINAL. An epithet for what is 
sold in shops, as officinal plants, herbs, 
medicines, &c 

OFFING. The open sea, or that part 
of the sea at a distance from the shore, 
where there is deep water. 

OFFSETS (in Botany). Young shoots 
that spring and grow from shoots. 

OFFSETS (in Surveying). 'Perpendic¬ 
ulars let fall, and measuring from the 
stationary lines to the hedge, fence, or ex¬ 
tremity of an enclosure. 

OGEE (in Architecture). A moulding 
formed like the letter S. 



O t L. A fat, unctuous substance, which 
derives its name from olea, the olive, be¬ 
cause it was at first principally known as 
the produce of the olive. Oils are distin¬ 
guished by chymistry into volatile or es¬ 
sential oils, which have a strong, acrid 
taste, and a strong, fragrant smell, being 
btained frt>ra smelli g plants; and filed 


oils, which are thick and viscid, insolubif 
in water, ana do not boil under 600 de¬ 
grees : these latter oils are obtained from 
both an imal and vegetable substances, as 
train oil, olive oil, linseed oil, &c. 

OIL GAS. A gas extracted from fiaf- 
oil, which is more expensive and not reck 
oned so good as that procured from coals 
OLERACEA3 One of the Linmeai 
natural orders of plants, containing pot¬ 
herbs, as spinage, thyme, mint, &c 
OLERON, Laws of. A code of mari¬ 
time law, so called because it was framed 
by king Richard I. on an island off the 
coast of France. 

OLFACTORY NERVES The nerves 
which give the sense of smelling. 

OLIGARCHY. A form of gevernmeni 
wherein the administration of affairs is 
lodged In the hands of a few persons. 

OLIVE TREE. A tree, native of the 
southern parts of Europe, which rises with 
solid upright stems, and branches numer¬ 
ously on every side. The olive, which if 
the fruit of this tree, yields an oil that It 
of an emollient and solvent nature. 



OLYMPIAD. The space of lour years, 
whereby the Greeks reckoned their time 
from the circumstance of the Olympic 
games having been celebrated once in four 
years. The first Olympiad is dated, ac¬ 
cording to some, 774 years before Christ. 

OLYMPIC GAMES. Solemn games 
among the Greeks, in honour of Jupiter 
Olympus, at which five kincrs of exercises 
were exhibited, namely, leaping, running, 
wrestling, quoiting, and whirlbats. 

OMEGA. The last letter of the Greek 
alphabet. 

OMENTUM. A double netlike mem¬ 
brane spread over the entrails. 

OMER. A Hebrew measure, about 
three pints and a half English. 

OMNIUM. A term among stock bro¬ 
kers for all the kinds of stock, as 3 pel 
cents, 4 per cents, ire., which are sold 








OFO 


It* 

together as they were bought by the con¬ 
tractors from government. 

ONION A bulbous edible root, grow¬ 
ing in gardens, and used for various culi¬ 
nary purposes. 

^VNYX. A precious stone, accounted a 
species of opaque agate. It is a semipel- 
.ucid gom of different colours, but the blu¬ 
sh white kind is looked upon as the true 
aiyx of the ancients. 

OPACITY That property in bodies by 
wlilch they are rendered impervious to the 
rays of the sun, owing probably to the 
oensity of the parts. 

OPAL. A precious stone of various 
ro'ours, which comes under the class of 
pellucid gems. It is found in many parts 
of Europe, especially in Hungary. When 
first dug out of the earth, it is soft, but 
!t hardens and diminishes in bulk by ex¬ 
posure to the air. The substance in which 
it is found is a ferruginous sand stone. 

OPERA. A dramatic composition set 
to .nusic. It is sung on the stage, accom- 
oanied and interspersed with dialogue. 

OPERA-GLASS. A kind of glass con¬ 
structed in a small wooden tube, so as to 
view a person in a theatre, and, as the 
glass is made to point at a different object 
from that which is viewed, it may be used 
without any one knowing exactly who is 
observed. 

OPERATION (in Surgery). Any exer¬ 
cise of the surgical art which is performed 
by the use of instruments. 

OPERATION (in Chemistry). Any 
process that leads to a given result. 

OPERATION (in Military Affairs). 
Any movement of an army for the attain¬ 
ment of a particular object. 

OPHTHALMIA. An inflammation of 
the membranes of the eye, a disease which 
particularly affected the English soldiers 
during their stay in Egypt. 

OPIATE. A medicine made of opium. 

OPIUM. An inspissated gummy juice 
obtained from the head of the poppy. It 
is imported in cakes from Persia, Arabia, 
and other warm climates; is of a reddish 
brown colour, and of a nauseous bitter 
taste; and has a powerfully narcotic 
property. 

OPOBALSAMUM, Balm of Gilea j. 
A gummy juice of the balsam tree. 

OPOPONAX. A gummy, resinous juice 
obtained from the root of an umbelliferous 
plant growing in warm climates. 

OPOSSUM An American animal 
that lives in holes and \m oody places. 
The female is remarkable for having 
two or three pouches, wnerein the 
young conceal themselves in time of dan- 


OPT 


ger. It is found only in Virginia, and tbs 

vicinity. 



OPPOSITION (in Astronomy). One of 
the aspects of the planets, when they are 
180 degrees distant from each other, that 
is, in a diametrically opposite relation to 
each other. 

OPTATIVE (in Grammar). A mode 
or form of a verb by which is expressed 
the wish or desire to do a thing. 

OPTIC. Pertaining to the sight ; as 
Optic Glasses, glasses contrived for view- 
ingobjects which cannot otherwise be seen, 
as spectacles, telescopes, microscopes, &c 

OPTICIAN. A dealer in or maker of 
optical instruments. 

OPTIC NERVES. The second pair of 
nerves of the brain, which perforate the 
bulb of the eye, and serve for the sense of 
sight. 

OPTIC PLACE OF A STAR. That 
point of its orbit in which it appears to be 
to our eye. 

OPTIC PYRAMID. A pyramid form¬ 
ed by rays drawn from the several points 
of the perimeter to the eye. 

OPTICS. That branch of natural phi¬ 
losophy which treats of the nature of light 
and colours, or of the general doctrine of 
vision. It is distinguished into three 
kinds : namely, optics, properly so called, 
which treats of direct vision ; catoptrics, 
which treats of reflected vision, or that 
which is performed by means of rays re¬ 
flected from speculums or mirrors; and 
dioptrics, which treats of refracted vision, 
or that which is performed by means of 
rays refracted or turned out of their course 
by passing through mediums of different 
densities, chietly through glasses or lenses. 

OPTICS, History ok. The properties 
of light naturally attracted, at an earlv 
period, the attention of philosophers who 
made nature their study. Empedocles, 
who flourished upwards of four hundred 
years before Christ, is said to have written 
a treatise on light; and the works of Aris¬ 
totle present us with a number of qua* 





OPTICS. 


S6f 


Bong and observations concerning optical 
appearances. This philosopher was aware 
that it is the reflection of the light from 
the atmosphere which prevents total dark¬ 
ness after the sun sets, and in those pla¬ 
ces where he does not shine in the day¬ 
time He also considered that rainbows, 
halos, and mock suns were all occasioned 
by the reflection of the sunbeam; i - differ¬ 
ent circumstances, by which an in> 4 4rfe<-r [ 
image of his body wae produced, the coj- 
our only, and not his proper figure, being 
exhibited. Euclid wrote a treatise on op¬ 
tics and catoptrics, in which he shows the 
chief properties of reflected rays in plane, 
convex, and concave surfaces, in a geo¬ 
metrical manner, beginning with that con¬ 
cerning the equality of the angles of inci¬ 
dence and reflection. He also takes some 
notice of dioptrics, and remarks on the 
effect of refraction in regard to an object 
at the bottom of a vessel, which, when 
water is poured in, is brought to view, 
that was not to be seen above the edge of 
the vessel before the water was poured in. 
As to the effect of burning glasses, both by 
reflection and refraction, this is noticed 
not 'illy by Euclid, but by many other of 
the a' cients ; and, if we give credit to his¬ 
torians, the exploits performed by Archi¬ 
medes in setting fire to the vessels of the 
Romans before Syracuse, by means of 
burning mirrors, prove that his practical 
knowledge exceeded that of modern times. 
There is no doubt that he wrote a treatise 
on burning glasses, as also concerning the 
appearance of a ring or circle under the 
water, which shows that this phenomenon 
nad not escaped h»s r«»tice. The ancients 
were also acquainted with the production 
of colours by means of refracted light. Se¬ 
neca observes that when the light of the 
sun shines through an angular piece of 
glass, it shows all the colours of the rain¬ 
bow ; also that the colours seen in a pi¬ 
geon’s neck when it changes its position, 
are the effect of refraction, and on the 
same principlerfhat a speculum, not hav¬ 
ing any colour of its own, will assume 
that of any other body. 

Besides, the ancients were not unac¬ 
quainted with the magnifying power of 
glass globes filled with water, for the an¬ 
cient engravers used to employ such a 
glass globe, in order, as is supposed, to 
magnify the figures, that they might exe¬ 
cute their work with more correctness. 
Ptolemy, who wrote a considerable trea¬ 
tise on optics, was well acquainted with 
the refraction of light, and determined the 
ratio of the angles of refraction, as compar¬ 
ed with that of the angles of ncidenee, 
23 * 


with such accurat that tliere ie *Hit a 
trifling difference between the resmts of 
his observations and those of Newton ; not 
more than might arise from his having 
used glass and water of specific gravities 
something different from those employed 
by Newton. It appears also from this 
work of Ptolemy, as also from his Alma 
gest, that he employed his knowledge of 
optics in his astronomical obsprvations, 
for he was fully aware that refraction de¬ 
creases from the horizon to the zenith, 
and that, by means of this refraction, the 
intervals between the stars appear less 
when near the horizon than in the merid¬ 
ian. He also accounts for the remarkably 
great apparent size of the sun and moon 
when seen near the horizon, by ascrioing 
the appearance to the refraction of the 
rays by vapours, which actually enlarge 
the angle under which the luminaries ap 
pear, just as the angle is enlarged by 
which an object is seen from under water 
The next writer of any importance on 
the science of optics was Alhazen, an 
Arabian philosopher, who flourished in 
the twelfth century’. He made many ob¬ 
servations and experiments on the effects 
of refraction at the surface between air 
and water, air and glass, and water and 
glass, from which he deduced that atmos¬ 
pherical refraction increases the altitudes 
of all objects in the heavens. He also 
first observed that the stars are sometimes 
seen above the horizon by means of re 
fraction, when they are really below it; 
an observation confirmed by Vitellio and 
other opticians. He likewise maintained 
that refraction contracts the diameters 
and distances of heavenly bodies, and that 
it is the cause of the twinkling of the 
stars. Besides, Alhazen treats largely on 
the magnifying power of glasses, so that 
probably his observations led to the inven¬ 
tion of spectacles. In the next century 
followed Vitellio, a Pole, who digested 
the contents of Alhazen’s work, and 
made many additional observations on the 
power of refraction. He gave a table of 
the results of his experiments on the re¬ 
fracting power of air, water, and glass, 
corresponding to different angles of inci¬ 
dence. Roger Bacon, a contemporary 
with Vitellio, also wrote on this science, 
and is generally considered to be the in¬ 
ventor of the magic lantern. Maurolycus, 
\\ho followed these two at the distance cl 
nearly two centuries, explains, in his 
treatise De Lumine et Umbra., the process 
of vision, showing that the crystalline hu¬ 
mour of the eye is a lens which collects 
the rays of light issuing from the ohje*o<* 




ORA 


ORD 


270 


and throws them on the retina, where the 
focus of each pencil is formed. From this 
principle he discovered the reason why 
some people have a short sight and others 
a rong one; also why the former are as¬ 
sisted by concave glasses, and the latter 
by convex ones. John Baptista Porta, his 
contemporary, discovered the camera ob¬ 
scura, and took the first public notice of 
the magic lantern, the original invention 
of which has been ascribed to Roger Bacon. 
Kircher, who followed Baptista, enlarged 
•»n his hints, and put them into execution. 
Me also made many experiments with the 
camera obscura, by which he satisfied 
himself that vision is performed by the 
intromission of something into the eye, 
and not by visual rays proceeding from it, 
as had been formerly imagined. He con¬ 
sidered the eye as a camera obscura, the 
pupil to be the hole in the window shut¬ 
ter, and the crystalline humour to corre¬ 
spond to the wall which receives the im¬ 
ages ; but in this latter point his idea has 
been proved, by closer observations, to be 
incorrect, for it is now known that this 
office is performed by the retina. The ob¬ 
servations and experiments of this writer 
on the science of optics, and on the nature 
of vision, appear to have led the way to 
the discovery of telescopes, which was 
doubtless made very soon after his time. 
After this the writers on optics became 
very numerous, and their labours contrib¬ 
uted to the confirmation and improvement 
of those who had preceded them. 

OPSIOMETETi. An instrument for 
measuring the extent of distinct vision 
n different persons. 

OPTIMISM. The doctrine that 
everything is ordered for the best. 

OPTOMETER. In optics, an instru¬ 
ment for measuring the limits of dis¬ 
tinct vision. 

OPTIME. In England, a scholar in 
ihe first classof mathematics at Cambridge. 

OR (in Heraldry). The yellow or gold ; 
colour, represented on the escutcheon by 

small dots. 



ORA. A Saxon coin, equal to from 16 d. 

to 20d.. or about 40 cents. 

ORACLES fani jngthe Heathens) 


biguous answers, which the priests pre. 
tended to deliver by the inspirat.on of 
their gods, such as the oracles of Apollr 
at Delphi, and those of Jupiter Ammon 
in Thebes. 

ORANG-OUTANG. One of the tailless 
species of ape, which the most resembW 
man in its figure. 



ORANGE-TREE. An evergreen, re¬ 
sembling the laurel in its leaf. It is a na¬ 
tive of warm climates, and yields a well 
known juicy fruit of the same name. 



ORATORY. The same as Rhetoric . 

ORB. A hollow sphere or space con¬ 
tained between two concentric splie ica! 
surfaces, as the orb of the heavens. 

ORBIT. The path of a planet or a com 
et described by its centre in its proper mo 
tion in the heavens. 

ORBITS (in Anatomy). The two irire 
cavities in which the eyes are placed. 

ORCHARD. A piece of ground planted 
with fruit trees. 

ORCHESTRA. The stage or middle o! 
the theatre among the Greeks, where the 
chorus used to dance, and the performers 
used to sit. It is now the place set apart 
for the musicians, as the front of the stage 
in a tneatre, n ga'’ery in an assembly 
room, &c. 


ORCIIEDE.E. One of Linnaeus’s nat¬ 
ural nrde-s of pla? .s, containing the orehl* 
Am- | and other flowers allief to it 

















ORDEAL. A Saxon mode of trial, 
which consisted in trying the guilt or in¬ 
nocence of persons by appeals to Heaven, 
M in the ordeal by fire, when the party 
accused undertook to walk blindfold be¬ 
tween nine red-hot ploughshares; and if 
he or she escaped unhurt, it was looked 
upon as a proof of innocence ; so, in the 
ordeal by water, when a person was thrown 
bound into a river, or put his hands or feet 
ink> scalding water, and the like. 

ORDER (in Military Affairs), as Order 
of Battle, the disposition of troops for bat¬ 
tle ; open order, close order, &c.; also 
in the sense of command, as the com¬ 
mander in chief’s orders, which issue im¬ 
mediately from the commander in chief’s 
office; so brigade orders, general orders, 
standing orders, &c. 

ORDER (in Naval Affairs). Command, 
as sailing orders, &c. 

ORDER (in Natural History). A partic¬ 
ular division >f anirexi'x. plants, or miner¬ 
als, comprehe».*ie' 1 unc 1 ®* lass in the 
Linmean and othc\ systems. 

ORDER (in Architecture). The rule of 
proportion to be observed in the construc¬ 
tion of any building, which is applied 
mostly to the column and the entabla¬ 
ture, from the diversity in which have 
sprung the five several orders—the Doric, 
Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite. 

ORDER (in Geometry). A rank or sit¬ 
uation in a series of curves, lines, &c.; 
thus the first order of curve lines is ex¬ 
pressed by a simple equation, or the first 
power; those of the second order, by a 
quadratic equation, or the second power; 
and so on. 

ORDERS (in Law). In England, rules 
made by the court in causes there depend¬ 
ing. These orders are made by different 
courts, as the Chancery, King’s Bench, 
&.c.; and also, on particular occasions, 
orders are made by magistrates at the 
Sessions. 

ORDERS (in Ecclesiastical Affairs). 
Congregations or societies of religious per¬ 
sons, who bind themselves by a vow to 
live under a superior, according to certain 
rules prescribed to them by their founder, 
such as the monks and nuns in the Romish 
church ; likewise the character and office 
by which ecclesiastics are distinguished, 
that are set apart for the ministry. Since 
the Reformation, there are three orders of 
the clergy acknowledged in England, 
namely, bishops, priests, ana deacons; 
whence the phrase, ‘ to be in oraers,’ is the 
same as to be of the clerical order. 

ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD (in Her¬ 
aldry) Societies of knights instituted by 


princes,'ui marks of distinction for sue! 
as have distinguished themselves in war 
The British orders are the order of the 
Garter, and the order of the Bath, belong¬ 
ing to England; the Irish order of St. 
Patrick; and the Scotch order of the 
Thistle. 

ORDINANCE A law or decree. 

ORDINARY (in the Common Law). 
In England, one who has ordinary, or ex¬ 
empt and immediate jurisdiction in causes 
ecclesiastical, as an archbishop or a bishop 
The ordinary in Newgate is the clergyman 
who attends in ordinary upon condemned 
malefactors; also a term for the officers 
and servants of the king’s household who 
attend on common occasions, as physicians 
in ordinary. 

ORDINARY (in the Navy). The esta¬ 
blishment of persons employed by govern¬ 
ment to take charge of the ships of w?’ 
which are laid up in the harbours. 

ORDINARY (in Heraldry). Any charge 
in coats of arms which is proper to the 
art, and in ordinary use therein; as the 
chief, pale, bend, fesse, bar, chevron, cross, 
and saltire, in distinction from the com¬ 
mon charges, or such things as it has in 
common with the other arts, as animals, 
implements, crosses, &c. 

ORDINATES (in Conic Sections). Geo¬ 
metrical lines drawn parallel to each other, 
and cutting the curve in a certain number 
of points. 

ORDINATION (in Ecclesiastical Af¬ 
fairs). The act of ordaining, or putting 
into holy orders. The age of ordination 
for a deacon, in England, is twenty-three, 
and for a priest twenty-four. 

ORDNANCE. A general name for all 
sorts of great guns. 

ORDNANCE, Office of An office 
kept within the Tower of London, whi«h 
superintends and disposes of all the arms 
and implements of war 

ORE. A general name for metals in an 
unrefined state, as they are dug out of the 
earth, where they are found in the four 
following states: namely, 1. Pure, that is, 
by themselves, in a pure metallic state, or 
as alloys, in combination with other met¬ 
als. 2. As sulphurets, or in combination 
with sulphur. 3. As oxides, or in combi¬ 
nation with oxygen: and 4. As salts, that 
is, in combination with acids. 

ORGAN (in Physiology). An instru¬ 
ment by which any natural faculty in as 
animal body is exercised, as the ear, which 
is the organ of hearing ; the eye, which is 
the organ of sight. 

ORGAN (in Music). A wind instru¬ 
ment blown by bellows, and containing 





m 


ORPt 


ORN 


numerous pipes of various kinds and di¬ 
mensions, which, for its solemnity, gran¬ 
deur, and rich volume of tone, is peculiar¬ 
ly fitted for the purpose for which it is 
commonly employed. Organs are some¬ 
times of an immense size: the organ in 
the cathedral church at Ulm, in Germany, 
Is said to be 93 feet high and 28 broad, its 
largest pipe being 13 inches in diameter, 
ind it having sixteen pair of bellows. 

This organ is exceeded in size by the 
one constructed in 1870 for the Royal 
Albert Hall, in London, which has 111 
complete registers and 138 draw-stops. 

ORGANOGRAPHY. In botany, a 
description of the organs or structure 
of plants. 

ORGANOLOGY. In botany, that 
branch of physiology which treats in 
particular of the different organs of 
animals. 

ORGANON. An instrument; a ma¬ 
chine for facilitating labor in archi¬ 
tecture and the arts. 

ORGTJES. In fortification, long, thick 
pieces of timber, forming a portcullis 
for the defence of a gate. 

ORION. In astronomy, a constella¬ 
tion of the southern hemisphere. 

ORIOLE. A species of birds, of which 
the Baltimore oriole, or hang-bird, is a 
beautiful variety, well known in the U. 

States. 



ORION. A constellation in the south¬ 
ern hemisphere, containing from thirty- 
eight to seventy-eight stars, according to 
different writers. 

ORNAMENTS (in Architecture). 
Leaves, roses, channellings, and the like, 
which ornament the different parts of a 
column. 

ORNITHOLOGY. That branch of Na- 
^tra! History which treats of Birds, and 
sir natures, '•obits, form, economy, and 
uses. Birds, in the Linnsan system, are 
divided, under the ciadM Aves, into six 
orders, according to the form of their bills: 
M the Accipitres, including ths eagle, vul¬ 


ture, hawk, Ac .; Pic», Including L-t 
crow, jackdaw, parrot, Sec.; Anseies, lft 
eluding the duck, goose, swan, gull, Ac., 
Grails, as the heron, woodcock, ostrich, 
Ac.; Gallins, including the peacock, 
pheasant, turkey, domestic fowl, Ac. j 
Passeres, including the sparrow, lark, 
swallow, Ac. 

ORNITHOLOGY, Historv ok. The 
only scientific writers on the subject of 
birds among the ancients were Aristotle 
and Pliny. The former of these writers 
speaks of the different kinds of food 
adapted to the different species, of which 
he gives an imperfect nomenclature, and 
adds some remarks on their various peri¬ 
ods of building their nests. Pliny’s re¬ 
marks on birds are very desultory, and not 
very extended. The first writer among 
the moderns, who has treated of birds me¬ 
thodically, is Peter Belon, who has classed 
them principally according to their food 
and habitation. He has likewise added 
many observations on their external form 
and character. Conrad Gesner, his cotem¬ 
porary, has displayed much learning in 
his work, having given alphabetical tables 
of the names of birds in Hebrew, Chaldee, 
Arabic, Greek, and Latin, and numerous 
references to the writers from whom he 
collected his materials. Aldrovandus, the 
celebrated naturalist, followed in the steps 
of Belon and Gesner, and added much to 
their store of learning and research ; at the 
same time illustrating the subject with 
numerous wood cuts. The next ornithol¬ 
ogists of any distinction, after these three, 
were Willoughby and Ray, the latter of 
whom published the works of the former, 
friend, with many additions of his own, 
in 1678. In this work, the external and 
internal structure of birds is described. 
Jacob Theodore k.v.S Ln his History of 
Birds, divides them into families orders, 
and tribes ; the families di«»inguisned ac¬ 
cording to their feet Hit o.ders by the form 
of the bill, and the tribes by the form of 
the b*ad, Ac. In the systematic arrange¬ 
ment of Moehring, the classes, orders, and 
genera of birds are distinguished by the 
form of the feet and bill. The system of 
Linnams, which follows here in order of 
time, is dated from the year 1766. It is 
formed from the manners and habits of the 
birds, as well as their external form (see 
Zoolocjt). Bri»8on, in his system of 
Ornithology, has distributed birds into 
twenty-six orders, from the form of tne 
bill and feet, Ac., including under these ons 
hundred and fifteen genera, and thirteen 
hundred species. The work, which is is 
six volumes 4to., Is illustrated with more 





ORR 


ORT 


'.nan two hundred and twenty excellent 
engravings. The work of Buffbn, though 
popular, has but few claims to notice in a 
scientific point of view. Mr. Pennant, in 
his distribution of birds, prefers Ray to 
Linmeus ; but Mr. Latham, in his Synop¬ 
sis of Birds, adheres to the latter with 
very few exceptions, as does also Mr. 
Shaw, in his General Zoology 

Among the writers who have treated of 
the birds of particular places, the most 
distinguished are Juan Hernandez on the 
birds of Mexico, Marcgrave on the birds 
of Brazil, Sir Hans Sloane on the birds of 
Jamaica, Mr. Mark Catesby on the birds 
of Carolina, Florida, &c., Schwenckfel on 
those of Siberia, Brunnick on those of Den 
mark, Sonnerat on those of New Guinea, 
Frisch on those of Germany, Vaillant on 
those of the Cape, an’d Edwards on those 
of the West Indies. Wilson’s Ornitholo¬ 
gy of the U States deservedly places him 
among the first writers on this subject. 

ORNITHORUNCUS PARADOXUS. 
A singular quadruped from New South 
Wales, not yet properly classed in the 
Linnsan system. Its great peculiarity is 
that the structure of its head, externally 
and internally, bears a greater resemblance 
to that of a duck than to that of any ani¬ 
mal of the mammalia tribe. 

ORPHAN. One bereaved of either fa¬ 
ther or mother, or of both parents. 

ORPIMENT. A fine yellow powder; 
a mineral composed of sulphur and arsen¬ 
ic ; one of the ores of arsenic. 

ORRERY. An astronomical instrument 
for exhibiting the several motions of the 
heavenly bodies. The first machine of 
this kind was constructed by Mr. Graham, 
but it derives its name from the Earl of 
Orrery, for whom one was made by Mr. 
Rowley; and Sir Richard Steele suppos¬ 
ing this to be the first ever constructed, he 
gave it the above name in honour of the 
earl. Orreries are constructed so as to be 
more or less complete. That given in the 
accompanying figure has all the planets 
represented upon it; that is to say, the 
sun, placed in the centre of the solar sys¬ 
tem ; next to the sun is the orbit of Mer¬ 
cury ; and next to that, the orbit of Venus. 
Next to the orbit of Venus, is the orbit of 
our earth, represented by a silver plate, on 
which the signs of the Zodiac, the degrees 
f*f the ecliptic, and the days of each 
month are drawn; and the earth is repre¬ 
sented by an ivory ball placed upon an 
axis bo as to make an angle with the 
plane of the horizon of 66 degrees and a 
half About the ivory ball there is a silver 
•brio, which is placed so as to incline to 


m 

the earth’s orbit in an angle of 8 degrees. 
this represents the orbit of the moon, the 
moon itself being represented by a silver 
ball. The superior planets are Mars, Ju¬ 
piter, and Saturn, in this order: Mars 
stands next without our earth; next to 
that, Jupiter; and outermost of all, Saturn. 
By the handle, the revolutions of these 
planets are represented. While the earth 
is carried round the sun by 365 turns and 
a quarter, of the handle, Mercury is carri¬ 
ed round the sun in 88 turns, and Venus 
in 224 ; which represents that the length 
of the year in Mercury is 88 of our days, 
and the length of the year in Venus is 
equal to 224 of our days. Mars performs 
his revolution about the sun in 687 turns 
of the handle, Jupiter in 4332 turns, which 
answers to 4332 revolutions of our earth 
about its own axis ; and last of all, Saturn, 
in 10759 turns, completes his revolution, 
which is the length of the Saturnian year, 
and is equal to about 30 of our years. 



ORTHODROMICS. The art of sailing 
in the arc of a great circle. 

ORTHOEPY. Correct enunciation. 

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION OF 
THE SPHERE. That projection which 
is made upon a plane passing through the 
middle of the sphere, by an eye placed 
vertically at an infinite distance. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. That part of gram¬ 
mar which teaches the nature and afl r e<* 
tions of letters, and the proper spelling or 
writing of words. 

ORTHOGRAPHY (in Geometry). The 
art of drawing or delineating the fore right 
plan of any object, and of expressing the 
heights or elevations of each part; so call¬ 
ed from its determining things by perpen¬ 
dicular lines falling on the geometrical 
plan. 

ORTHOGRAPHY (In Architecture) 



















m 08 T 

The elevation or representation of the front 
of a building. 

ORTOLAN. A delicate bird of the 
bunting tribe, which visits England before 
the setting in of frost and snow. 

ORYCTOLOGY. The science of or¬ 
ganic remains. 

OSCILLATION. The vibration of a 
clock. 

OSCULATION. The contact between 
any curve and its osculatory circle. 

OSIER. The red water-willow, of 
which wicker baskets are made. 

GSIRIS. An Egyptian deity. 

OSPREY. The fish hawk, common 
jr Europe and America. 



OSSIFICATION. The formation of 
bones, or the hardening into a bony state. 

OSTEOLOGY. The description of the 

bones. 

OSTRACISM. A mode c£ passing the 
sentence of banishment among the Athe¬ 
nians by means of tiles, on which the 
name of the person to be banished was 
written. 

OSTRACITIS. A kind of crust stick¬ 
ing to furnaces where the brass ore is 
melted. 


OSTRICH. The largest of all birds, be¬ 
ing usually seven feet high from the top 
of the head to the ground, but from the 



tMk only four It is a native of Africa 
»nd Arabia, and lays forty or fifty eggs 


OUT 

which are as large as the head of a cailt 
There are three birds allied to the ostrich 
which are sometimes confounded with it j 
the cassowary of the Asiatic Islands, the 
emeu of New Holland, and the rhea of 
Patagonia. 

OTTER. A sagacious animal, that in¬ 
habits the banks of rivers, and feeds prin¬ 
cipally on fish. Its fur is much esteemed. 
It is fierce and crafty when attacked, but 
may easily be tamed when young, and 
taught to catch fish. The sea otter, which 
inhabits the northern seas, is the largest 
of the species. 



OVAL. An oblong curvilinear figure, 
in the shape of an egg. The mathemati¬ 
cal oval, which is a regular figure, equally 
broad at each end, is called an ellipsis. 

OVERSEERS (in Law). Parish offi¬ 
cers who take charge of the poor that re¬ 
ceive parish relief. 

OVERT ACT (in Law). A plain and 
open matter of fact, serving to prove a 
design 

OUNCE. In Avoirdupois weight, the 
sixteenth part of a pound ; in Tmy weight, 
the twelfth part ; in Apothecaries’ weight, 
equal to eight drams 

OUNCE (in Zoology). An animal of 
the leopard kind, but smaller and milder 
than the other species. It is trained to 
hunting in the East Indies. 



OVOLO (in Architecture). A conves 
moulding, the section of which is usually 
the quarter of a circle. 



OVULE, OR OVULUM. In botany, 
the seed before it Is perfect. 















PAC 


PAG 


lection Outlaws were anciently called 
Friendless Men, no one being permitted 
to take them in, or afford them any relief. 

OUTRE. Extravagant, ont of the way. 

OUTRIDERS. Servants attached to 
any travellirg equipage, who ride forward 
for the purpose of paying the tolls, Ac. 

OUTWORKS. Works made on the 
outside of the ditch in a fortress. 

OWL. A bird which, on account of 
rts weak sight, flies about in the dark, and 
lives principally on vermin. Some of the 
species have great horns, or long ears, that 
look like horns. There are at least fifty 
varieties of this bird. 



OX. A well known domestic animal, 
of which tnere are several varieties, as the 
Abyssinian ox, having the horns pendu¬ 
lous, adhering only to the skin, and the 
African ox, having the body snowy, and 
hoofs black, &c. , 

OXALIC ACID. An acid extracted 
frs*n wood-sorrel, and also from sugar com¬ 
bined with potash. It forms the juice sold 
under the name of Salt of Lemons, which 
is used for taking out ink spots. Oxalic 


n b 

acid is a violent poison, and has in some 
cases been taken by mistake for Epsom 
salts. 

OXIDATION, or OXYDIZEMENT. 
The process of converting metals or other 
substances into oxides, by combining with 
them a certain portion of oxygen. 

OXIDES, or OXYDES. Substances 
combined witli oxygen, without being in 
the state of an acid. 

OXYGEN. One of the constituent and 
essential parts of atmospheric or common 
air, which is necessary to ihe support of 
life and combustion. In its gaseous state, 
it is a colourless and aerial fluid. Oxygen 
forms about a fifth of our atmosphere, and 
exists in most vegetable and animal pro¬ 
ducts, acids, salts, and oxides. 

OXYMEL. A sirup made of honey 
vinegar, and water, boiled together. 

OYER AND TERMINER (in Law) 
A court to hear and determine all treasons 
felonies, and misdemeanours. 

O YES (in Law). Corrupted from the 
French ‘ oyez, hear ye,’ the expression 
used by the crier of a court, in order to 
enjoin silence when any proclamation is 
made. 

OYSTER. A shell-fish which abounds 
on the coast of England and the U. States, 
and is much esteemed as food. In the 
East Indies, the oysters grow to an extraor¬ 
dinary size, some of the shells being two 
feet in width ; and it is said that, on the 
coast of Coromandel, an oyster will fur¬ 
nish a meal for several men. At the same 
time, it is universally agreed, that thii 
large sort falls very far short of the Europe 
an and American oyster, in delicacy of 
flavour. The English oyster has a strong 
copper taste, which at first is very disa¬ 
greeable. 


P. 


P. the fifteenth letter of the alphabet, | 
stands as an abbreviation, in Music, for 
piano; in Astronomy, for post, as P. M., 
Post Meridiem, after noon ; among phy¬ 
sicians, for partes, as P. A3. Partes A'iqua- 
lea ; Ac.; in Law, for parliament, as M. P. 
Member of Parliament. 

PACE. A measure of two feet and a 
half ; with Geometricians, five feet 

PACHA. The chief admiral in the 
Turkish marine. 

PACIFICATION. A negotiation for 
peace; a i Edict of Pacification is a de¬ 
cree published by a prince for the pacifv- 
kig all parties 


PACA. A small animal of S. Amer., 
dark-brown color spotted with white. 

PACHYDERMS. Animals distin¬ 
guished by thickness of their skins, or 
having hoofs, as the elephant and horse. 

PADDLE. A sort of oar 

PADDOCK. A small enclosed meadow 
attached to a dwelling. 

PADLOCK. A kind of lock to hang on 
the outside of a door. 

PAGANS. Those who adhered to idol¬ 
atry after the establishment of Christiani¬ 
ty ; idolaters, or the worshippers of fals« 
gods. 

PAGE. In Europe, a youth retained 




976 


PAINTING. 


u an honourable attendant on a prince, to 
bt/ar up trains, robes, &c. 

PAGODA. A Chinese Jr Hindoo tem¬ 
ple ; also an Indian coin worth about 
$ 2 . 

PAINS AND PENALTIES. In Eng¬ 
land, an act of parliament to inflict pains 
and penalties, beyond or contrary to the 
common law, in the particular cases of 
great public offenders. 

PAINTED LADY A beautifully va¬ 
riegated pea. 

PAINTER. An artist who represents 
objects by colours, as a portrait painter; 
also an artisan who lays colours on wood 
or stone, <Stc., as a house painter. The 
company of painters in London is of great 
antiquity, but was not incorporated before 
the reign of Elizabeth. 

PAINTER (a Sea Term). A rope for 
hauling a boat on shore. 

PAINTER-STAINER. A painter of 
coats of arms. They were incorporated 
with the painters. 

PAINTING. The art of representing 
all objects of nature by lines and colours 
on a plain surface. In the exercise of this 
art, the powers of imagination, imitation, 
and invention, are required for making a 
choice of the subject, and -»f the several 
figures and subordinate parts of a picture, 
which are comprehended under the name 
of design. In the execution of the work, 
there is likewise required a due regard 
to the effects of light and shade, and col¬ 
ours, which is termed composition ; and 
also a nice choice of the colours to be em¬ 
ployed, which is known by the name of 
colouring. Painting, as regards the sub¬ 
jects, is distinguished into historical paint¬ 
ing, portrait painting, landscape painting, 
&c.; as regards the form and the materi¬ 
als, into painting in oil, water colours, 
fresco, miniature, distemper, mosaic, &x. 

PAINTING, Histort or. It is to be 
supposed that painting was among the ear¬ 
liest efforts of human ingenuity, for the 
love of imitation would naturally suggest 
the idea of representing the surrounding 
objects which engaged the attention and 
interested the affections. Thus it is that 
the savages painted their own bodies, by 
means of puncturing the skin, and infus¬ 
ing different colours into the punctures, 
and that they painted on their shields dif¬ 
ferent figures according to the fancy of the 
bearer. So, likewise, we find that the 
Mexicans were in the habit of represent¬ 
ing their warlike exploits by means of 
picture-writing, which was something 
similar to the hieroglyphics of the Egyp¬ 
tians, that served to represent sacred ob¬ 


jects for religious purposes The first stef 
beyond the rude outline was an attempt 
to complete the imitation by applying col 
ours, which at first was effected by cover 
ing the difl'erent parts of the figure with 
different colours, after,the manner of oui 
coloured maps, as was done by the Egyp¬ 
tians, and is still practised by the Indians 
and Chinese. 

Painting was partially cultivated by the 
Egyptians, but was not carried to any per¬ 
fection, because they principally employed 
themselves in the representation of the 
monstrous objects of their worship, rathei 
than in depicturing natural or real objects 
in consequence, their natural figures were 
very stiff and unseemly, the legs being 
drawn together, and the arms pasted to 
the sides, like the mummies which they 
copied. Their painters were likewise 
very much employed on earthen vessels 
or drinking cups, or in ornamenting bar 
ges, and covering with figures the chests 
of mummies. Pliny also informs us that 
the Egyptians painted the precious metals, 
which doubtless consisted in covering gold 
or silver with a single colour. The Per¬ 
sians, as well as the Arabians, had some 
idea of mosaic ; but the art was cultivated 
by those people principally for domestic 
purposes. Among the Indians, painting 
is confined principally to the representa¬ 
tion ,of their idols and monstrous objects 
of worship; but the painters of Thibet 
are remarkable for the delicacy of their 
strokes, in which they might vie with the 
Greeks, although deficient in every other 
particular. The Chinese are remarkable 
for the brightness of their colours, but this 
is the only perfection they can boast of. 
Their figures are as unlike nature as pos¬ 
sible, devoid of expression and of propor¬ 
tion. The Etrurians were the first people 
who appear to have excelled in this art. Ma¬ 
ny specimens of Etruscan painting have 
been preserved, which consist of long paint¬ 
ed frizes, and pilasters adorned with huge 
figures. The paintings are executed on a 
ground of thick mortar, and many of them 
are said to be in a high state of preserva 
tion. There are likewise many Campa¬ 
nian vases extant, which are wonderful 
proofs of the perfection of the art at a very 
early period among these people. As to 
the origin of painting among the Greeks, 
it is not easy to define the period of its 
commencement. The Greeks themselves, 
according to Pliny, speak of Polygnote as 
their first painter of eminence, who flour¬ 
ished in the 90th Olympiad, or 424 years 
before Christ. That painting la dry col¬ 
ours existed in the time of Homer, ie <!M- 




P AI 


PAL 


•kin from several descriptions to be found 
in hi3 Iliad and Odyssey ; from the same 
source we also learn that they were then 
acquainted with basso relievo, of which 
the buckler of Achilles was a specimen. 
Polygnote was followed by Xeuxis and 
Parrhasias, whose skill in imitation is 
said to have been such, that the first de¬ 
ceived the birds by painting cherries so 
exactly, and the latter deceived his rival. 
Apelles, Protogenes, and Euphranor con¬ 
tributed to raise the art to its highest per¬ 
fection. 

The Romans derived their skill in paint- 
‘ng from Etruria; but the art remained 
very long neglected, while the people 
were engaged in conquests, and struggles 
for liberty. From the building of the city 
to the time of the emperors, there is men¬ 
tion only of two who excelled in painting, 
namely, Fabius, surnamed Pictor, and 
Pacivius, the nephew of the tragic poet 
Ennius. In the time of the emperors, 
painting, as well as the other arts, flour¬ 
ished. A colossean figure, 120 feet long, 
was painted by order of the emperor Nero, 
which is the first painting on cloth men¬ 
tioned among the ancients. 

The artists who painted movable pic¬ 
tures were superior to those who painted 
on ceilings, or compartments of buildings. 
They painted their movable pictures on 
the wood of the fir,larch, or box; or on 
canvass, as above-mentioned. The old 
Greek and Roman paintings on walls are 
supposed to have been done in distemper 
or in fresco : they made use of oil in var¬ 
nishing, for the preservation of their paint¬ 
ings, but they do not appear to have ex¬ 
pressly used it in their colours. 

After an interval, during which all the 
arts languished, imperfect efforts were 
made to represent religious subjects, which 
paved the way for the revival of painting 
in the thirteenth century. A noble Flo¬ 
rentine, named Cimabuc, first learned the 
art from a Greek, and cultivated it with 
success, so that he may be reckoned the 
founder of the Florentine school, of which 
Miehael Angelo was the great ornament. 
Raphael was the founder of the Roman 
school; Titian, that of Venice. Corregio 
was the father and greatest ornament of 
the Lombard school, but the Caracci, 
Lewis, Augustin, and Hannibal, who 
were natives of Bologna, also formed a 
school, which has been called the second 
Lombard school. 

Among the French, miniature painting, 
and painting on glass, were cultivated at 
an early period ; but other branches of the 
art were at a low ebb until the age ®f Lou- 

«4 


m 

Is XIII., when Poussin arrived at such 

eminence as to be called the Raphael oi 
France ; but he had no pupiis, nor any in 
tluence in forming the French school, the 
honour of which was divided between 
Vouet, who laid the foundation, and Le 
Brun, who raised the edifice. The Ger¬ 
mans have never cultivated painting so as 
to form a school, but Albert Durer and 
John Holbein have secured this nation 
from being forgotten in a history of paint¬ 
ing. The Flemish school is remarkable 
for having introduced oil painting, which 
was first attempted, or at least brought 
into general practice, by John de Bruges ; 

; but the master of the art was Rubens, the 
founder of the Flemish school. The 
Dutch have distinguished themselves in 
miniature painting, of which Rembrandt 
was their great master, and also as history 
painters, among whom Lucas, of Leyden, 
holds the first rank, and may be consid¬ 
ered as the founder of the Dutch school. 
The English school is comparatively of 
modern date, and owns Sir Joshua Rey¬ 
nolds as its founder. It is principally 
known by its correct observance of the 
great masters of the Italian and Flemish 
schools. 

PALACE. A royal dwelling, so called 
from the Mount Palatine in Rome, where 
stood the royal mansion. 

PALAEOGRAPHY. A description of 
ancient writings, inscriptions, characters, 
&c. 

PALAESTRA. A building where the 
Grecian youth exercised themselves in 
wrestling, running, quoits, &c. 

PALANQUIN. An Indian covered 
chair, borne on men’s shoulders. 

PALATE. The roof of the mouth, and 
organ of taste. 

PALATINE. Invested with regal pre¬ 
rogatives, as the counties palatine of Lan¬ 
caster, Chester, and Durham, in Eng 
land, which have particular jurisdictions. 

PALE (in Heraldry). One of the hon 
ourable ordinaries in a roat of arms ie 
sembling a palisado, useil in fortification* 



PALE. A flat, pointed stake or board 
which is used in Baking enclosures 









































178 PAL 

PALISADE. A finer kind of paling in 
gardens. 

PALISADOES, or PALISADES (in 
Fortification). An enclosure of stakes, 
used to fortify the avenues of open forts, 
&c. They were sometimes so ordered, 
that they would turn up and down as oc¬ 
casion required, and might be hidden from 
the view of the enemy until lie came to 
the attack. 

PALLADIUM. A sort of metal drawn 
from crude platina. 

FALLAS. A small, newly discovered 
planet, situated between the orbits of Mars 
and Jupiter. 

PALLET. A painter’s colour board. 

PALLET (among Gilders). A tool for 
taking up the gold leaf. 

PALLET (among Mariners) A parti¬ 
tion in a hold. 

PALLET (in Heraldry). The diminu¬ 
tive of the pale, being one half of its 
breadth. 

PALLET-BED. A small, low bed. 

PALLETS. Levers in clocks and 
watches, connected with the pendulum or 
balance, which receive the immediate im¬ 
pulse of the wheel. 

PALL-MALL. An ancient game, in 
which an iron ball was struck with a mal¬ 
let through a ring or arch of iron, as was 
once practised in St. James’s Park, and 
gave its name to the street called Pall-Mall, 
pronounced Pell-Mell. 

PALM. A tree of different kinds, the 
branches of which were carried in token 
of victory. The cocoa-nut tree, date tree, 
bread-fruit tree, and many others, are va¬ 
rieties of the Palm. Some of these vari¬ 
eties are found in nearly all tropical cli¬ 
mates. 

PALM (in Commerce). A measure of 
»hree inches. 

PALM. A sea term for the broad part 
of an anchor. 

PALM (in Anatomy). The inner part 
of the hand. 

PALMA3. Palms; one of the seven 
families into which Linmeus divided 
the vegetable kingdom, including such 
trees and shrubs with simple stems 
as bear leaves resembling those of the 
ferns. 

PALMER. A pilgrim bearing a staff. 

PALMISTRY. A mode of telling for¬ 
tunes by the lines of the hand. 

PALM SUNDAY. The sixth Sunday 
in Lent, the next before Easter, com¬ 
memorative of our Saviour’s triumphal 
entrance into Jerusalem, when palm bran¬ 
ches were strewed in tie way. 

PA LM WORxM. A >obJonotn4 insect of 


PAN 

America. This insect is extremely swift 
in its motions. 

PALSY, or Paralysis. Aprivationol 

motion or sense of feeling ; a nervous dis 
order arising from an affection of the ce¬ 
rebellum. 

PAN. The god of mountains, woods 
and shepherds, who was said to be the son 
of Mercury, and the inventor of the Pan 
dean pipes. He is represented as a mon¬ 
ster, with horns on his head, and the legs 
and feet of a goat. 



PANACEA. A universal remedy fa 
the cure of all disorders. 

PANADA. Bread pap. 

PANATHENA3A. A festival celebra 
ted at Athens in honour of Minerva. 

PANCRATIUM. An exercise among 
the ancients, which consisted in wrestling, 
boxing, and kicking at the same time. 

PANCREAS (in Anatomy). A fiat 
glandular viscus of the abdomen ; in ani 
mals called the sweetbread. 

PANCREATIC. Belonging to the pan 
creas, as the pancreatic duct and juice. 

PANDECTS. The name of a volume 
of the civil-law, digested by order of the 
emperor Justinian. 

PANDORA. The first woman, accord 
ing to the poets, made by Jupiter. She 
presented her husband Epimetheus with a 
box, the gift of Jupiter, and on his opening 
it, there flew out all kinds of evils on the 
earth. 

PANE. A square of glass. 

PANEGYRIC. A set speech among the 
ancients in praise of any one; in the Greek 
Church, a book of praises of Jesus Christ 
and the saints. 

PANEL, or PANNEL. A schedule or 
roll of parchment on which are written 
the names of the jurors returned by the 
sheriff’. 

PANICLE fin Botany). A sort of in¬ 
florescence or flowering, in which the 
floWertf and fruits aro scattered on pedun 









PAP 


rrs 


PAP 

de» variously subdivided, as in oats, and 
some grasses. 



PANNADE. The curvetting or pran¬ 
cing of a mettlesome horse. 

PANNAGE. The feeding of swine up¬ 
on mast in woods. 

PANNEL (among Joiners). A square 
piece of wood grooved in a larger or thick¬ 
er piece, as in wainscots, &c. 

PANNEL (among Masons). One of the 
faces of a hewn stone. 

PANNEL (in the Manege). A saddle 
used in carrying burdens. 

PANNEL (in the Scotch Law). The 
prisoner at the bar. 

PANNIER. A basket for carrying 
bread on horseback. 

PANORAMA. A circular picture on a 
arge scale, fixed around a room particular- 
y constructed for the purpose. 

PANOPLY. Complete armour. 

PANTALOONS. A garment consisting 
of breeches and stockings of the same stuff 
fastened together. 

PANTHEON. A temple at Rome, ded¬ 
icated to all the heathen deities; a book 
containing an account of all the heathen 
gods and goddesses, &c. 

PANTHER. A fierce beast nearly al¬ 
lied to the tiger, a native of Africa. It is 
of a tawny yellow colour, marked with 
black spots. It has been generally sup¬ 
posed to be untameable, but Mrs. Bow- 
ditch has given an account of a recent 
instance in which a panther became so 
gentle as to go at large among the peo¬ 
ple.^ 

PANTOMIME (among the Ancients). 
Antic dances and mimic gestures ; among 
the Moderns, a sort of drama represented 
by gestures, actions, and various kinds of 
tricks performed by Harlequin and Colum¬ 
bine as the hero and heroine, assisted by 
Pantaloon and his clown. 

PANTRY. A bread closet, or, properly, 
a small room in which the daily provis¬ 
ions of the table are kept. 

PAPAL CROWN. The pope’s tiara or 
efttwn, ©thetwifte called the Triple Crown, 


because it is a cap of silk environed with 
three crowns of gold, as in the subjoined 
figure. 



PAPER. A vegetable substance manu 
factored so as to be fit for writing upon. 
The Egyptian paper was made of the rush 
papyrus, which gave its name to the sub¬ 
stance. Paper is likewise made of bark or 
the inner rind of trees, of cotton and other 
materials, but more particularly of linen 
and other rags prepared by a particular 
process at the paper mills. Paper is distin¬ 
guished as to its use into writing paper, 
printing paper, drawing paper, cartridge 
paper, copy, chancery,&c.; as to its size 
into pot, foolscap, crown, demy, medium, 
royal, imperial, &c. 

PAPER (among Bankers.) A name 
given to money of credit by means of any 
written paper, as bills of exchange, prom¬ 
issory notes, &x. 

PAPER CURRENCY, or Paper Mo¬ 
ney. A substitute for coin issued on the 

credit of government in the shape of 
notes. On Nov. 1, 1878, there were out¬ 
standing in the U. S., including national- 
bank and legal-tender notes,$G66,383,137. 

PAPIER MACHE. A substance made 
of paper boiled into a paste, of which toys 
are formed. 

PAPILIONACEA3 (in Botany). One 
of Linnaeus’s natural orders of plants, con¬ 
sisting of such as have papilionaceous or 
butterfly-shaped flowers, as the pea, &c. 

PAPIST. One professing the Roman 
Catholic religion. Severe laws were made 
in England, after the Reformation, against 
the Papists, as they were technically 
termed, but they have since been repealed, 
as the necessity for them ceased. 

PAPYRUS. An Egyptian reed grass, 
the leaves of which were made into paper 
It grows in the marshes of Egypt, or in the 
stagnant places of the Nile Its roots are 
tortuous, and in thickness about four or 
five inches ; its stem, which is triangular 
and tapering, rises to the height of te« 








S80 


PAR 


PAR 


cubit* and carriea a top or plume of small 

hairs. 



PAR An equality between the ex- 
manges of different countries. 

PARABLE. An allegorical instruction, 
founded on something real or apparent in 
nature or history, from which a moral is 
drawn. 

PARABOLA (in Conic Sections). A 
curve made by cutting a cone by a Diane, 
parallel to one of its sides, or parallel 
to aplane that touches one side of the 
cone. 



PARACHUTE. An instrument in the 
shape of an umbrella, which serves to 
break the fall in descending from an air 
balloon. 

PARADE. The place where troops 
draw up, to do duty and mount guard. 

PARADIGM (in Grammar). An exam¬ 
ple of a Greek or Hebrew verb, conjugated 
through all its moods and tenses. 

PARADISE. The garden of Eden, 
where Adam and Eve dwelt in their state 
of innocence. 

PARADISE, Bird of. A bird of a 
beautiftil plumage, that chiefly inhabits the 
Asiatic islands. Its feathers are much 
used as ornaments for the head among the 
Japanese, Chinese, and Persians, from 
whom thsy are obtained, and imported 
Into Europe. Its name was given it by 
the sailors, who, seeing it on the wing, 
far out to sea, fancifully imagined it to be 


an inhabitant of the air, and not •< the 
land. 



PARADISE, Grains of. The hot ber¬ 
ries or seeds of the cardamum. 

PARADOX. An opinion apparently 
absurd or contradictory, although some¬ 
times true in fact 

PARAGRAPH. A collection of senten¬ 
ces comprehended between one break and 
another. 

PARALLAX. A change in the appa¬ 
rent place of any heavenly body when seen 
from different points of view. 

PARALLEL (in Mathematics). The 
name for lines, surfaces, or bodies every 
where at an equal distance from each other 

PARALLELOGRAM. A plane figure, 
bounded by four right lines, whereof the 
opposite are parallel and equal to one 
another. 



PARALLEL SPHERE (in Astronomy/ 
The situation of the sphere when the 
equator coincides with the horizon, and 
the poles with the zenith and nadir. 

PARALYSIS. The palsy. 

PARAPET. A wall breast high, that 
serves to hide the roof of a house. 

PARAPHRASE. An explanation of 
any text in plainer and more ample terms. 

PARASANG. A Persian measure equal 
to from 30 to 50 stadia or ftirlongs. 

PARASELENE. A mock moon, or a 
meteor in the form of a luminous ring 
round the moon. 

PARASITE (among the Ancients). A 
guest invited by the priest to eat of the 
sacrifice ; a trencher friend, or hanger on at 
he tables of the great, who lives by flattery 

PARASITICAL PLANTS. Such 










FAR 


28 


PAR 

grow upon other*, like the moss or mu- 
seltoe 

PARASOL. A little movable ma¬ 
chine, or small umbrella, fitted for keep¬ 
ing off the sun. 

PARCA3, the Fatx9. Three sisters 
among the heathens, who presided over, 
or spun the lives of men ; Clotho held the 
distaff and spun the thread, Lachesis turn¬ 
ed the wheel, and Atropos cut the thread. 

PARCHMENT. The skin of sheep or 
goats, prepared for writing upon. 

PARDON (ic Law). The remitting the 
punishment for an)' felony committed 
• against the law 

PARENTHESIS (in Grammar). A 
clause inserted in the middle of a sentence, 
and marked thus [], or thus (). 

PARHELION. A mock sun. 

PARIAN MARBLE. A sort of white 
marble, so called from the island of Paros, 
where it was first found. 

PARIS. The son of Priam, king off Troy, 
who, carrying away Helen, the wife of Me- 
nelaus, was the author of the Trojan war. 

PARIS, Plaster ok. A composition 
of lime and sulphuric acid, used in making 
casts and moulds. 

PARAMOS. A name given by the 
Spanish settlers to the high desert 
tracts of the Andes of South America, 
covered with stunted trees. 

PARSEE. One of the Persian refu¬ 
gees driven out of their own country 
by the Mohammedans, now living in 
various parts of India. 

PARSEEISM. Fire-worship, the re¬ 
ligion of the Parsees. 

PARTHENOPE. In ancient mythol¬ 
ogy, one of the sirens, who threw her¬ 
self into the sea because she was unable 
to beguile Ulysses by her songs. 

PARTHENOPE. One of the newly- 
discovered planets, first observed by 
De Gasparis iu 1850. Its mean distance 
from the sun is233,610.000 miles; and its 
periodical revolution 3 years, 306 da) S. 

PARK (among Fishermen). A large 
net disposed on the bank of the sea. 

PARLIAMENT. In England, the great 
council of the nation, consisting of the 
King, Lords, and Commons, which forms 
the legislative branch of the English gov¬ 
ernment or constitution. The parliament 
is assembled annually by summons from 
the crown, to make laws, impose taxes, 
and deliberate on other public affairs, either 
of domestic or foreign policy. The Par¬ 
liament is also styled the High Court of 
Parliament, because the upper house as¬ 
sists in the administration as well as in 
the making of laws 

PARMESAN. A sort of cheese made 
at Parma in Italy 


PARNASSUS. A mountain of Phocia 
in Greece, on which stood the temple and 
town of Delphi. It was sacred to Apolle 
and the Muses 

PARODY. A poetical pleasantry, which 
consists in applying tLe verses of some 
person, by way of ridicule, to another ob¬ 
ject, or in turning a serious work into bur¬ 
lesque, by affecting to observe the same 
rhymes, words, and cadences. 

PAROL (in Law). By word of mouth, 
as parol evidence. 

PAROLE (in Military Affairs) Word 
of honour, a promise given by a prisoner 
of war, when suffered to be at large, that 
he will return at a time appointed. 

PARRICIDE. A murderer of father or 
mother. 

PARROQ.UET. A sort of parrot easily 
taught to speak. It inhabits tropical re¬ 
gions ; one species is found in the Southern 

States 



PARROT. A noisy, imitative, gregari¬ 
ous kind of bird, of which there are ai 
least fifty varieties. It is a native of the 
tropical climates, and easily tamed. 



PARRYING (among Fencers). The 
warding a push or blow from an adver 
sary. 

PARSING (in Grammar) Expounding 
words and sentences so as to apply the 
rules of grammar to them 


24 * 








282 


PAR 


PAS 


PARSLEY. A potherb, and a peren¬ 
nial, which grows in gardens. 

PARSNEP. An edible root 

PARSON. In England, the person 
holding the office of rector or vicar in a 
parish. 

PART (in Arithmetic) A quantity con¬ 
tained in a whole. 

PART (in Music). A piece of the score 
or partition, written by itself, for the con¬ 
venience of the musician 

PART (in the Drama). The character 
or portion of a piece assigned to a per¬ 
former. 

PARTERRE. An open part of a garden 
in the front of a house, commonly orna¬ 
mented with flowers. 

PARTHENON. A temple at Athens, 
sacred to Minerva. 

PARTICIPLE (in Grammar). One of 
the parts of speech, so called because it 
partakes both of the noun and the verb. 

PARTICLE (in Physiology). A minute 
part of any body which enters into its 
composition. 

PARTICLE (in Grammar). Small in¬ 
declinable words, that serve to unite or 
connect others together. 

PARTIES (in Law). The persons nam¬ 
ed in a deed. 

PARTING. Separating gold and silver 
by aquafortis. 

PARTITION (in Law). Dividing lands 
or tenements among coheirs or partners. 

PARTNER. One who joins with anoth¬ 
er in some concern or affair. 

PART OWNERS. Partners possessed 
of a certain share in a ship. 

PARTRIDGE. A bird of game which 
abounds in all parts of Europe, and is 
highly esteemed for its flesh. It resem¬ 
bles the quail of the United States, but is 
larger. 



» 

The bird ca n ed partridge in New Eng¬ 
land, and pheasant at the South, is a spe 
ctes of grouse. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. The grammat¬ 
ical divisions of words according to their 
connexion with or dependence upon each 
rfher ; they are commonly reckoned nine 


in number, namely, the article, noun, pro 
noun, verb,participle, adverb, conjunction, 
preposition, and interjection 

PARTY (in Military Affairs). A smal 
detachment or number of men sent upon 
any particular duty, as a recruiting party, 
&x 

PARTY(in Public Affairs). Any numbei 
of men combining together to follow their 
own particular views, either in politics or 
religion 

PARTY-WALLS. Partitions of brick 
made between buildings separately occu¬ 
pied, to prevent the spreading of fire. 

PASQUINADE. A short satirical libel 
that is gene/ally stuck up to be read by 
the passers by. 

PASS (in Military Affairs). A strait 
or narrow passage, which renders the en¬ 
trance into a country difficult for an army. 

PASS (among Miners). A frame of thin 
boards, set sloping for the ore to slid* 
down. 

PASS (in Fencing). A push ©r thrust 
at the adversary. 

PASSAGE (in Music). A succession of 
sounds forming a member or phrase in a 
composition. 

PASSAGE (in Military Affairs). The 
passing over bridges, mountains, &.c. 

PASSAGE (in Navigation). The course 
pursued at sea, particularly that which has 
been attempted to be taken by the north 
pole in going to India. This attempt ha& 
been made in two ways, namely, by coast¬ 
ing along the northern parts of Europe and 
Asia, called the north east passage; and 
another by sailing round the northern part 
of the American continent, called the north 
west passage; besides which, an attempt 
has also been made to sail over the pole 
itself. 

PASSENGER. Any one travelling by a 
coach, vessel, or other mode of convey¬ 
ance ; also any one passing by. 

PASSERES. An order of birds in the 
Linnsean system, comprehending such aa 
have the bill conic and pointed, as the 
pigeon, the lark, the thrush, &c. 

PASSION WEEK The week imme¬ 
diately before Easter. 

PASSIVE. Suffering, an epithet for 
verbs which express the suffering or being 
acted upon, as ‘ to be loved.’ 

PASSIVE PRINCIPLES (in Chyrai*- 
try). Earth and water, so called because 
their parts are not so swiftly moved ai 
those of spirits, oil, and salt. 

PASSOVER. A festival of the Jews, 
commemorative of the angels passing the 
doors of the Israelites when they slew all 
the first bom of the Egyptian*. 





P A1 


r e a 


283 


PASSPORT, »r Pam. In Europe, a 
license or letter from a prince or governor, 
granting liberty to a person to pass through 
the country. 

PASSPORT (in Commerce). A license 
to export or import goods. 

PASS WORD. A secret word or coun¬ 
tersign which enables any person to go 
through military stations. 

PASTE (in the Glass Trade). A kind 
of coloured glass made of calcined crystal, 
lead, and metallic preparations, so as to 
imitate gems. 

PASTEBOARD. A thick kind of pa¬ 
per, formed of several sheets pasted one 
over the other. 

PASTIL. A sweet ball or perfumed 
composition. 

PASTIL (among Painters). A roll of 
paste made up of various colours, with gum; 
a crayon. 

PASTORAL. A shepherd’s song or 
poem, by way of dialogue between shep¬ 
herds. 

PASTURE LAND. Land reserved for 
the feeding of cattle. 

PATENTS, or Letter* Patent. In 
England, writings sealed with the great 
seal, authorizing a man to do or enjoy 
that which he could not of himself. In 
the United States, the term is applied to 
certificates issued from the patent office, 
which give to the inventor of any use¬ 
ful machine the exclusive advantage of 
his invention. 

PATERNOSTER. The Lord’s prayer; 
also the repetition of the Lord’s prayer in 
the Romish church. 

PATHOLOGY. That branch of medi¬ 
cine which explains the symptoms of dis¬ 
eases. 

PATHOS. An emotion which an ora 
tor displays in his speech or excites in his 
hearers. 

PATIENT. One who is under the di¬ 
rection of a physician, for the cure of any 
disorder. 

PATIENT (in Physiology). That which 
receives impressions from any other tiling, 
called the agent. 

PATRIARCH. The father or ruler of 
a family, such as Abraham, and the patri¬ 
archs of old. 

PATRIARCH (in Ecclesiastical Affairs). 
In England, a bishop that is superior to an 
arebnishop. 

PATRIMONY (in Law). A right de¬ 
scended from ancestors. 

PATRIOT. A father of his country. 

TATROL. Any party going their rounds 
at stated b«-.urs, to see that the watchmen 
do their duty. 


PATRON (in Law). In England, a # 
friend of interest or power; he who has 
the disposal of a benefice. 

PATRON. In England, a sea term for 
one who commands a ship in the Mediter¬ 
ranean. 

PATRONYMIC. A name derived from 
one’s father or ancestors. 

PAVEMENT. A layer of stone or 
bricks, which serves to cover the ground 
and form a path or road. In Lonaon, th 
pavement for coachways is principally a 
kind of granite from Scotland ; for the foot 
path, Yorkshire paving stone is used 
Courts, stables, kitchens, halls, churches, 
are commonly paved with tiles, bricks, or 
freestone. In France, they mostly use 
freestone; in Venice and Holland, and oth¬ 
er countries, they use for the most part 
bricks. 

PAVILION. A large tent raised on 
posts to lodge under in summer time. 

PAUPER. One receiving parish relief 

PAUPERIS IN FORMA. See Forma 

PAUSE. A stop or cessation of speak¬ 
ing, singing, playing, &x. 

PAUSE (in Music). A character of 
time, denoting that the note must be 
drawn out to a greater length. 

PAWN (in Commerce). A pledge giv 
en by way of security for the payment Oi 
a sum of money. 

PAWN (in Chess). One of the com 
mon men. 

PAWNBROKER. One who lends mo¬ 
ney upon goods left in pledge. 

PAY. What is allowed to each indi¬ 
vidual in the army. Full pay is the full 
allowance ; half pay, that which is allow¬ 
ed to officers on their retiring from the 
service. 

PAYING. A sea term for anointings 
mast, yard, &c., with tar, pitch, turpen¬ 
tine, &c. 

PAYING OFF. A sea term for letting 
a ship’s head fall to leeward of the point, 
whither it was previously directed. 

PAYING OFF A SHIP. Discharging 
the crew from actual service, that the ship 
may be laid up in ordinary. 

PAYMASTER. He who has the charge 
of paying a regiment. 

PAYMENT. The discharge of a debt, 
also the time and measure of paying. 
Prompt payment, the payment of a bill o» 
debt before it becomes due. 

PEA. A kind of pulse, that is eithej 
planted in gardens for the food of man, oj 
in the fields as a food for cattle. 

PEACE (in Law). A quiet and in«f 
fensive behaviour towards the government 
and the people 




£84 


P K A 


PEL 


PEACE ESTABLISHMENT. The 
number of effective men required in the 
army and navy during peace. 

PEACE OF GOD AND THE CHURCH, 
in England, the time of vacation between 
terms, when there is a cessation from 
lawsuits. 

PEACE OF THE KING. In England, 
that peace and security, both for life and 
goods, which the king affords to all his 
subjects. 

PEACE OF THE KING’S HIGH¬ 
WAY. In England, the immunity that 
the king’s highway has to be free from all 
molestation. 

PEACH. A delicious, juicy fruit, that, in 
England, grows against garden walls, and 
in America, is produced abundantly in or¬ 
chards. 

PEACOCK. A well known domestic 
bird, remarkable for the beauty of its tail 
and the harshness of its cry. 

PEAK (in Geography). A mountain or 
elevation with a sharp summit, as the Peak 
of Teneriffe. 

PEAK (among Mariners). The upper 
corner of sails which ar8 extended by a 
gaff or by a yard, which crosses the mast 
obliquely. 

PEAR A well known class of trees 
which yields a great variety of fruit, as 
the musk, muscadelle, rose, bergamot, 
bury pear, sickle, St. Michael’s, &c. 

PEARL. A concretion found in several 
shells, as in some species of the oyster and 
muscle. Pearls are of a silvery or bluish 
white colour, and very brilliant. They 
are supposed to be produced by a distem¬ 
per in the animal, similar to the stone in 
man; they are formed, however, of the 
same matter as the inner shell, and consist 
of layers one over another, after the man¬ 
ner of an onion 

PEARL, Mother of. The shell of 
another species of oyster, not tha pearl 
oyster. It is extremely smooth, and as 
white as the pearl 

PEARLASH. Potash calcined or clear¬ 
ed of its impurities by fire. 

PEARL BARLEY. The seed of com¬ 
mon barley rubbed into small round grains 
like pearl, of which a cooling driak is made. 

PEAT. A sort of fuel dug out of the 
eejth. It is the remains of decayed vege¬ 
tables, as leaves, stringy fil res, the wood 
of decayed trunks of trees. &c. It is found 
in low valleys and begs in Great Britain 
and other parts of Europe, and in America. 

PEAT MOSS. The bed in which peat I 
la found, either om the surface of the soil, 
or covered over with sand or earth to a 
short depth. 


PEBBLES. A sort of fossils distin 
guished from flints by having a variety of 
colours. 

PECQARY. An animal of the hog kind, 
foi r 4 in Mexico 

PECK. A dry measure, the fourth part 
of i bushel. 

j’ECCjf A. An order of animals in the 
Linnsean system, under the class mam 
malia, comprehending such as have the 
feet hoofed and cloven, and live on grass 
and chew the cud, and have four stom¬ 
achs, as the antelope, the camel, camelo¬ 
pard, stag, musk, sheep, ox, cow, &.c. 

PECTORAL. Relating to the breast, 
as pectoral medicines, niedLmes good for 
curing diseases in the breast. 

PECULIAR (in Law). In England, a 
church or parish having u jurisdiction 
within itself. 

PECULIARS, Court of. In Engine , 
a court belonging to the archbishop of 
Canterbury, which takes cognizance of 
matters relating to parishes that have a pe¬ 
culiar jurisdiction. 

PEDANTRY. A needless or il* -timed 
display of learning. 

PEDESTAL. The lowest part of a 
column. 

PEDIMENT. A low pinnacle, serving 
to crown a frontispiece, &c. 

PEDOMETER. See Perambulator. 

PEER (in Law). An equal, or one of 
the same rank and condition, formerly 
applied, in England, to the vassals or ten¬ 
ants of the same lord ; and now applied to 
those who are impannelled in an inquest 
upon a man accused of any offence, who, 
by the criminal law, ought to be peers or 
equals of the person accused. 

PEERESS. The lady of a peer. 

PEERS OF THE REALM. In Eng¬ 
land, the nobility of the kingdom, who, 
though distinguished by the different titles 
of duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and 
baron, are nevertheless all peers or equals 
in their political character as lords of par¬ 
liament. 

PEEWIT, or Lapwing An Euro¬ 
pean bird that frequents marshes, and the 
banks of streams, about the size of a pi¬ 
geon, and resembling the plover. A similar 
bird, but much smaller in size, bears the 
same name in the United States 

PEGASUS (in the Heathen Mythol¬ 
ogy). A winged horse, on which Bel’ero- 
phon is fabled to have ridden. 

PEGASUS (in Astronomy) A constel¬ 
lation in the northern hemisphere, con¬ 
taining from 20 to 89 stars, according to 
different writers 

PEIiIC \N A large bird found In all 





PEN 


*EN 


m 




^arm countries, the bill of which is 
straight, except at the point. It ha3 a skin 
reaching down the neck, which forms a 
pouch capable of holding many quarts of 
water. The pelican has a peculiar ten¬ 
derness for its young, and has teen sup- 

S osed to draw blood from its breast for 
leir support. In South America, this 
bird is tamed, and taught to catch fish, and 
bring them to its owner in its pouch. 



PELICANUS. The generic term in the 
Linnaean system for the sort of birds of 
which the pelican is the principal species. 
It comprehends also the cormorant or cor- 
vorant, man of war bird, and the ganuet. 

PELLICLE. A thin film or fragment 
of a membrane. 

PELL1TORY OF THE WALL. An 
herb that is used in medicine. 

PELT. The skin or hide of an animal. 

PELVIS (in Anatomy). The lower 
part of the abdomen. 

PEN. An instrument for writing. 

PEN (in Husbandry). A fold or enclo¬ 
sure for sheep, &c. 

PENAL LAWS. Laws made for the 
punishment of criminal offences. 

PENALTY (in Law). A fine or for¬ 
feiture by way of punishment. 

PENANCE (in Ecclesiastical Law). 
An infliction of some pain or bodily suf¬ 
fering, as an exercise of repentance for 
some sin, either voluntary or imposed by 
the priest in the Romish church. 

PENATES. The household gods of the 
Romans. 

PENCIL. An instrument used in 
drawing and painting. 



PENCIL OF RAYS (in Optics). A 
number of rays diverging from some lu- 


minojs point, which, after falling upoa 
and passing through a lens, converge again 
on entering the eye. 



PENDANT. A sea term for a narrow 
banner or streamer. The broad pendant 
is a flag that serves to distinguish the chiel 
of a squadron. 

PENDULUM. A heavy body so suit 
pended that it may vibrate or swing back 
wards and forwards. 

PENDULUM CLOCKS. Clocks that 
have their movements regulated by the 
vibration of a pendulum. 

PENDULUM ROYAL. A clock whose 
pendulum sways seconds, and goes eight 
days without winding up. 

PENETRATION OF BODIES. A 
term in physiology, denoting that the 
parts of one body occupy the interstices 
between the parts of the other. 

PEMMICAN. Meat cut into thin 
slices, divested of fat, and dried in the 
sun; cured meat dried to hardness, then 
pulverized and mixed with fat, and 
sometimes raisins, and afterwards com¬ 
pressed, used on long journeys of ex¬ 
ploration, or during long sea-voyages. 

PENOLOGY. The science which 
treats of public punishments as they 
affect the community. 

PENTACHORD. A musical instru¬ 
ment of five strings; a system or order 
of five sounds. 

PENTACLE. A figure composed of 
two equilateral triangles intersecting 
each other so as to form a six-pointed 
star, used with superstitious import by 
the astrologers and mystics of the mid¬ 
dle ages. 

PENTACOCCOTTS. Having or con¬ 
taining five seeds or grains. 

PENTREMITES. In geology, a 
genus of fossil star-fish—so called 
from the five polygonal plates which 
compose their pear-shaped receptacle. 

PENNYWEIGHT An English troy 
weight, marked thus, dwt., containing 24 
grains. 

PENSION (in Law) An annual allow¬ 
ance made to a person by a prince or gov¬ 
ernment without any equivalent in return. 

PENSIONER. One who receives a 
pension; also one maintained at the 
charge of the king, government, company 
or hospital. 

PENSIONERS, Gentlemen, or Kino’s 
Pensioners. In England, a band of gen¬ 
tlemen, to the number of 40, first set on 











286 


PEN 


PER 


foot by King Henry VII., whose office it 
t« to guard the king’s person in his palace. 

PENTAGON. A geometrical figure, 
having five sides and five angles 



PENTAGRAPH. A copying machine, 
by which designs may be copied in any 
proportion by persons who are not skilled 
in drawing. It consists of four jointed le¬ 
vers. as in the subjoined figure 



PENTAGYNIA (in Botany). An order 
of plants in the Linnaean system, compre¬ 
hending such as have five pistils in an 
hermaphrodite flower. 

PENTAMETER. A sort of verse in 
Latin and Greek, consisting of five feet or 
metres. 

PENTANDRIA (in Botany). One of 
the Linnaean classes, comprehending 
plants which have flowers with five 
stamens. 



PENTATEUCH. The five books of 

Moses. 

PENTHOUSE. A shed hanging for¬ 
ward. 

PENUMBRA (in Astronomy). A par¬ 
tial shade observed between the perfect 
shadow and the full light in an eclipse. 


PEPPER. An aromatic fruit or hem 
brought from India. It is of three kinds 
namely, black, white, and long. The 
black is the fruit of a tree that grows in 
the Spice Islands. 

PER. A Latin preposition, signifying 
by, used in many phrases ; as, per force, pr. 
or per annum, per cent, or per centum, &c 
PERAMBULATOR. An instrument 
for measuring distances, otherwise called 
a pedometer, or surveying wheel. 



PER CENTUM, or Pr. Clnt. Rate 
of interest, so much for each hundred j as, 
five per cent., that is, five dollars for 
every hundred dollars. 

PERCH. A kind of fish with sharp, tn- 
curvate teeth, that prey upon other fish; 
the flesh of this fish is very delicate 

PERCH (in Commerce). A measure ol 
five yards and a half, or sixteen feet and 
a half 

PER CHANCE. Accidentally 

PERCUSSION. The impression a 
body makes in falling or striking upon 
another. It is either direct or oblique ; 
direct when the impulse is made in the 
direction of a line perpendicular at the 
point of impact, and oblique when it is 
given in a line oblique to the place of im¬ 
pact, or that does not pass through the 
common centre of gravity of the two strik¬ 
ing bodies. 

PEREMPTORY (in Law). Absolute 
or determinate, as peremptory writ, &c. 

PERENNIAL. A plant the root of 
which continues for more than two years. 

PERFORATION. Boring or making a 
hole through. 

PER FORCE. Against one’s inclina- 
tion. 

PERIANTH. The cayx or cup of a 
flower when it is contiguous to the flower, 
in distinction from the calyx or outer cov¬ 
ering of the flower. 

PERICARDIUM. A double membrane, 
which surrounds the whole compass cf 
the heart. 

PE RIC AR P. A viscous bag with seeds, 
ora vessel producing seeds. 

PERICRANIUM. A mem Irane which 
encloses the bones of the skull. 

PERIGEE (in Ancient Astronomy). 
That point in the heaven in which the 
sun or any planet is least distant frtrm the 
centre of the earth 














PER 


PER 


287 


PERIHELION (in Modern Astronomy). 
That point of a planet’s orbit in which it 
<s nearest to the sun. 

PERIMETER. The ambit or extent 
which bounds a figure or body, whether 
rectilinear or mixed. 

PERIOD (in Astronomy). The entire 
revolution of a planet. 

PERIOD (in Chronology). The revolu¬ 
tion of a certain number of years, as the 
Julian period. 

PERIOD (in Grammar). A full stop at 
the end of any sentence, marked thus (.) 

PERIOD (in Arithmetic) A point or 
comma after every third place in a series 
of figures; also in the extraction of roots,to 
point oft'the figures into given numbers or 
parcels. 

PERIOD (in Medicine). The interval 
between the coming of fits in intermitting 
disorders. 

PERIOECI (in Geography). Inhabit¬ 
ants of the earth who live under the same 
parallel of latitude, but opposite parallels of 
longitude. 

PERIPHERY. The circumference of 
any circle or curve, &x. 

PERIPATETICS. The followers of 
Aristotle, whose doctrines are distinguish¬ 
ed by the name of the Peripatetic philos¬ 
ophy. He also was called the Peripa¬ 
tetic because he delivered his lectures 
walking. 

PERIPHRASIS. Circumlocution, or 
expressing any thing by many words 
which might be expressed by a few. 

PERISCJI. Inhabitants of the earth 
whose shadow goes round them in a day. 

PERISTALTIC MOTION. The mo¬ 
tion of the intestines, which resembles the 
motion of a worm. 

PERISTYLE. A piazza, as in the 
middle of the gymnasium at Athens. 

PERJURY. Taking a false oath know¬ 
ingly and wilfully. 

PERIWINKLE. A kind of sea snail 
PERMIT (in Law). A license or war¬ 
rant for persons to pass with or sell goods. 

PERMUTATION. The same as com¬ 
bination. 

PERORATION. The epilogue or con¬ 
cluding part of an oration. 

PERPENDER, or Perpend Stone. A 
stone fitted to the thickness of a wall. 

PERPENDICULAR (in Geometry). A 
line, which, when it falls upon another 
line, makes the angles on each side equal 
and right angles. 

PERPENDICULAR (in Gunnery). A 
small instrument used for the finding the 
centre line of a piece, in the operation of 
Dointiog it at any object. 


PERPETUAL CURATE. In England, 
a curate that is not removable at the pleas 
ure of any one. 

PERRY A drink made of the juice of 

pears. 

PER SALTEM. At once, or at a leap 

PER SE By or in itself; things con¬ 
sidered per se, that is, in the abstract, or 
abstracted from all others 

PERSECUTION. The infliction of 
pain on another designedly and with force 
and violence, in violation of the laws 
either of God or man, such as the persecu¬ 
tions of the primitive Christian church ; 
the first happened in the reign of Nero, 
and the last in that of Diocletian. 

PERSEUS (in Heathen Mythology). A 
hero, the son of Jupiter and Danae, who 
procured the Gorgon’s head, and released 
Andromeda. 

PERSEUS (in Astronomy). A constel 
lation in the northern hemisphere. 

PERSIAN LILAC. A handsome shrub, 
having a broader leaf and a finer flower 
than the common lilac. 

PERSIAN ORDER (in Architecture). 
An order wherein the entablature is sup¬ 
ported by the figures of men instead of 
columns. They were intended to repre¬ 
sent the Persians taken captive by the 
Athenians. 

PERSIAN WHEEL. An engine for 
watering lands. 

PERSON (in Grammar). A term lor 
nouns and pronouns which express the 
person of the speaker ; also the inflection 
of verbs answering to the different persons. 
There are three persons, namely, the first, 
or the person speaking; the second, the 
person spoken to; and the third, the per¬ 
son spoken of. 

PERSONAL (in Law). Belonging to 
the person and not to the thing, as per¬ 
sonal goods, as opposed to real property or 
estates ; personal action, an action against 
the person. 

PERSONAL VERB (in Grammar). A 
verb that has inflections or endings to ex¬ 
press the persons of the agent. 

PERSONALTY (in Law). Any thing 
personal, in distinction from things real. 

PERSONATiE (in Botany). One of 
Linnceus’s natural orders of plants, which 
have a labiate corolla or flower with the 
lips closed, as the aconite, &c. 

PERSONATING. Representing any 
one by a fictitious or assumed character, 
so as to pass for the person represented. 

PERSONS. The three persons or sub¬ 
sistences in the Holy Trinity ; namely, 
the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. 

PERSONS (in Law) are distinguished 







tS8 


PER 


PET 


Into natural persons, whom God has 
formed, and artificial persons, or those 
formed by society, as corporations or boa- 
ies politic. 

PERSPECTIVE. A branch of mixed 
mathematics, which shows how to repre¬ 
sent objects on a plain surface as natural¬ 
ly as they would appear to our sight if 
seen through that plane, supposing it were 
as transparent as glass. Perspective is 
divided into Aerial Perspective, which 
has principally a reference to the colour¬ 
ing and shading of distant objects ; and 
Lineal Perspective, which relates to the 
position, form, magnitude, &c., of the sev¬ 
eral lines or contours of objects, &c. 

PERSPECTIVE, Histort of. Per¬ 
spective, as a branch of optics, was known 
and practised at an early period. It was 
taught by Democritus and Anaxagoras, 
and treated of by Euclid in his Optics. 
Alhazen likewise, in his optical treatise, 
speaks of this art, and of its importance 
for the painter; but the first writers who 
professedly treated on perspective, were 
1'artolemeo Bramantino, in his Regole di 
1’erspectiva, &c., dated 1440, and Pietro 
del Borgo, who supposed objects to be 
placed beyond a transparent tablet, and so 
to trace *he images which rays of light 
emitted from them would make upon it. 
Ubert Durer constructed a machine upon 
the principles of Borgo, by which he could 
trace the perspectiev appearance of objects. 
Leon Battista Alberti, in his treatise De 
Pictura, speaks chiefly of perspective ; and 
Balthazar Peruzz^of Siena, who died in 
1506, wrote a system of perspective, which 
appeared in 1540. He is 6aid to have first 
recommended points of distance, to which 
are drawn all lines that make an angle of 
45 degrees with the ground line Guido 
Jbaldi, in his Perspective, published in 
1600, showed that all lines are parallel to 
one another, if they be inclined to th 
ground line, and converge to some poirt 
in the horizontal line ; and that through 
this point also will pass a line drawn from 
the eye parallel to them. His work con¬ 
tained the first principles, which after¬ 
wards formed the groundwork of Dr. Tay- 
Icr’s. He was immediately followed by 
Giacomo Barozzi, of Vignola, whose Two 
Rules of Perspective were published, with 
% commentary, by Ignatius Dante. Maro- 
lois’ work was published at the Hague in 
G615, \nd that of Sirigatti, which was an 
abstract of Vignola’s, in 1625. But the 
most celebrated writer on this subject was 
5)i. Brooke Taylor, who, in his Linear 
Perspective, has laid down principles far 
wore general than those of any of his pre¬ 


decessors. He does not confine his rules 
to tne horizontal plane only, but he has 
made them applicable to every species of 
lines and planes. Likewise, by his meth¬ 
od, which is exceedingly simple, the few¬ 
est lines imaginable are required to pro¬ 
duce any perspective representation. As 
a proof of the excellence of his method, it 
suffices to add that it has been followed 
by all who have treated on this subject, 
and is universally adopted in practice. 
Mr. Hamilton published his Stereography 
in 2 vols. folio, after the manner of Dr. 
Taylor; besides which there are some 
good treatises on the subject from Ware, 
Cowley, Ferguson, Emerson, &c.; but 
Mr. Kirby’s system of perspective has been 
generally esteemed for its practical utility. 

PERSPECTIVE. In gardens, or at the 
end of galleries, designed to deceive the 
eye by representing the continuation of an 
alley or a building, &c. 

PERSPECTIVE-GLASS. The glass or 
other transparent surface, supposed to be 
placed between the eye and the object, 
perpendicularly to the horizon. 

PERSPIRATION. The evacuation of 
the juices of the body through the pores of 
the skin. This is either sensible, which 
is called sweating; or insensible, which 
is not perceptible to the senses. 

PERUVIAN BARK. A drug, the bark 
of a tree growing in Peru. 

PESTLE. An instrument for pounding 
in a mortar 

PETAL The leaf of the corolla or 
flower. 

PETARD (in Fortification). A hollow 
engine shaped like a sugar-loaf, made for 
breaking open gates, drawbridges, &c. 

PETIOLE (in Botany). The leaf-stalk, 
or the stem which supports the leaf. 

PETITION (in Law). A supplication 
in lieu of a writ, which, in England, is al¬ 
ways made by a subject to the king when 
the latter is a party in the suit; also any 
supplication drawn up in form, and ad- 
d resed either to the executive or the legi*- 
lature. 

PETITIO PRINCIPIl (among Logi¬ 
cians). Begging the question, or taking 
for granted, that which is the matter in 
dispute. 

PETREL A sea-bird, which naa th« 
faculty of spouting pure oil from its bill. 
It is a sure prognostic of a storm at sea, 
when it hovers about a ship. The petrel 
is about the size of the swallow ; its leg* 
are long and slender, and its colour to 
black. It is seen in all parts of the ocean 
busily engaged in searching for food. It 
brave* the utmost fury of the storm, skiu> 





PHA 


ming along the waves, sometimes above 
their tops, and sometimes screening it¬ 
self from the blast, by sinking down into 
the billows between them. It does not 
sit upon the water, but often places its 
feet upon it, and sustains itself by the aid 
ofit3 expanded wings while it picks up 
some piece of food. Flocks of these birds 
follow vessels for whole days, and eat 
such things as are thrown overboard. 
These birds are known among sailors, 
under the name of Mother Carey’s chick¬ 
ens. 



PETRIFACTIONS (among Mineralo¬ 
gists). Stony matters incrusted within 
the cavities of organized bodies, as the in¬ 
crustations of limestone or selenite, in the 
form of stalactites or dropstones from the 
roofs of caverns. 

PETRIFICATION. The conversion 
of wood, bones, or any other substance, 
into stone ; also that which is turned into 
stone. 

PETROLEUM. Rock oil, a liquid, bi¬ 
tuminous substance, which distils from 
rocks. 

PEWTER. A compound metal, or an 
alloy of tin with copper, lead, zinc, bis¬ 
muth, or antimony. 

PHALANX. A Macedonian legion, 
formed into a square compact battalion of 
pikemen. 

PHANTASMAGORIA. An optical ex¬ 
hibition very similar to the magic lantern. 

PHARAOH. A name common to se¬ 
veral kings of Egypt, mentioned in Scrip¬ 
ture. The fourth of this name was drown¬ 
ed in the Red Sea. 

PHARMACOPOEIA A book of medi¬ 
cines. 

PHARMACY. The art of preparing, 
compounding, and preserving substances 
for the purposes of medicine. 

PHAROS. A watch-tower among the 
ancients. 

PHASES. The various appearances of 
the moon at different ages, being first 
a crescent, then a semicircle, then gibbous, 
and lastly full, when she returns by the 
same gradation to the state of a new 
moon. These vaiious appearances are 
caused by the different positions of the 
25 


PIi/ 289 

moon, at different times, in respect to th« 
sun and earth 



PHEASANT. A bird of game, highly 
esteemed for its flesh. It is a native of 
India, but is now common in Europe, par 
ticularly in England. See Partridgi. 



PHEON. A kind of missile weapon 
or dart with a barb, which is sometimes 
borne in coats of arms. 

PHIAL. A little glass bottle, mostly 
used for medicine. 

PHILOLOGY. An assemblage of sci¬ 
ences, consisting of grammar, rhetoric, 
poetry, antiquities, history, and criticism, 
called by the French, belles-letters ; also 
the science of languages. 

PHILOSOPHER. One who is versed 
in, or addicts himself to the study of phi 
losophy. 

PHILOSOPHER’S STONE. The ob¬ 
ject of alchymy by a long sought for prepa 
ration, by which, as the alchymists pre¬ 
tended, the base metals might b8 conver 
ted into gold and silver. 

PHILOSOPHY. Properly, the love of 
wisdom, a term applied either to the study 
of nature or morality, founded on reason 
and experience, or the systems which di*" 
ferent men have devised cf explaining tb« 









290 


PH* 


P1L 


various phenomena in the aaturai and 
moral world ; as the Pythagorean philoso¬ 
phy, which taught, among other things, 
the transmigration of souls ; the Aristote¬ 
lian philosophy, or the doctrines of Aristo¬ 
tle, which are to be found in his works; 
the Socratic philosophy, which is to be 
found in the writings of Xenophon and 
Plato; Epicurean philosophy, a sceptical, 
licentious scheme of morals ascribed to 
Epicurus ; Stoic philosophy, the doctrines 
of Zeno the Stoic, who maintained, among 
other things, that a man might be happy 
in the midst of the severest tortures ; the 
Cynic philosophy, the followers of which 
affected a great contempt of riches, and 
of all sciences except morality ; and the 
Sceptical philosophy, broached by one 
Pyrrho, who affected to doubt every thing. 

PHONOGRAPH. An apparatus 
which makes a permanent, graphical 
record of spoken words or musical 
sounds, and by means of which we are 
able to reproduce at any future time, 
in audible form, the same sounds it has 
recorded, and with all the peculiarities 
of pronunciation and inflection. 

PHOSPHATES. Salts formed by phos¬ 
phoric acid, with the alkalies, earths, and 
metallic oxides. 

PHOSPHITES. Salts formed with 
phosphorus united to the earths, alkalies, 
and metallic oxides. 

PHOSPHORIC ACID. An acid form¬ 
ed by the combination of muriatic acid 
with oxygen. 

PHOSPHOROUS ACID. An acid 
formed by the combination of phosphorus 
with oxygen. It contains less of the latter 
than phosphoric acid. 

PHOSPHORUS. A yellow, semitrans¬ 
parent substance, of the consistence of 
wax. but brittle during the frost. It is lu¬ 
minous in the common temperature of the 
air, of a rough, disagreeable taste, and a 
smell like garlic. 

PIIOSPHURET. A substance formed 
fey the union of alkalies, earths, and me¬ 
tallic oxides with phosphorus. 

PHRENOLOGY. A newly invented 
science, which professes to teach, from 
the conformation of the human skull, the 
particular characters and propensities of 
men, presuming that the faculties and 
operations of the human mind have their 
particular seat in the brain, and are to be 
traced by particular external marks See 
Cranioloot 

PHYLACTERY. A charm or amulet 
among the ancients, which, being worn, 
was supposed to preserve people from cer¬ 
tain evils, diseases, or dangers. 


PHYSICIAN One who professes med 
icine, or the art of healing. 

PHYSICS, or Natural Philo»om*¥ 
The science which explains the doctrine 
of natural bodies, their phenomena, causes, 
and effects, with their various affections, 
motions, and operations. 

PHYSIOGNOMY. The study of men’s 
particular characters and ruling passions 
from the features of the face and the cast 
of the countenance. 

PHYSIOLOGY. The same as Physics; 
also that branch of medicine, which treats 
of the structure and constitution of the 
human body, and the functions of the va¬ 
rious parts, with regard to the cine of 
diseases. 

PHYTOLOGY. A treatise on the 
forms, properties, and kinds of plants. 

PIA MATER (in Anatomy). The inte¬ 
rior membrane, enclosing the brain. 

PIANO FORTE. A well known key 
1 instrument of German invention, which 
sends forth sounds both piano and forte 
that is, soft and strong. 

PIAZZA. A spacious place enclosed 
with columns. 

PICAS. An order of birds in the Lin 
naian system, under the class Aves, com¬ 
prehending such as have their bill com¬ 
pressed and convex, including the parrot 
crow, raven, magpie, cuckoo, jay, bird of 
paradise, &c. 

PICKLE. A brine or liquor, usually 
composed of salt for seasoning meat, and 
also of spice and vinegar for preserving 
fruits; also the fruits preserved in pickle. 

PICQ.UET (in Military Affairs). A cer¬ 
tain number of men, horse or foot, who do 
duty as an outguard, to prevent surprise*. 

PIE (in Printing). The composed mat 
ter broken or thrown out of order. 

PIE-POWDER, or Court of Pie-Pou- 
dre. In England, a court held In fairs. 

PIER. A mole or rampart raised in 
harbour to break the force of the sea. 

PIGEON. A domestic bird, of which 
there are many varieties, as the rock pi¬ 
geon, the carrier pigeon, the powter, sha 
ker, tumbler, &c. See Dove. 

PIGMENTS. Artificial preparations hi 
imitation of certain colours. 

PIG OF LEAD. About two hundred 
and fifty pounds weight 

PIKE (in Ichthyology). A fish which 
abounds in most of the takes of Europe 
and America. It is remarkable for its vo¬ 
racity, and also for its longevity. 

PIKE (in Military Affairs). A long, 
slender staff, with a pike or spike at tb> 
end. 

PILASTER. A square pillar 




PIN 


PIP 


29 


PILE (In Artillery). A heap of shot or 
shells piled up into a wedgelike form. 

PILE-DRIVER. A machine for dri¬ 
ving piles or stakes in the beds of rivers, 
e* a foundation on which a bridge is raised. 



PILGRIM. One who travels into for¬ 
eign lands for purposes of devotion. 

PILL. A solid medicine made of seve¬ 
ral ingredients into the shape of a ball. 

PILLAR. An irregular kind of column, 
as a butting pillar, raised to support a wail. 

PILLION. A sort of soft saddle for a 
female to sit on horseback behind a horse¬ 
man. 

PILLORY tin Law). A wooden ma¬ 
chine in which offenders are exposed to 
the gaze of the multitude. 

PILLOW. A cushion on which the 
head rests. 

PILLOW (among Mariners). A piece 
of timber on which the boltsprit rests. 

PILOT. One who is employed to con¬ 
duct ships into roads or harbours, over 
bars or sands, &c. 

PIMENTO. See Allspice. 

PIN. A small, sharp-pointed piece of 
wire, with a head to it, used by women in 
fastening their clothes ; also any thing in 
the shape of a pin, which serves to fasten, 
as the linchpin, which locks the wheel to 
the axle ; also the screw of a musket bar¬ 
rel, and the like. 

PINCERS. A sort of tool used by arti¬ 
ficers in drawing nails. 



PINCHBECK. An alloy, containing 
three parts of zinc, and four of copper. 

PINEAL GLAND. A small, heartlike 
subttance, about the size of a pea, situated 

at the basis of the brain. 


PINE-APPLE. The fruit of an herba 
ceous plant which has leaves something 
similar to those of the aloe. The fruit re¬ 
sembles in shape the cone of the pine-tree, 
whence it has derived its name. Its bo¬ 
tanical name was Ananas, and in the 
Linntean system Brumelia Ananas. 

PINE-TREE. A large tree, the leaves of 
which are longer than those of the fir-tree. 

PINION. The joint of a bird’s wing 
remotest from the body. 

PINION (with Watchmakers). The 
nut or lesser wheel of a watch. 

PINION (with Mechanics). A lesser 
wheel which plays in the teeth of a larger. 

PINK. A small fragrant flower, of di¬ 
vers rich colours. The superior sorts are 
named cloves and cinnamon. 

PINK (among Painters). A faint red 
colour. 

PINK (among Mariners). A small sail¬ 
ing ship. 

PINNACE. A small vessel having 
sails and oars, and carrying three masts; 
also one of the boats belonging to a man 
of war. 

PINTTE. A crystallized mineral 
found in the mine Pini, in Saxony, com¬ 
posed of silex, alumina, and oxide of iron. 

PINXIT, abbreviated Pinx, denotes, 
when placed at the bottom of a picture 
with the painter’s name, that he painted it. 

PIONEERS (in Military Tactics). La¬ 
bourers who attend an army, in its march, 
to clear the way, by cutting down trees 
and levelling roads, as also to cast up 
trenches, make mines, and the like. 

PIONY. A garden plant, bearing a 
large flower resembling a rose in shape. 

PIP. A disease in young birds, which 
coysists of a white skin or film under the 
tongue. 

PIPE. A tube made of clay, which is 
used in smoking. 

PIPE (in Building). A conduit for the 
conveyance of water and other fluids. 

PIPE (in Music). A musical wind in¬ 
strument, smaller than a flute. Pan-pipes 
are a range of short pipes bound together 
side by side. 

PIPE (in Anatomy). The windpipe. 

PIPE (in Law). In England, a roW, 
otherwise called the Great Roll of the 
Exchequer. 

PIPE (in Commerce). A measure of 
wine, containing 162 gallons. 

PIPE (among Miners). The ore which 
runs endwise in a hole. 

PIPE-FISH. A fish so called from Um 
length and slenderness of its body. 

PIPER. A player on the pipe 

PIPING. The slip of a pink. 




















PL A 


m 

PIQUET. A game of cards played by 
two persons with only thirty-two cards, 
rejecting all the deuces, threes, fours, 
fives,and sines. 

PIRATE. A sea robber j one who lives 
by plunder at sea. 

PISCES (in Ichthyology). The third 
class into which Linnaeus divided the ani¬ 
mal kingdom, consisting of five orders, 
namely, the abdominales, apodes, cartila- 
ginii, jugulares, and thoracici. See Abdo 
mi hales, &c. 

PISCES (in Astronomy). The twelfth 
and last sign in the zodiac, marked thus 
( K )• 

PISCIS VOLANS. A constellation in 
the southern hemisphere. 

PISTACHIO. A nut of an aromatic 
smell, growing on a tree in Syria, from 
which an oil is extracted. 

PISTIL, or Pointal (in Botany). An 
organ adhering to the fruit for the recep¬ 
tion of the pollen. 

PIROGUE. A kind of canoe con¬ 
sisting of the hollowed trunk of a 
single tree, used in the southern and 
eastern seas; in North America, a 
narrow ferryboat. 

PISTON. A sucker, or that part which 
acts as such in all pumps, &c. 

PITCH. A tenacious, oily substance, 
drawn chiefly from pines and firs. 

PITCH (in Architecture). The angle 
to which a gable end, and consequently a 
whole building, is set. 

PITCH (in Husbandry). An iron bar, 
with a pointed end 

PITCH (in Music). The acuteness or 
gravity of any particular sound. 

PITFALL. A gin or snare to catch beasts. 

PITH. The soft, spongy substance*in 
the stalk or stem of plants. 

PIVOT. The pin on which any thing 
urns. 

PIX (in Law). The box in the mint in 
which the pieces of coin are kept that are 
.elected for trial. 

PIX, Trial of the. In England, the 
Hal of the coins, previous to their being 
«si*ed, before a jury of twenty-four per- 
ens, twelve of whom are goldsmiths. 

PLACARD. A proclamation in IIol- 
‘and, and in France a table wherein laws 
*nd orders were hungup; with us, vulgarly, 
any bill posted up against a wall or post. 

PLAID. A sort (i stuff worn by Scotch 
Highlanders. 

PLAGIARY. A literary thief, who 
purloi is the weeks of another, and pub¬ 
lishes them in his own name. 

PLAGUE A contagious jnalignant 

tbcteinper 


PL A 

PLAICE. A sort of flat fish, which ha» 
a delicate flesh. 

PLAN. The representation of some¬ 
thing drawn on a plane, as maps, and 
charts, &c .; or, more particularly, the 
draught of a building, such as it is intend¬ 
ed to appear on the ground. 

PLANE (in Geometry). A plane or 
level surface, whose parts lie even be¬ 
tween its extremities. 

PLANE (among Joiners). An edged 
tool for paring and shaving wood smooth 



PLANE TABLE. A simple instru¬ 
ment whereby the draught of a field ia 
taken on the spot. 

PLANETARIUM, or Orrirt. An as¬ 
tronomical machine, made to represent 
the motions of the heavens. See 0rr3rt. 

PLANE-TREE. A tall tree resembling 
a maple, which is a native of America. 

PLANETS. Wandering bodies, or 
such stars as change their position, in dis¬ 
tinction from the fixed stars. They are 
distinguished into primary and secondary. 
The primary are those which are supposed 
to revolve round tha sun, as Jupiter, Mer¬ 
cury, Venus, &c.; and the secondary 
are those which revolve round a primary 
planet, as the moon, the satellites of Jupi¬ 
ter, Saturn, and Uranus The original 
number of planets was six, constituting, 
as was imagined, the whole planetary 
system. These were Mercury, Venus, 
the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, 
which were distinguished by some mark 
or attribute of the deities of those names. 
Thus the mark of Mercury, $, represents 
his caduceus ; that of Venus, a mirror, , 
with a handle to it; that of Tellus, the 
earth, ©, to denote its Ann : that of Mars, 
the god of war, a spear, ^ .hat of J upiter, 
the first letter of his Greek name, If.; and 
that of Saturn, a scythe, I>. 

PLANTAGINACEA5. A nat. order 
of exogenous herbaceous plants, of 

which the Plantago is the genus. 

PLANISPHERE. A projection of the 
sphere, and its various circles on a plane, 
such as maps, &c.; but more particularly, 
a projection of the celeswdl sphere upon s 
plane, representing the stars, constella¬ 
tions, &c. 

PLANK. A piece of timber sawed tor 
carpenters’ work. 

PLANTAIN. A tree in the West 1» 




PLA 


PLO 


293 


dies, South America, and Mexico, wh);h 
tea a beautiful foliage, and bears an escu¬ 
lent fruit. 



PLANTATION (in Politics). A colo- 
»y or settlement of people in a foreign 

eountry. 

PLANTATION (in Horticulture). Any 
place which is planted with shrubs and 
trees. 

PLANTER. A proprietor of grounds in 
the West Indies. 

PLASHING HEDGES. Bending the 
boughs and interweaving them, so as to 
thicken the hedge. 

PLASTER (in Medicine). An external 
application to the body. 

PLASTER (in Masonry). Mortar for 
laying on walls, &c. 

PLASTER OF PARIS. A paste made 
of gypsum. In London, the term is also 
applied to gypsum itself. 

PLASTERER. One who plasters walls. 
The company of plasterers was incorpo¬ 
rated in 1500. 

PLATE. A broad, flat utensil, as a 
plate for eating on, and a copper-plate for 
printing on ; any flat piece of metal in the 
same form or shape. 

PLATE (in Commerce). Vessels or 
utensils made of gold or silver. 

PLATFORM (in Architecture). A row 
of beams which support the timber work 
of a roof; also any erection consisting of 
boards raised above the ground for an ex¬ 
hibition er any other temporary purpose. 

PLATFORM (in Fortification). An ele¬ 
vation of earth on which cannon is placed. 

PLATFORM (in a Ship of War). A 
place on the lower deck ; the mainmast. 

PLATING. Covering baser metals 
with a thin plate of silver. 

PLATINUM. A metal, so called from 
the Spanish plate-silver, because it resem¬ 
bles silver. It is reckoned by some to be 
the heaviest of all metals. It Js malleable 
and ductile like gold. 

25 * 


PLATOON. A small, square body of 
forty or fifty musketeers, drawn out of a 
battalion of foot, and placed between the 
squadrons of horse to sustain them; also 
in ambuscades and narrow defiles, where 
there is not room for the whole battalion. 
It is also used to signify a part of a com¬ 
pany of soldiers. 

PLATYPUS. A newly discovered ani¬ 
mal, the mouth of which is shaped like 
the bill of a duck, and the feet are webbed, 

PLEA (in Law). That which either 
party alleges in support of his own cause. 

PLEADER. A counsellor, or one whe 
argues in a court of justice. 

PLEADING Putting in a plea in law; 
also the form of the pleading. 

PLEAS OF THE CROWN. In Eng¬ 
land, suits in the king’s name, for offen¬ 
ces committed against his crown anil 
dignity. 

PLEBEIAN. One of the plebs, or com¬ 
mon people among the Romans. 

PLEDGES (in Law). Sureties which 
the plaintiff finds, that he shall prosecute 
his suit. 

PLEIADES. A cluster or assemblage 
of stars in the constellation Taunis. 

PLENIPOTENTIARY. A commis¬ 
sioner or ambassador from a government 
invested with full power to conclude 
peace with another government. 

PLENUM (in Physics). A term denot¬ 
ing that every part of space or extension 
is full of matter, as is maintained by the 
Cartesians. 

PLEONASM. A form of expression in 
which more words are used than are ne¬ 
cessary. 

PLETHORA A preternatural fulness 
of blood. 

PLEURA A membrane covering the 
inside of the chest. 

PLEURISY. An inflammation of the 
pleura. 

PLEX1S. A net-work of vessels. 

PLICA POLONICA. A disease among 
the Polanders, which causes the hair te 
be clotted together so that it cannot be 

separated. 

PLIERS. An instrument by which 
any thing-is laid hold of, so as to bend it. 



PLOT (in Dramatic Poetry')* The f&bk 
of a tragedy, comedy, or any fictitious 

narrative. 








PLD 


PNE 


PLOT (ii Surveying). The plan c ) 
draught of t field or any piece of ground, 
■urveyed \» ,li an instrument, ait 4 laid 
down in the proper figure and dimensions. 

PLOTTING. The describing or laying 
down on paper the several lines, angles, 
&c , of a piece of land. 

PLOVER. A sort of bird which fre¬ 
quents the shores of England in spring, 
mid migrates in autumn. The golden 
plover, black-bellied plover, and Wilson’s 
plover, are the varieties of this bird most 
common in the Middle and Eastern States 
They frequent coasts and open grounds. 

PLOUGH (in Agriculture). A machine 
for turning up the soil in preparation for 
receiving the seed. It consists of a wood¬ 
en frame, with a handle; a share, or 
sharpened piece of iron, fixed on the bot- 
-om of the plough ; and a coulter, anoth¬ 
er cutting iron, that stands upright in the 
plough. 



PLOUGH (among Bookbinders). A 
machine for cutting the edges of books. 

PLOUGHSHARE. The cutting iron 
fixed at the bottom of the wood-work of 
the plough, which forms the furrows. 



PLUM A well known fruit of differ¬ 
ent kinds; also the dried raisin, that is 
imported. 

PLUMBAGO, or Black Lead An 
ore of a shining black colour. 

PLUMBER. A maker of leaden ves- 
eis, or worker in lead. The company of 
plumbers in London was incorporated 
in 1611 . 

PLUMB-LINE (among Artificers). A 
perpendicular to the horizon, formed by 
means of the plummet. 

PLUME. A set of feathers for orna¬ 
ment, particularly ostrich feathers. 

PLUMMET. A leaden weight attached 
to a string, by which depths are sounded 
perpeniicular.y, and perpendiculars are 
token by carpenters, masons, &c. 

PLURAILTY (in Law). In England, 
a term appiud to any number of benefices 
more than me held by a clergyman. 


,^LUS, i. e. More. A tern; in algebra, 
jq denote addition, marked by the sign 
( + ), as 4-j-6=10, that is, 4 plus 6 equal 
to 10. 

PLUSH. Cloth made either of silk, os 
velvet; or of hair, a3 shag. 

PNEUMATICS. The science which 
treats of the mechanical properties of air 
and other compressible fluids. The prin 
cipal mechanical properties of air which 
are treated of under this science, are its 
fluidity, weight, and elasticity. 

PNEUMATICS, History of. Although 
the ancients did not investigate the pro¬ 
perties of air with the same minuteness aa 
tlie moderns have done, yet the subject 
evidently engaged the attention of Aristo¬ 
tle and other Grecian philosophers. Aris¬ 
totle was aware of the gravity of the air, 
and observed that a bladder filled with air 
would weigh more than the same bladder 
when empty; and Empedocles ascribed 
the cause of respiration to the weight of 
the air, which, by its pressure, insinuates 
itself into the lungs. Its elasticity also, 
as well as its gravity, must have been 
known and made the subject of experi¬ 
ments, if it be true, as is related by histo¬ 
rians, that Hero of Alexandria, and Ctesi- 
bius, his contemporary, invented air-guns. 
The subject was, however, for a long time 
neglected, or treated superficially ; for the 
effects which are now known to arise from 
the gravity and elasticity of the air were 
for along time attributed to the imaginary 
principle of a Fuga Vacui, or Nature’s ab¬ 
horrence of a vacuum, a principle which 
Galileo did not altogether discard, although 
he was fully aware of the gravity of the 
air, and pointed out two methods of de¬ 
monstrating it by weighing the air in bot¬ 
tles ; but the pressure of the atmosphere 
was first discovered by Torricelli, and 
clearly demonstrated by an experiment, 
which terminated in the invention of the 
barometer in 1643. It occurred to him, on 
oDserving that a column of water, 34 feet 
high, is sustained above its level in the 
tube of a common pump, that the same 
force, whatever that was, would sustain a 
column of any other fluid which weighed 
as much as that column of water on the 
same base ; and hence he concluded that 
quicksilver, being about 14 times as heavy 
as water, would not lie sustained at a 
greater height than 29 or 30 inches. Ac¬ 
cordingly he took a glass tube of seveiaJ 
feet in length, and, having sealed it herme¬ 
tically at one end, he filled it with quick¬ 
silver; then, inverting it, he held it up¬ 
right, and, keeping his finger against the 
open or lower orifice, he f nmerserl tb»» 
♦ 






POC 


POL 


•nd tn a vessel of quicksilver, and, on 
withdrawing his finger, he found that the 
quicksilver, according to his expectation, 
descended till the column of it was about 
30 inches above that in the open vessel; 
whence he was led to infer that it could 
be no otiier than the weight of the atmos¬ 
phere incumbent on the external surface of 
the quicksilver, which counterbalanced 
the fluid in the tube, and thus introduced 
the principle that the air had not only 
weight, but that its weight was the cause 
of the suspension of water in pumps, and 
of the quicksilver in the tube. This prin¬ 
ciple, alter repeated experiments from the 
philosophers in France, England, and Ger¬ 
many, became established, and that of the 
vacuum was finally exploded. 

From this time they proceeded to be 
more minute in their investigations, and 
Father Mersenne, who was the first phi¬ 
losopher in France that was apprized of 
Torricelli’s experiment, set about deter¬ 
mining the specific gravity of air, which 
he made to be as 1 to 400 ; but Mr. Boyle, 
by a more accurate experiment, came to 
a nearer result, and made it to be to that 
of water in the proportion of 1 to 938 , and 
Mr. Hawksbee succeeded, after repeated 
experiments, in obtaining the proportion 
of 1 to 885. Experiments were made by 
others in the winter as well as the sum¬ 
mer, and the medium of all is about 1 to 
832. 

As to the elasticity of the air, which 
also became the subject of experiment, it 
was shown that, with moderate pressure, 
it is always proportional to the density, 
and that the density is always as the com¬ 
pressing force ; whence also the elasticity 
of air is as the force by which it is com¬ 
pressed. 

In consequence of these investigations 
into the mechanical properties of the air, 
not only was the barometer invented, and 
the air-gun revived, but other pneumatic 
machines were contrived, as the air-pump, 
air-ballocn, thermometer, &.c. ; of which 
a more particular account will be found 
under their respective heads. 

POACHING (in Law). In England, 
taking game by unlawful means, privately 
and without authority. 

POCK ET. A large sort of bag in which 
wool is packed. A pocket of wool usually 
contains 25 cwt. A pocket of hops is a 
small bag In which the best hops are com¬ 
monly put. 

POCKET-BOOK. A small book for 
bolding papers and memorandums, which 
is carried in the pocket. 

POCKET-SHERIFF (in Law) Tn 


m 

England, a sheriff appointed by the king 
himself, who is not one of the three nom¬ 
inated in tlie Exchequer. 

POETRY. The art of writing poems, 
or fictitious compositions drawn out in 
measured language. As resj-ects the sub¬ 
ject, it is divided into pastorals, satires, 
elegies, epigrams, Sec.; as respects the 
manner or form of representation, into 
epic, lyric, and dramatic poetry, &c.; as 
respects the verse, into blank verse and 
rhyme. 

POINT (in Geometry). That which 
has neither length, breadth, nor thickness 

POINT (in Astronomy). The name for 
certain parts in the heavens, as the cardi¬ 
nal points, the solstitial points, &.c. 

POINT (among Artists). An iron or 
steel instrument used for tracing designs 
on copper, wood, stone, Sec .; in com¬ 
merce, lace wrought with the needle. 

POINT-BLANK. The shot of a gun 
levelled horizontally. 

POINTER. A dog that points out tli# 
game 



POINTERS (in Astronomy). Two sUra 
in Ursa Major, the liindermost of the Wain, 
so called because they always point near¬ 
ly in a direction towards the North Pole 
star. 

POINTING (in Gunnery). The level 
ling a gun towards an object. 

POINTING (in Grammar). Dividing a 
discourse by means of points. 

POINT OF SIGHT (in Perspective) 
A point on a plane marked out by a righl 
line drawn from the perpendicular to the 
plane. 

POINTS (in Grammar). Hebrew char¬ 
acters, to express vowel sounds; also 
characters for separating words and sen¬ 
tences from each other, as the comma (,;, 
the semicolon (;), the colon (:), period or 
full stop (.), note of admiration (!), note of 
interrogation (?). 

POINTS OF THE COMPASS. Tnir 
ty-two divisions in the mariner’s compass, 
each of which is 11 degrees and 15 min¬ 
utes distant from each other. 

POISON. Any substance which in a 
particular manner deranges the vital furr, 
tions, and terminates mortally, if not conn 
teracted. 

POLARITY The property of point ing 





POL 


m pol 

to the poles, which hi the characteristic of 
the magnet. 

POLE. A >ng bar of wood, cut and 
fitted for various purposes, as the pole of 
a carriage, &c. 

POLE (in Surveying). A measure con¬ 
taining 16 feet and a half. 

POLE (in Mathematics). A point nine¬ 
ty degrees distant from the plane of any 
circle. 

POLE (in Astronomy). The extremity 
of the axis of the earth, an imaginary 
point on the earth’s surface, of which 
there are two, namely, the Arctic or North 
Pole, and the Antarctic or South Pole. 
These are so encompassed with ice, that 
every attempt to approach them within a 
considerable distance, has hitherto proved 
ineffectual. 

POLECAT. An animal of the weasel 
tribe, which emits a most fetid vapour 
when pursued. It inhabits Europe and 
Asiatic Russia. 

POLEM ICS. Treatises concerning dis¬ 
puted points in theology. 

POLES (in Magnetism). The two 
points of a magnet, corresponding to the 
poles of the world, the one pointing to the 
north, and the other to the south. 

POLE STAR, or Polar Star. A star 
of the second magnitude, the last in the 
tail of Ursa Minor, which, owing to its 
proximity, never sets, and is therefore of 
great use to navigators in determining the 
latitudes, &c. 

POLICE. The internal government of 
any town or country, as far as regards the 
preservation of peace. 

POLICY. The art of government, prin¬ 
cipally as regards foreign affairs. 

POLICY OF INSURANCE. An in¬ 
strument or deed by which a contract of 
insurance is effected. 

POLITICAL ARITHMETIC. The 
application of arithmetical calculations to 
political uses, as in estimating the reve¬ 
nues, resources, and population of a 
country. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY. The art or 
neory of managing the affairs of any state. 

POLL, or Deed Poll (In Law) A 
deed that is polled or shaved even. 

POLL (in Elections). The register of 
those who give their vote, containing their 
name, place of residence, &c. 

POLLEN. A prolific powder contained 
in the anther of flowers. 

POLLUX. A star of the second mag¬ 
nitude in the constellation Gemini. 

POLY. A prefix in many words, de¬ 
noting a multitude or indefinite number. 
Wi b word of manv svllablcs 


polygon, a figure of many angles; poly- 
adelphia, polyandria, &c 
POLYADELPHIA (in Botany). One 
of the Lmnsean classes, including planti 
that have many stamens to each flower 
united by their filaments into three or 
more distinct bundles. 



POLYANDRIA (In Botany). One of 
the Linnsan classes, including plants, the 
flowers of which Itave many stamens. 



POLYANTHUS. A plant with a per¬ 
ennial root, that yields many flowers. It 
is much cultivated in gardens, and greatly 
esteemed for the richness and diversity of 
its colours. 

POLYGAM1A (in Botany). One of the 
Linncean classes, Including plants that 
have both male and female flowers, as the 
fig-tree, date-tree, plantain-tree, &c. 



POLYGAMY. The having more than 
one husband or one wife, either at the 
same time or in succession. 

POLYGAMY (in Law). The having 
more than one husband or wife at the 
same time, which is felony. 

POLYGLOTT, i. e. Many languages; 
as the Polyglott Bible, a Bible printed in 
many languages. 

POLYGON. A figure of many sides 
and many angles. 

POLYGYNIA (in Botany). One of the 
Linnsan orders, containing plants the 
flowers of which have many pistils 

POLYPE. An animal of the worm 
'tribe inhabit in e the Vravwsm waters nt 











POO 


POR 


991 



Europe, which is remarkable for the pro¬ 
perty, that, if cut into ever so many parts, 
each part becomes a perfect animal. 

POLYPUS. A sea-fish, resembling the 
cuttle-fish, so called because it has numer¬ 
ous feet. 

POLYPUS (in Surgery). A fleshy tu¬ 
mour, commonly met with in the nose, 
that abounds in ramifications, from which 
it has its name. 

POLYSYLLABLE. A word of many 
syllables. 

POLYTHEISM. The doctrine that 
there are more gods than one. 

POMACEA2 (in Botany). One of Lin¬ 
naeus’s natural orders, containing plants 
diat have a pulpy truit, as the apple, pear, 
fcc. 

POMATUM. A sweet-ecented oint¬ 
ment, originally made of the juice of the 
apple, called pomewater, but now of hogs’ 
lard, rose-water, &c. 

POME-APPLE. A small apple, of a 
pleasant taste and grateful scent. 

POMEGRANATE. A round fruit, of 
the pomegranate tree, full of kernels. 

POMONA. A goddess among the Ro¬ 
mans, worshipped as the patroness of 
fruits and flowers. 



POMPEII. A town of Campania, at 
the foot of Mount Vesuvius, which was 
buried in an eruption that happened a. l,. 
79. The ruins were discovered in the 
middle of the eighteenth century. 

PONTIFEX. The high priest among 
the Romans. 

PONTIFF. The high or chief priest in 
•he Romish and Greek churches, as the 
pope or patriarch 

PONTIFICALIA. The robes in which 
a bishop performs divine service. 

PONTONS. A bridge made of pon¬ 
toons, or boats fitted for the purpose of 
conveying soldiers. 

POOP. The uppermost part of a ship’s 
null 


POPE, or A title originally given 

to all bishops, as the fathers of the church 
by order of Gregory VII., it became the 
peculiar title of the bishops of Rome, as 
heads of the Roman Catholic church. 

POPLAR. A tall, slender tree, of swift 
growth. The wood is soft, white, and 
stringy. 

POPULATION. The aggregate num¬ 
ber of people in any country, which, ow¬ 
ing to the increase of births above that of 
the deaths, is continually increasing in 
most parts of the habitable world. 

PORCELAIN. A sort of earth or clay, 
the finest kind of which is found in China; 
also the ware made of porcelain or any 
fine earths. In China, this earth, being 
beaten, and steeped in water, affords a 
cream at the top, and a grosser substance 
at the bottom, the former of which is used 
for the finest kind of ware, or china; and 
the latter for the coarser sort. 

PORCUPINE. An animal, native of 
warm climates, resembling a hedgehog 
but considerably larger. Its body is fur 
nished w 7 ith bristles or spines, which it 
erects when it is frightened. 



PORES. Cavities in the skin, which 

serve as passages for the perspiration ; also 
small interstices between the particles of 
matter which compose bodies. 

PORPHYRY. A compound rock, con¬ 
sisting most commonly of felspar and 
quartz. 

PORPOISE. A sort of dolphin, having 
a broad back and a bluntish snout. Mul¬ 
titudes of these fish are often seen at sea 
and frequently they play about ships. 



PORT. A harbour or place of shelter, 
where ships arrive with their freights, and 
customs from goods are taken ; also the 
wine that comes from Oporto, 
j PORTCULLIS (in Fortification). A 
1 machine like a harrow, bung over Ite 














PRA 


POS 

fate* of a city, to be let down to keep out 
the enemy. 

PORTER. One whe carries goods for 
hire, and also one who attends at a gate. 

PORTER. A kind of malt liquor made 
of high-dried malt. 

PORTHOLES. Holes in the sides of 
the vessels, through which guns are put. 

PORTMANTEAU. A cloak-bag, to 
carry the necessary clothing on a journey. 

POSITION (in Arithmetic). A rule in 
which any supposed number is taken at 
pleasure, to work the question by. 

POSITIVE DEGREE. The first de¬ 
gree of any quality expressed by the word 
itself. 

POSITIVE ELECTRICITY. A term 
applied to bodies iupposed to contain 
more than their natural quantity of elec¬ 
tricity. 

POSSE COMITATUS (in Law). The 
armed power of the county, or the atten¬ 
dance of all persona charged by the sheriff 
to assist him in the suppression of riots, 
&c. 

POSSESSIVE CASE (In Grammar). 
Any ending of nouns which denotes pos¬ 
session. 

POST (in Military Affairs) Any spot 
of ground that is marked out to be occu¬ 
pied by soldiers. 

POST (in Commerce). A conveyance 
for letters and despatches. 

POST (in Grammar). A prefix to many 
words, implying after, as postdiluvian, 
after the deluge. 

POSTHUMOUS CHILD (in Law). 
One born after his father’s death. 

POSTMAN. One who delivers the let¬ 
ters from the post-office to the persons to 
whom they are addressed. 

POSITION. Iu arithmetic, a rule of 
supposition, called also Rule of False.— 
In geometry, a line is said to be given 
in position when its direction is known; 
in magnitude, when its length is known. 
—In painting, the placing of the model 
in the manner best calculated for the 
end which the painter has iu view. 

POSOLOGY. That part of medicine 
which teaches the right administration 
of doses. 

POST-POSITIVE. In gram., placed 
after a word. 

POST-POSITION. In grammar, a 
word or particle placed after or at the 
end of a word, and which shows the 
relation it bears to another word in the 
sentence. 

POST-OBIT. A bond payable after 
the death of a certain person named in 
it, from whom the person granting it 
has expectations. 

POSTIL. A marginal mote, originally 
in the Bible. 


POSTULATE. Any fundamental prin* 
cipte in a science that is taken for granted. 

POTASH. An impure fixed alkaline 
salt, procured by burning vegetables. It 
is a brittle, corrosive substance, of a white 
colour and acrid taste. 

POTASSIUM. A metallic substance, 
which is supposed to he the basis of potash. 

POTATO. An edible root, once pecu¬ 
liar to America, but now common in most 
countries. 

POTSTONE. A mineral of a greenisL- 
gray colour, found abundantly near the 
lake Coino, in Lombardy. 

POTTERY. The manufacture of earth¬ 
en pots, or earthenware in general, but 
particularly of the coarser sorts. 

POUNCE. The powder of gum sanda> 
rach, sifted very fine. 

POUND. A weight containing 12 ounce* 
Troy, and 16 avoirdupois weight. 

POUND (in Law). Any enclosed place 
for the keeping of beasts in, particularly 
such as are distrained. 

POUNDER. The name of a great gun, 
from the weight of the ball it carries, as a 
six, twelve, and twenty-four pounder, Ac. 

POWDER. Any thing as fine as dust 
as gunpowder, hairpowder, Ac. 

POWDER-CHESTS. Triangular chests 
on board a vessel for holding the gunpow¬ 
der, Ac. 

POWDER-HORN. A horn In which 
gunpowder is kept. 

POWDER-MI LL. A mill in which the 
ingredients for gunpowder are ground and 
mingled. 

POWER (in Mechanics). Any force 
which, applied to a machine, sets it in 
motion. There are six simple machines, 
which are particularly denominated the 
six mechanical powers, namely, the lever, 
the balance, the screw, the wheel and 
axle, the wedge, and the pulley. 

POWER (in Arithmetic). The produce 
of any quantity multiplied by itself any 
number of times, as the square, cube, bi¬ 
quadrate, Ac. 

POWER (in Law). The authority 
which one man gives another, to act for him. 

POWER-LOOM. A loom worked by 
steem or water. 

POWER OF ATTORNEY (in Law) 
An instrument or deed whereby a person 
is empowered to act for another. 

POWER OF A GLASS (in Optics). 
The distance between the c nvexity and 
the focus. 

POWTER. A sort of pigeon, whiefc 
swells up its neck when it is displeased- 

PRACTICE (iu Arithmetic). An easy 
and expeditious method of resolving queg 



PRE 


PRE 


29S 


Hons in the Rule of Three, as applied io 
the daily business of a Vnulesman. 

PRACTICE (in Law). Any fraudulent, 
underhand mode of proceeding. 

PRACTICE OF THE COURTS (in 
Law). The form and manner of conduct¬ 
ing and carrying oq suits at law or in 
equity. 

PRASMUNIBE. See Prkvunire. 

PRACTOR. A chief magistrate among 
the Romans, instituted for the administra¬ 
tion of justice in the absence of the consuls 

PRAIRIE. Literally a meadow, but 
applied to the open grounds in the west¬ 
ern country, which are generally level, 
and many of them of vast extent. 

PRAWN. A small sea-fish of the crab 
kind, larger than a shrimp. 

PREAMBLE (in Law). The introduc¬ 
tory matter to a statute, which contains 
the reasons for making such an enactment. 

PREBENDARY. In England, an ec¬ 
clesiastic who enjoys a prebend. 

PRECARIOUS (in Liw). An epithet 
for what is granted to one upon entreaty, 
to use so long as the party thinks fit. 

PRECEDENCE (in Heraldry). The 
right of taking place before another, which 
is determined by authority, and followed 
exactly on all public occasions of proces¬ 
sions and the like. 

PRECEDENT (in Law). An original 
writing or deed to draw others by. 

PRECEPT (in Law). A command in 
writing, sent out by a magistrate for the 
bringing a person or a record before him. 

PRECESSION OF THE EaUlNOX- 
ES. A slow motion of the equinoctial 
points, by which they change their place, 
going from east to west, or backward, in 
antecedentia, as it is called, that is, contra¬ 
ry to the order of the'signs _ 

PRECIPITATE (in Chemistry). Any 
substance in a solution which separates 
and falls to the bottom, particularly a cor¬ 
rosive medicine made by precipitating 
mercury. , 

PRECIPITATION. The falling or 
causing to descend the particles of any me¬ 
tallic or mineral body, which are kept in 
the menstruum that dissolved it by putting 
in some alka”, &x. 

PREDICATE (in Logic). That which 
is predicated, that is, affirmed or denied 
of a thing, as ‘ snow is white, ink is not 
whitewhiteness is here predicated of 
the snow and the ink. 

PREFECT. In Europe, the governor 
of a place. 

PRELATE. An epithet applied to a 
dignified clergyman, as a bishop and arch¬ 
bishop. 


PREMISES (in Logic) The two firs* 
propositions of a syllogism, which are pre¬ 
viously supposed to be proved. 

PREMISES (in Law). Things spoken 
of or rehearsed before, as lauds, tenements, 
&c., before mentioned in a lease. 

PREMIUM. The sum of money given 
for the insuring of houses, goods, ships, &c. 

PREMUNIRE (in Law). In Englabl, 
a writ originally directed against those of¬ 
fences which affected the king or his gov¬ 
ernment, which were committed under 
the sanction of the pope. It was after¬ 
wards extended to all such offences, from 
whatever cause they were committed ; also 
the offence itself, which subjected the of¬ 
fender to be put out of the king’s protection. 

PRESBYTERIANS. A sect of profess¬ 
ing Christians, so called from their admit¬ 
ting lay elders into their church govern¬ 
ment. 

PRESCRIPTION (in Medicine). Thai 
winch is prescribed by a physician to be 
taken by the patient. 

PRESCRIPTION (in Law) A right 
and title to a thing grounded upon a con¬ 
tinued possession ot it, beyond the mem¬ 
ory of man. 

PRESENTATION (in Law). In Eng¬ 
land, the offering a clerk to the bishop by 
his patron, to be instituted. 

PRESENTMENT (in Law). A decla¬ 
ration or report made by jurors or others, 
of any offence to be inquired of in the 
court to which it is presented. 

PRESERVE. In England, a small 
enclosed place in gentlemen’s grounds, 
where game is preserved 

PRESS. A machine by which things 
are compressed. It acts by means of the 
screw, and serves for different purposes, 
as for pressing the juice out of grapes and 
other fru'ts for making wine, the pressing 
of the curd in making cheeses, &.c 

PRESS. The printing machine, and 
also printing itself, as the liberty of the 
press, that is, the liberty of printing what 
ever one pleases without any restriction 
from the government 

PRESS, or PRESfOArra. In England, a 
number of men headed by an officer, and 
appointed to impress seamen in time of war. 

PRESUMPTIVE EVIDENCE (in Law). 
That which amounts almost to full proof. 

PRESUMPTIVE HEIR. One who, if 
theancestorshould die immediately, would, 
under present circumstances, be h» heir, 
as distinguished from the heir apparent. 

PREVENTIVE SERVICE. In Eng 
land, a numoer of men employed on the 
coast, to keep watch and prevent ssnuf- 
gling. 




.400 


PRI 


PRO 


PSIMA FACIE. On the first view of 
any question. 

PRIMARY PLANETS. Those which 
revolve round the sun as a centre, as Mer¬ 
cury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, 
Saturn, and Herschel. 

PRIMATE. In England, the first or 
chief archbishop. 

PRIMATE (in Zoology). The first or¬ 
der in the Linnaean class of mammalia, in- 
clnd ing man, the ape, baboon, monkey 
&c. 

PRIME FIGURE. That which cannot 
be divided by any figure but itself. 

PRIME OF A GUN. The powder put 
into the touchhole. 


PRESSIROSTER. In ornithology, a 
tribe of wading birds, including those 
which have a flattened or compressed 
beak. 

PRISM (in Geometry). An oblong sol¬ 
id contained undor more than four planes, 
whose bases are equal, parallel, and alike 
situated. 

PRISM (in Dioptrics). A solid glass ia 
the form of a prism much used in ex¬ 
periments on the nature of light and 
colours. 

PRIVATEERS. Vessels fitted out by 
private persons, with the license of the 
prince or state, for the purpose of making 
prizes of the enemy’s ships or goods. 

PRIVET, A shrub much used for 


PRIMITIVE (in Grammar). The root 
or original word in a language, from which 
others are derived. 

PRIMAGE. In commerce, an allow¬ 
ance paid to the master and sailors of a 
ship for loading or unloading a cargo, 
and for the use of cables and ropes. 

PRIMARY. An epithet of frequent 
application in art and science.—Ip as~| 
tronomy, primary planets are those! 
which revolve round the sun as theirj 
centre, in distinction from secondary 
planets or satellites, which revolve 
round the primaries.—In painting, pri 
mary colors are those into which a ray 
of solar light may he decomposed 
Newton supposed them to be seven: 
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, 
and violet.—In geology, primary, is a 
term sometimes applied to those old 
formations composed of gneiss, mica 
slate, chlorite slate, and clay slate or 
other rocks which have undergone 
great change. 

PRIME. In dialling, prime vertical 
is a vertical circle which is perpendicu¬ 
lar to the meridian.—In arithmetic, 
prime numbers are numbers which 
have no divisors. 

PRIMITIVE. The first-fruits of aDy 
production of the earth, which were 
uniformly consecrated to the Deity by 
all the nations of antiquity. 

PRIMITIVE. A term frequently 
applied to scientific objects. 

PRIMOGENITURE. The right that 
belongs to the eldest son and his heir to 
succeed to property or to an estate. 

PRIMORDIAL. Existing from the 
beginning; first in order; original. 

PREPUCE. The skin which is re¬ 
moved by circumcision; that fold of 
integument which surrounds and en¬ 
velops the glans penis. 

PRESBYOPIA. In pathology, a 
state of the eye observed in advanced 
age, arising from a flattening of the 
cornea, and partial loss of tlie refrac¬ 
tive power of the eye. 

PRETIBIAL. In anatomy, situated 
anteriorly to the tibia. 


hedges. 

PRIVY (in Law). One who is partak¬ 
er of, or has au interest in, any action, as 
privies in blood, that is, heirs to the ances¬ 
tor ; privies in representation, as execu¬ 
tors or administrators to the deceased. 

PRIVY COUNCIL. In England, the 
principal council belonging to the king. 

PRIVY SEAL. The king’s seal, which 
is first set to such grants as pass the Great 
Seal of England. 

PRIZE (in Naval Affairs). A vessel 
taken from the enemy. 

PROBATE (in Law). In England the 
proving of wills in the spiritual court. 

PROBATE, Court of. In the United 
States, a court that is charged with the 
settling of estates. 

PROBATION. In England, the trial of 
a student who is to take his degrees. 

PROBATIONER. In England, a schol¬ 
ar who undergoes a probation at the uni¬ 
versity. 

PROBE. A Burgeon’s instrument for 
searching the depth, &c.,of a wound. 

PROBLEM (in Geometry). A proposi¬ 
tion in which something is proposed to be 
done. 

PRO BONO PUBLICO. For the pub¬ 
lic good. 

PROBOSCIS. An Elephant’s trunk. 

PROCEEDS. What proceeds or arises 
from any mercantile transaction, as the 
net proceeds of a sale 

PROCTOR. In England, an advocate 
in the civil law. 

PRODUCE. What any country yields 
from labour and growth, which may serve 
either for the use of the inhabitants, 
or be exported to foreign countries. The 
crops of grain, &c., are the produce W 
t>e fields 





PRO 

PRODUCING (in Geometry). The con- 
-inuing a line. 

PRODUCT. The uumber or quantity 
produced by multiplying two or more num- 
iters together, as 5x4=20, the product re¬ 
quired. 

PRODUCTION. A work either of na¬ 
ture or art, as the productions of the field, 
or the productions of the press. 

PROFESSOR. A lecturer or reader on 
any art or science; one who publicly 
teaches any art. 

PROFILE (in Architecture). The 
draught of a building, fortifications, &c. 

PROFILE (in Sculpture and Painting). 
A head or portrait when represented side¬ 
ways, or in a side view. 

PROFIT. What is gained by any mer¬ 
cantile transaction. 

PROFIT AND LOSS (in Commerce.) 
The profit or loss arising from goods bought 
and sold; the former of which, in book¬ 
eeping, is placed on the creditor’s side, 
the latter on the debtor’s side. 

PROFORMA. By way of form 

PROGRAMMA. A bill or advertise¬ 
ment containing the notice of any exhibi¬ 
tion or ceremony. 

PROGRESSION (in Arithmetic and 
Geometry). A series of quantities, keep¬ 
ing a certain ratio among themselves; 
when they decrease or increase with equal 
differences, it is called arithmetical pro¬ 
gression, as 1, 3, 5, 7, 9; when they in¬ 
crease by a common multiplier, or de¬ 
crease by a common divisor, it is called 
geometrical progression, as 1, 2, 4, 8, 1G, 
which increase by the common multi¬ 
plier, 2. 

PROHIBITED GOODS (inLaw). Such 
as are prohibited to be carried out of or 
brought into any country. 

PROJECTILES. Bodies which are 
thrown forward with any violent force, as 

stone cast from a sling, or a bullet shot 
from a gun. The curve line represents the 
path of a projectile, or ball shot from the 
cannon 



PROJECTION. The representation of 
an object on the perspective plane. 

PROJECTION (In Architecture). The 
out-jutting or prominency of columns, &c., 
beyond the naked wall. 

PROLEGOMENA. An introduction or 
p eliminary discourse. 

PROMISSORY NOTE. A note of 
26 


PRO 30 

hand, promising the payment of a certain 
sum at a certain time. 

PROMONTORY. Any high ground 
running oat into «.ne sea. 

PROMPTER One who dictates to the 
actors during the performance. 

PB.ONOUN (in Grammar). A word 
standing in the place of a noun, and mark¬ 
ing the different persons. They are per¬ 
sonal, when they simply denote the per¬ 
son, as ‘ I, thou, he,’ &c.; possessive, 
when they also denote possession, as ‘ my, 
thine, his,’ &c.; relative, when they ex¬ 
press a relation to something going before, 
as ‘ which, what;’ interrogative, when 
they serve to ask a question ; demonstra¬ 
tive, when they point out things precisely 
as ‘this, that;’ indefinite, when they 
point out things indefinitely, as ‘ any, 
some.’ 

PROOF (in Printing). An impression 
from a copper-plate, to show the state of 
the engraving ; also an impression taken 
soon after the engraving is finished. Proofs 
often sell at double the price of other im¬ 
pressions. 

PROOF OF A GUN. The trial to as¬ 
certain that it is well cast. 

PROOF SHEET. The sheet of a book 
taken off to be corrected. 

PROOF SPIRITS. Spirits which, on 
proof or trial, are found to be of good 
quality. 

PROPER NAME. The name of a par¬ 
ticular person or thing. 

PROPERTY (in Law). The highest 
right a man has to any thing. 

PROPERTY (in Physics). Any attri¬ 
bute of a thing which is not essential to 
its existence. 

PROPORTION. The equality or simi¬ 
litude of ratios ; thus the four numbers, 4, 
8 , 15, 30, are proportionals, or in propor¬ 
tion, because the ratio of 4 to 8 is equal or 
similar to that of 15 to 30, it being in both 
cases as 1 to 2. Between proportion and 
ratio there is this difference, that the pro¬ 
portion consists always of four terms, and 
the ratio only of two. 

PROPOSITION (in Mathematics). A 
thing proposed to be demonstrated or pro¬ 
vided. 

PROPOSITION (in Logic). Any sen¬ 
tence or speech which affirms or denies 
any thing; consisting of the subject, or 
that of which any affirmation or denial is 
made; the predicate, or that which is af¬ 
firmed or denied of the subject; and the 
copula, which unites the two. 

PROROGATION. In England, the mter- 
ruptioii or putting off a session of parlia 
ment to a certain time appointed by the king 










PRO 


m 

PROSECUTION On Law). The com¬ 
mencing a suit against any one in a court 
of law. 

PROSODY. That branch of grammar 
which teaches the pronunciation of words 
acceding to a certain rule or measure. 

PRO TEMPORE. For the time being. 

PROTEST. In England, the declaia- 
tion oi any peer in parliament stating his 
dissent from the vote of the house, and 
hiss reasons for such dissent, which he has 
a right of entering on the journals of the 
house , also a declaration against the pro¬ 
ceedings of a court. 

PROTEST (in Commerce). The act of 
the master, on his arrival with his ship 
from parts beyond the seas, to save him 
and his owners harmless and indemnified 
from damage sustained during astonn ; also 
Ihe declaration made by the holder of a bill 
\f exchange, that the same is dishonoured. 

PROTESTANT. The name first given 
Jo the followers of Luther, who protested, 
at the diet of Spires, against a decree of 
Charles V.; a name since given to all 
members of the reformed churches. 

PROTEUS. A sea deity, who was said 
to assume various shapes. 

PROTHONOTARY. In England, a 
chief clerk of the king’s bench and com¬ 
mon pleas. 

PROTOCOL. The first draught of a 
deed, contract, or instrument. 

PROTOMARTYR. The first martyr or 
witness that suffered death in testimony 
of the truth ; a title given to St. Stephen. 

PROTOTYPE. The first pattern or 
model of a thing; the original of a copy. 

PROTRACTOR (in Surgery). An in¬ 
strument for drawing out extraneous bodies 
from a wound. 

PROTRACTOR (in Surveying). An 
instrument for laying down on paper the 
angles in a field. The protractor is a small 
semicircle of brass or other material, the 
limb or circumference of which is nicely di¬ 
vided into one hundred and eighty degrees. 

PROV. An abbreviation for Proverbs. 

PROVISO (in Law). A condition in¬ 
serted in a deed. 

PROVOST. The mayor or chief magis¬ 
trate in Scotch cities and towns. 

PROVOST-MARS UAL. An officer in 
the army, whose concern it is to appre¬ 
hend deserters ; and in the navy, to take 
charge of the prisoners, &.C. 

PROW. The head or fore part of a ship. 

PROXY. One who acts or stands for 

another in his absence. 

PROXY (in the House of Lords in Eng¬ 
land!. The peer who is deputed by anoth- 
v to rote for him in his absence. 


PUL 

PRUNELLA. A preparation of purl 
fied saltpetre. 

PRUNING. Lopping ofF superfluous 
branches of trees, in order to make them 
bear fruit the better; an important part of 
gardening, which can be learned only by 
practice and experience. 

PRUSSIAN BLUE. A pigment of a 
dark blue colour, now procured from bui 
lock’s blood, carbonate of potash, vitriol 
of iron, alum, and muriatic acid. 

PRUSSIC ACID. An acid procured 
from Prussian blue, which is one of the 
most violent poisons. 

PSEUDO, i. e. False. A prefix used 
to many words, as pseudo martyr, a coun¬ 
terfeit martyr. 

PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. The system 
of astronomy laid down by Ptolemy, tit? 
celebrated astronomer and mathematician 
of Pelusium in Egypt. Tins system is 
founded on the hypothesis that the earth is 
immovably fixed in the centre, not of the 
world only, but also of the universe, round 
which the sun, moon, planets, and stars all 
move from east to west once in 24 hours. 

PUBLICAN. A taxgatherer, or farmei 
of the public revenues among the Romans; 
now the keeper of a public house or com¬ 
mon place of entertainment. 

PUBLICATION. In England, the giv¬ 
ing out copies of depositions in the Court 
of Chancery. 

PUBLICATION (in Literature). The 
editing and printing a book ; also any book 
or pamphlet offered to the public. 

PUBLISHER. One who puts forth any 
printed book to the world, particularly he 
who prints and publishes the manuscript 
copies of authors. 

PUDDING STONE. A mineral aggre¬ 
gate, consisting of flint pebbles imbedded 
in a silicious cement. 

PUFFIN. A sort of auk or sea-gull. 

PULLET. A young hen. 

PULLEY. One of the six mechanical 
powers, consisting of a small wheel, hav¬ 
ing a groove around it, and turning ori an 
axis, as in the subjoined cut. 



6 O 


PULLEYS, System or, or Poltsfac 
tom. An assemblage of several pulley* 






I* UM 


# 


combined together, some of which are in 
a block or case, which is fixed, and others 
in & movable block, that rises and falls 
with the weight 



PULP. The soft part of fruits, roots 
Sc c. 

PULPIT. A stage among the Romans, 
on which the actors performed their 
parts. 

PULPIT (in the Christian Church). An 
elevated desk, where the sermon is de¬ 
livered. 

PULSATION. The beating of the 
pulse ; also a morbid sensation in the body 
like the beating of the pulse. 

PULSE (in Anatomy). The beating of 
the arteries, or their alternate contraction 
and dilatation, by which the blood is im¬ 
pelled forward to all parts of the body. 

PULSE (in Physics). The stroke with 
which any medium is effected by the mo¬ 
tion of light, sound, Sec. 

PULSE (in Botany). All sorts of grain 
contained in husks or shells. 

PULVERIZATION. The reducing 
any solid substance to powder; or, in re¬ 
gard to the soil, reducing it to a state of 
fineness fit for the reception of the seed; 
an important part of husbandry. 

PUMA. The cougar of America. It is 
found both in the northern and southern 
divisions. In North America it is vul¬ 
garly called panther. It is now seldom 
found in the Atlantic States, though 
it was formerly common in all parts of 
the country. It is about the size of a 
large dog, and is of a general ash colour. 
It is sometimes called the South American 
lion : it is of sufficient strength to bear 
the body of a man up a tree. 

PUMICE STONE. A spungy, light, 
crumbling stone, which is cast out from 
volcanic mountains. 

PUMP. A machine for drawing water 
or any other fl rid, the invention of which 
h ascribed to Ctesibius ; pumps may either 
vi> forcing pumps, or lifting and sucking 


PUR 303 

pumps, which latter are in most general 
use. 



PUMPKIN. A well known vegetable 
that grows upon a vine, and in New Eng. 
land is much uBed for pies. 



PUN. A playing with words which 
agree in sound, but differ in sense. 

PUNCH. A liquor made with water, 
sugar, and the juice of lemons or oranges ; 
also an instrument of iron or steel, used in 
piercing holes. 

PUNCH EON. A block or piece of steel 
having figures engraven on it, from which 
impressions are taken ; it is used by gold 
smiths, cutlers, pewterers, &c. 

PUNCTUATION. That branch of 
grammar which teaches the right method 
of dividing sentences by means of points 
or stops. See Poikts. 

PUNCTUATION (in Surgery). The 
operation of making punctures or small 
wounds in the skin with a needle, for re¬ 
lief in certain disorders, as rheumatism. 

PUNT. A sort of flat-bottomed boat. 

PUPA. The chrysalis or quiescent stati 
of an insect. 

PUPIL (in Anatomy). The round aper¬ 
ture in the middle of the Iris, the ball or 
apple of the eye, through which the light 
passes. 

PUPIL (in the Civil Law). One undet 
the care of a tutor. 

PURGATION. The clearing one’s seL 
of a crime; a mode of trying per*-as ac¬ 
cused of any crime, which was formerly 
in practice in England 













m 


QUA 


QUA 


PURGATORY. A place where, ac- 
coiding to the Roman Catholics, the souls 
of the faithful are purified by fire, from the 
sin* which they carry with them out of 
this life, before they are admitted to a 
state of perfect bliss. 

PURITAN. In England, a name given 
originally in derision to dissenters, who 
professed to have a purer doctrine and 
discipline than others. 

PURPLE. A mixed colour of red and blue. 

PURSER. An officer on board a man 
of war, who takes charge of the provisions. 

PUS. The corrupt matter issuing from 
a sore, which usually precedes the heal¬ 
ing, and in such cases is termed healthy or 
good conditioned pus. 

PUTREFACTION. The spontaneous 
decomposition of animal and vegetable 
matter, accompanied mostly with a fetid 
smell. Water and atmospheric air are 
active agents in this process of nature. 

PUTTY. Whiting and linseed oil 
pounded together into a paste, which is 
used by glaziers in fastening the panes of 
glass, and also by painters in stopping 
crevices. 

PUZZULANA. A gray kind of earth 
used in Italy fsr building under water. 

PYRAMID (in Architecture). A solid 
massy edifice, constructed in the figure of 
a pyramid, as described in the next article. 



Of these edifices the Egyptians have lefl 
some specimens, as wonderful monuments 
of human skill. The largest pyramid, or 
the great pyramid, as it is called, is situa- 
ed with others, near Memphis, and is about 
500 feet high. 

PYRAMID (in Geometry). A solid 
standing on a triangular, square, er poly¬ 
gonal basis, and terminating in a vertex m 
point at the top. 

PYRITES. A mineral composed ef 
iron and sulphur. 

PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. An acid 
obtained from beech and other woods, 
which is a liquid of the colour of white 
wine, of a strong acid, and slightly astrin¬ 
gent taste. It is an antiseptic, end serves 
instead of wood smoke, of which it is 
the principle, for preserving animal sub¬ 
stances. 

PYROMETER. An instrument for 
measuring high temperatures, particularly 
the one invented by Mr. Wedgewood for 
determining the expansion of solid bodies 
by heat. This instrument is founded on 
the principle that clay progressively con 
tracts in its dimensions in proportion as it 
is exposed to higher degrees of heat. 

PYROPHORUS. A preparation from 
alum by calcination, which takes fire on 
exposure to the air. 

PYROTECHNY. The science which 
teaches the management and application 
of fire in several operations, particularly 
in the construction of artificial fire 
works. 

PYTHAGOREAN SYSTEM. The 
system of astronomy taught by Pythagoras, 
which was founded on the hypothesis that 
the sun was a movable sphere situated in 
the centre, round which the other planets 
revolved. This is now called the Coper- 
nican system, because it was revived by 
Copernicus. 

PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated 
in Greece every five years, in honour oi 
the Pythian Apollo at Delphi. 


Q 


Q, the seventeenth letter of the alphabet, 
as a numeral, stood for 500; with a dash 
over it, thus (J, for 5000 ; as an abbrevia¬ 
tion among the Romans for Quintus, &c.; 
among Mathematicians, Q. E. D., Quod 
erat demonstrandum, i. e., which was to 
be demonstrated, &c.; among Physicians, 
Q. S. Quantum sufficit, at much as was 
necessary. 

QUACK A medical imoostor 


QUADRANGLE (in Geometry) A fig¬ 
ure consisting of four sides and four angles. 

QUADRANGLE (in Architecture). Any 
range of houses or buildings with four 
sides in the form of a square. 

QUADRANT (in Geometry). An arc 
of a circle, containing the fourth part, oi 
ninety degrees. 

QUADRANT (in Astronomy and Na¬ 
vigation). An instrument for taking the 






















QU A 

altitudes of the sun and stars Quadrants 
are of different forms, but the most esteem¬ 
ed is Hadley’s quadrant, as represented 
underneath. This consists of an octant, 
or the eighth part of a circle, the index, 
the speculum, two horizontal glasses, two 
screens, and two sight vanes. 



QUADRATES (in Printing). Square 
pieces of metal for filling up void spaces 
between letters, words, &c. 

QUADRATIC EQUATION (in Alge¬ 
bra). An equation in which the unknown 
quantity is a square. 

QUADRATURE. The finding a square 
equal to the area of any figure given. 

QUADRATURE OF THE CIRCLE. 
The finding some other right lined figure 
equal to the area of a circle, or a right line 
equal to its circumference, a problem 
which has employed the mathematicians 
of all ages, but as yet in vain. It depends 
upon the ratio of the diameter to the peri¬ 
phery, which was never yet determined 
in precise numbers. Archimedes showed 
that the diameter of a circle is to the cir¬ 
cumference as 7 to 22, and the area of a 
circle to the square of the diameter as 11 
to 14 nearly. 

QUADRATURE OF CURVES. The 
finding a rectilineal space equal to a pro¬ 
posed curvilineal one. 

QUADRILATERAL. Four sided ; an 
epithet for a square, parallelogram, and 
other figures having four sides. 

QUADRILLE. A game at cards played 
by four persons. 

QUADRUPED. Any four-footed ani¬ 
mal 

QUADRUPLE. Fourfold. 

QUAESTOR. An officer among the 
Romans, who had the charge of the public 

revenues. 

QUAGGA. A species of wild ass in 
Southern Africa. 

QUAIL A bird of game, about half 
Um size of » partridge. The quail of Amer¬ 
ica is not exactly the same as that of Eu- 


QUA 301 


rope. The bird called quail in New Eng¬ 
land, is called partridge at the South 



QUAKERS. A religious sect of pro 
fessing Christians, remarkable for their 
singular neatness of dress, and many other 
peculiarities. They are also denominated 
Friends, because they address all persons 
by the style of friend 

QUALITY (in Physics). The property 
of any body which affects our senses in 
such manner, as that it may be distin¬ 
guished. 

QUANTITY (in Physics) Any thing 
capable of estimation or mensuration, 
which, being compared with another thing 
of the same nature, may be said to be 
greater or less, equal or unequal to it. 
Natural quantity is that which nature 
furnishes us with in matter and its ex¬ 
tensions. 

QUANTITY (in Grammar). An affec¬ 
tion of a syllable, or that which determines 
a syllable to be long or short. 

QUANTUM SUFFICIT, orQ. S. That 
which is necessary. 

QUANTUM VALEBANT. As much 
as they were worth ; applied to goods 

QUARANTINE. The space of forty 
days, the time which every ship, suspected 
of infection, is obliged to remain in some 
appointed place, without holding any in¬ 
tercourse with the shore. 

QUARREL OF GLASS. A square of 
glass. 

QUARRY A place underground, out 
of which are got marble, freestone, slate, 
limestone, &c. 

QUARTAN. A fever or ague that 
comes every fourth day. 

QUARTER (in Arithmetic). The 
fourth part of any thing. 

QUARTER (in Commerce). A corn 
measure, containing eight bushels. 

QUARTER (in Carpentry). A piece 
of timber four inches square. 

QUARTER (in Naval Architecture). 
That part of a ship’s hull which lies from 
the steerage to the transum. 

QUARTER (in Geography). A name 
for the four divisions of the globe. 

QUARTER (in Military Affairs) The 



















506 


R 


■paring of men’s lives, and giving good 
treatment to a vanquished enemy. 

QUARTER DAYS. The days which 
begin the four quarters of the year, namely, 
the 25th of March, or Lady Day ; the 24th 
of June, or Midsummer Day ; the 29th of 
September, or Michaelmas Day ; and the 
25th of December, or Christmas Day. 

QUARTERING (in Law). The divid¬ 
ing the body of a traitor into four parts 
after it is beheaded. 

QUARTERINGS. The partitions in 
an escutcheon, according to the number of 
eoats of arms that are to be upon it. 

QUARTER-MASTER. An officer 
whose duty it is to provide quarters or 
lodgings for the soldiers. 

QUARTER SESSIONS. In England, 
a court held every quarter by the magis¬ 
trates of the county, to hear and determine 
causes noth civil and criminal j an appeal 
lies from these sessions to a superior 
court. 

QUARTETTO. A piece of music for 
four voices. 

QUARTO (in Printing). The form of a 
book, the sheets of which are divided into 
four parts or leaves, making a square ; it 
is mostly abbreviated in this manner, 
4to. 

QUARTZ. A sort of siliceous earth, 
consisting of silica, with a small portion 
of alumina and carbonate of lime. It is 
ntt fusible per se, but with soda it runs 
into a nard pellucid glass; when broken 
it beccines sand. 

QUASSIA. A sort of plant which is 
sometimes used by brewers, in the stead 
of hops. It is also a valuable medicine. 

QUEEN CONSORT. In England, the 
wife of the king,who, though a subject, has 
nevertheless several prerogatives above 
other women. 

QUICK. The young points of the haw¬ 
thorn, with which hedges are first made. 

QUICKLIME. Unslacked lime. 

QUICKSANDS. Sands that move and 
■hake, into which those who pass over 
them are apt to sink. 

QUICKSET HEDGE. Any live hedge, 
in distinction from that made of dead 


RAB 

wood, but particularly that which is set 
with quick. 

QUICKSILVER. The vu jar name fbj 
mercury. 

QUIDNUNC. A curious person always 
asking after news. 

QUID FRO QUO. An equivalent oi 
return for any thing given. 

QUILL. The feather of a goose or a 
crow, itc., particularly that of which, 
when curwd, pens are made. 

QUINCE. A sort of apple with a rough, 
acrid taste 

QUINTESSENCE. A preparation of 
the essential oii of some vegetable sub¬ 
stance incorporated with the spirit of 
wine. 

QUIRK. An odd piece in a ground plot 
which remains after the square has been 
formed. 

QUI TAM. A sort ef popular action, 
on a penal statute, brought at the »uit of 
the commonwealth, as well as the party 
or informant. 

QU1TRENT. In England, a smaS 
rent, payable by the tenants of most ma< 
nors, whereby they go quit and free from 
all other services. 

QUOITS. A game which consisted in 
throwing a quoit or round iron to a certain 
distance. 

QUIVER. A case for arrow*. 



QUORUM. Justices of the peace, 
so named because in the commission 
they are said to be those before whom 
all matters of importance are transacted 
QUOTIENT. What results from the 
division of one number by another, as 
6-r-2zr3, the quotient. 

QUO WARRANTO A writ to inquire 
by what authority, right, or title, any per¬ 
son or corporation holds a franchise, eser- 
ci»es aa office, and the like 


&. 


R, the eighteenth letter of the alphabet, 
aa a numeral stood for 80; with a dash 
over it, R, for 80,000 ; as an abbreviation, 
R. for Roma, Rex, as i Royal; R. C., for 
Romana Civitas, &.c 


RABBETING. The cutting of chan¬ 
nels or grooves in a board. 

RABBI. A doctor in the Jewish lat”. 
RABBIT. An animal of the hare kind, 
but much smaller There are two sorts. 





HAK 


301 




RAD 


(he tame a jd the wild rabbit. It is not a 
native of America 



RACCOON. An animal of the bear 
tribe, which lives in hollow trees. It is 
said to catch crabs by letting its tail into 
the water, and pulling them out when 
th w fasten npon it. 



RACE A sport which consists in run¬ 
ning on foot, or with horses, as a trial of 
skill, and for a certain premium or reward. 
Races, by which, absolutely taken, are 
meant horse-races, are carried on at New¬ 
market, Epsom, and many other parts 
of England at certain seasons of the 
year. 

RACE-HORSE, or Raver. A particu¬ 
lar breed of horses, which are trained for 
the purpose of running races 



RACK. An engine of torture, formerly 
used in England, occasionally, and on the 
continent very commonly, for the purpose 
of extorting confession. 

RACK RENT. The full value of the 
land let by lease. 

RADIANT POINT Any point from 
which rays proceed. 

T4D1CAL. The distinguishing part of 
an acid, that which unites with oxygen, 
and is common to all acids. 


RADIUS (»'n Geometry). The semi¬ 
diameter of a circle, or a right line drawn 
from the centre to the circumference. 

RADIUS (in Anatomy). The bone oi 
the fore arm. 

RAFT. A sort of float, consisting of 
boards fastened together side by side; a 
mode of conveying timber by water. 

RAFTERS. The pieces of timber, which, 
standing by pairs on the raising piece, 
meet in an angle at the top, and form th 
roof of a building. 

RAG-ROWLEY, or Ragstone. A sort 
of stone of the siliceous or flint class. 

RAIL. A migratory bird, which inhab¬ 
its sedgy places. In the Middle and South¬ 
ern States, this bird is abundant on the 
rocky shores of the rivers, and affords a fa¬ 
vourite amusement to sportsmen. 

RAILS. A wooden fence for enclosing 
a place. 

RAILWAY. A way constructed of 
tracks of iron called rails, on which 
the wheels of the railway-carriages 
roll.—Railway-chairs are pieces of iron 
made to r eceive and support the rails, 
and which rest on the sleepers or 
blocks.—Railway-sleepers are the un¬ 
derlying timbers to which the chair* 
are fixed. 

RAIN. A vapour drawn up by the sun, 
that, after being condensed by the cold, 
falls to the earth in drops from the clouds. 
It is supposed that rain is, in almost every 
instance, immediately occasioned by the 
electrical action of the clouds upon one 
another. 

RAINBOW. A meteor in form of a 
party-coloured arc, exhibited in a rainy 
sky, opposite the sun, by the refraction 
and reflection of his rays in the drops of 
falling rain. 

RAINBOW, Marine. A phenomenon 
sometimes observed In an agitated sea, 
when, the wind carrying the tops of the 
waves aloft, and the sun’s rays falling up¬ 
on them, they are refracted. 

RAIN GAGE. An instrument for 
measuring the quantity of rain that falls. 

RAISIN. The grape perfectly ripe, and 
dried either in an oven or by the heat of 
the sun ; in this latter case, they are ricbei 
and sweeter than when dried in an oven 
The finest sort are imported in jars, and 
thence called jar raisins. 

RAISING A SIEGE. Giving over the 
attack of the place. 

RAKE. An implement of hnsbandry 
provided with teeth, for making the earth 
light and smooth. It is also used for gath¬ 
ering hay and grain. The corn rake, a 
large kind of iron rake, used ; n Suffolk 










.106 


RAN 


RAT 


end Norfolk, England, for raking barley 

stubblee, la represented underneath 



RAKE (among Mariners). So much of 
the hull as hangs over both ends of her 
keel. 

RAM. The male of the sheep. 

RAMADAN. The Mahoinedan fast, 
kept during the ninth month of the Arabic 
year. 

RAMIFICATION. Any small branch 
issuing from a large one, particularly the 
very minute branches issuing from the 
larger arteries. 

RAMMER. An instrument for driving 
stones or piles into the ground. 

RAMPANT (in Heraldry). An epithet 
for a beast standing directly upright on his 
hinder legs. 

RAMPART (in Fortification). A massy 
bank of earth raised round a fortress, to 
cover it from the fire of the enemy. 

RAM’S HEAD. An iron lever to heave 
up great stones with. 

RAM’S HEAD (among Mariners). A 
great block or pulley, into which the ropes 
called halliards are put 

RANA ' The generic name for that 
class of animals in th* Linnasan system, of 
which the frog and the toad are the prin¬ 
cipal species. 

RANCIDITY. The change which oils 
undergo, both in smell and taste, by expo¬ 
sure to the air. 

RANDOM. The shot made from a 
piece not designed to shoot directly 
forward. 

RANGE (in Gunnery). The line which 
a shot describes from the mouth of a piece 
to the point where it lodges. 

RANGE (ainor.g Mariners). A suffi¬ 
cient length of the cable drawn upon the 
deck before the anchor is cast loose from 
the bow. 

RANGER. In England, an officer 
whose duty it was to walk through the 
forest and present all trespasses at the next 
tor eat court: as the forest laws are now 


but little in use, the duty of the ranger It 
not of the same importance as formerly. 

RANK (in Domestic Policy). The situ¬ 
ation which one man holds in respect to 
another: this is particularly defined in re¬ 
gard to the nobility in England, as also in 
all offices of state, as also in the officers of 
the army and navy. 

RANK (in Military Tactics). The 
straight line which the soldiers of a bat¬ 
talion or squadron make, as they stand 
side by side. 

RANSOM. Money paid for the redeem¬ 
ing a captive or the liberty of a prisoner of 
war. 

RANUNCULUS. A perennial, much 
cultivated in gardens, bearing a flower of 
a globular shape ; also the botanical name 
of a genus of plants, of which the globe 
ranunculus, the crowfoot, and the 6pear 
wort, are the principal species. 

RAREFACTION (in Physics). The 
act whereby a body is brought to possess 
more room, or appear under a larger bulk, 
without the accession of any new matter. 

RASH. An eruption on the skin. 

RASr. A steel instrument with sharp 
teeth, used in rubbing things smooth. 

RAT. A fierce and voracious animal 
that ivfests houses, barns, corn stacks, &c. 
The common rat is a native of almost all 
countries, as is also the water rat, which 
has the faculty of swimming, and lives on 
the banks of rivers or ditches 



RATAFIA. A delicious liquor, made 
of the kernels of apricots, cherries, &c., 
steeped in brandy. 

RATE (in Law). A valuation of every 
man’s estate, for determining the propor¬ 
tion that each is to pay of any tax. 

RATE (in Naval Architecture). The 
class or degree by which vessels are dis¬ 
tinguished, as regards their force, burdeR, 

&.C. 

RATILN. A thick woollen stuff. 

RATIFICATION. In England, the 
confirmation of a clerk formerly given him 
by the bishop ; also the confirmation ot a 
treaty. 

RATIO. The mutual habitude or reiu 
Von of two magnitudes of the same kind 












RAY 


RFC 


3 


m respect. lo quantity ; thus the ratio of 2 
to 1 is double, of 3 to 1 triple, &c. 

RATION. The share or proportion of 
meat, drink, forage, &c., given to soldiers 
or seamen. 

RATIONALE. The account or solu¬ 
tion of any phenomenon or hypothesis, ex¬ 
plaining the principles on which it de¬ 
pends, and-'every other circumstance. 

RATLINES (among Mariners, called 
Ratlins). Lines which make the ladder 
steps for going up the shrouds, and fut- 
tocks. 

RATTLESNAKE. An animal of the 
serpent kind, having a tail furnished with 
a rattle, which it shakes when angry. It 
inhabits rocky and mountainous places in 
North America, and although its bite is 
poisonous, yet it does not attack any one 
unless provoked. 



RAVELINS. Works raised on the 
counterscarp before the curtain of a place. 

RAVEN. A bird of the crow kind, that 
feeds on carrion, is long lived, and has an 
exquisite sense of smell. It is common in 
Europe, and is found in America north 
of latitude 50. 



RAY. A beam of light, propagated from 
a radiant point, said to be direct when it 
comes direct from the point, reflected if it 
drst strike upon any body, and is thence 
transmitted to the eye. Rays are also dis¬ 
tinguished into parallel, converging, diverg¬ 
ing, &c. 

RAY. A genus of fishes of the class 
a.nphibia in the Linnsean system, the prin¬ 


cipal species of which are the skate, ths 
thornback, the sturgeon, the ray, and 
torpedo 

RAZOR. An instrument for shaving. 

REACTION (in Physics). The resist¬ 
ance made by all bodies to the action or 
impulse of otners that endeavour to change 
their state, whether of motion or rest 

READINGS. The different manner of 
reading the text of authors, particularly 
that of classical writers. 

READINGS (in Law). Commentaries 
or glosses on the law text. 

REAGENT. The name given by che 
mists to such bodies as serve to detect the 
component parts of others 5 thus the infu¬ 
sion of galls is a reagent which detects 
iron by a dark purple precipitate. 

REALGAR, or Red Orpiment. A 
metallic substance, the sulphuret of arse, 
me, which is either native, and dug out of 
the earth in China, or it is factitious, pro¬ 
cured by boiling orpiment in subliming 
vessels. 

REAM. Twenty quires of paper. 

REAPING MACHINE. An implement 
of husbandry for cutting down grain, in¬ 
stead of reaping with a sickle. 



REAR. A military term for behind, as 
rear-guard, a body of men that follows an 
army in its march, to pick up stragglers 
and the like. 

REAR. A naval term applied to the 
squadron which is hindermost. 

REBATE AND DISCOUNT. A rule 
in arithmetic, by which discounts upon 
ready money payments are calculated. 

REC. or RECEIPT. An acknowledg¬ 
ment in writing of money received. 

RECEIVER (in Law). One who re 
ceives stolen goods; also the name of 
some officers appointed to receive mono 
as the receiver of rents, or receive^ of 
fines, &c. 

RECEIVER (in Pneumatics). The re¬ 
ceiver of the air-pump, a glass vessel pla¬ 
ced on the top of the apparatus out of 
which the air Is to be exhausted. 

RECEIVER (in Chemistry). A vessel 
for receiving any distilled liquor. 

RECIPE. Directions for preparing any 
mixture or compound, as a physician’s re 
cipe, a cook’s recipe, and the like. 









310 


RED 


REF 


RECIPROCAL. An epithet for what 
acts by alternation. 

RECIPRtJCAL TERMS (in Logic). 
Terms which, having the same significa¬ 
tion, are convertible, as man and rational 
animal ; for man Is a rational animal, 
and a rational animal is man. 

RECIPROCAL PROPORTION (in 
Arithmetic) is when, in four numbers, 
the fourth is less than the second by so 
much as the third is less than the first, 
and the contrary. 

RECIPROCAL VERBS (in Grammar). 
Such as reflect the action on the agent 
himself, as I love myself, thou lovest thy¬ 
self, <fec. 

RECITATIVE. The rehearsal of any 
thing on a stage in musical cadence. 

RECKONING, or Ship’s Reckoning. 
The account kept of a ship’s way, by which 
it may be known at any time where she 
is ; the accou nt taken from the logbook is 
called the dead reckoning. 

RECOGNIZANCE. A bond or obliga¬ 
tion acknowledged in some court, or be¬ 
fore some judge. 

RECORD A public act enrolled and 
preserved in courts of record. 

RECORDER. An officer associated 
with the mayor of a town for the admin¬ 
istration of justice according to the forms 
Df law 

RECOVERY (in Law). The obtaining 
of any thing by judgment or trial at law. 

RECTANGLE. A figure having right 
angles, as a square, &c. 

RECTIFICATION (in Astronomy). 
The setting the globes in such position as 
to fit them for the performance of prob- 
.ems. 

RECTIFICATION (in Geometry). The 
finding a right line equal in length to a 
curve 

RECTIFICATION (in Chemistry). 
The repeating a distillation or sublimation 
several times, in order to render the sub¬ 
stance purer and finer. 

RECTOR. In England, the parson of 
the parish church, who has the cure tor 
charge of the parish, and receives all the 
tithes, glebes, and other profits 

RECTUM. The last portion of the large 
intestines. 

RECUSANTS (in Law). A name for¬ 
merly given to the Roman Catholics who 
refused to conform to the church of Eng¬ 
land. 

RED. One of the simple or primary 
colours of bodies, which is distinguished 
into different shades, as scarlet, vermilion, 
slim son, &c. 

RED BOOK OF THE EXCHEQUER. 


In England, an ancient manuscript os 
record, in the keeping of the king’s rc 
membrancer, which contains many things 
relating to the times before and after the 
Conquest. 

REDBREAST. See Robin. 

REDEMPTION (in Law). The right 
of reentering upon lands, <fcc., that have 
been assigned or sold, upon reimbursing 
the purchase money. This right is some¬ 
times termed the equity of redemption. 

REDOUBT (in Fortification). A smal. 
square fort, without defence but in front. 

REDPOLE. A finch with a red spot 
on the crown. 

REDSHANK A bird of the curlew 
tribe. 

REDSTART. A European bird that 
is migratory, and sings very sweetly. 
Though very timid, it often builds its nest 
in cities. 

REDSTREAK. A sort of apple. 

REDUCTION (In Arithmetic). A rule 
by which money, weights or measures 
are reduced to their least or greatest parts. 

REDUCTION OF EQUATIONS (flu 
Algebra). The reducing them to the sim¬ 
plest state, or clearing them of all super 
fluous quantities. 

REDUCTION (in Surgery). An ope 
ration whereby a dislocated bone is re¬ 
stored to its proper place. 

REDUCTION OF A DESIGN OR 
DRAUGHT, &c. The making a copy 
thereof either larger or smaller than the 
original. 

REDWING. A European bird, about 
the size of the thrush. 

REDWING-BLACKBIRD. A well 
known American bird, that builds its nest 
on low bushe9, near ponds, and in marshy 
places. 

REED. A kind of long, hollow, knot¬ 
ted grass, that grows in fens and watery 
places. 

REEFING. A sea term for the rolling 
or taking up a sail in a gale of wind. 

REEL. A machine turning round oh 
an axis, on which lines of different kinds 
are wound 

REENTRY (in Law). The resuming 
or retaking possession of lands lately lewi. 

REEVE. «!ee Ruff. 

REFERENCE (in Law). Referring a 
matter in dispute to the decision of an ar¬ 
bitrator ; also in the Court of Chancery, in 
England, referring a matter to a master. 

REFERENCE (in Printing). A mark 
in the text of a work, referring t© a similai 
one in the side or at the bottom the 
page ; also the authorises referred to u» 
ier such marks. 



REG 


REL 


REFINING. The art of purifying any 
thing, but particularly the assaying or re¬ 
fining gold and silver, by separating ail 
other bodies from them 

REFLECTION OF THE RAYS OF 
EIGHT. A motion of the rays, whereby, 
after impinging on the solid parts of bod¬ 
ies, they recede or are driven therefrom. 

REFORM IN PARLIAMENT. A 
change in the representative part of the 
English constitution, by an extension of 
the elective franchise to modern large 
towns, such as Manchester, Birmingham, 
&c., which have heretofore sent no mem¬ 
bers to parliament, and by taking away 
their franchise from reduced places, such 
as Old Sarum and others, which at pre¬ 
sent consist of only a few houses. 

REFORMATION. The change from 
the Roman Catholic to the Protestant reli¬ 
gion, which was first set on foot in Ger¬ 
many by Luther, but bad been previously 
Hegun in England by Wickliffe. and com¬ 
pleted by Henry VIIL, who assumed the 
dtle of Head of the Church. 

REFRACTION. The deviation of a ray 
of light from that right line in which it 
would have continued, if not prevented by 
the thickness of the medium through which 
it passes. Thus the light in passing through 
the atmosphere is refracted or bent down, 
which causes the heavenly bodies to ap¬ 
pear higher than they really are. 

REFUGE FOR THE DESTITUTE. A 
charitable institution for the temporary 
relief of those who are houseless and des¬ 
titute 

REGALIA (in Law). The rights and 
prerogatives of a king; also the ensigns 
of royalty, the crown, sceptre, Sec., worn 
by the kings of England at the coronation. 

REGENT (in Law). One who governs 
during the minority of a king, or while he 
is incapable of reigning. 

REGIMEN (in Medicine). A rule of 
living as to diet, &c., prescribed for a 
patient. 

REGIMEN (in Grammar). The gov¬ 
ernment of one word by another, as nouns 
by verbs, Sec. 

REGIMENT. A body of soldiers, con¬ 
sisting of several companies. 

REGISTER (in Law). A book of pub¬ 
lic records. 

REGISTER (in a Pariah Church) A 
book in which marriages, baptisms and 
burials are registered. 

REGISTER (in Chemistry). A contri¬ 
vance in furnaces for increasing or dimin¬ 
ishing the intensity of the heat. 

REGISTER (among Letterfounders). 
Une of the inner parts of the mould in 


which the printing types are cast. Its on 
is to direct the joining the mould justly 
together again, after opening it to taae out 
the new cast letter. 

REGISTER (among Printers). Dispos¬ 
ing the forms on the press, so that the lines 
and pages printed on one side of the sheet 
fall exactly on those of the other. 

REG LET (in Architecture). A little, 
flat, narrow moulding in pannels, &c. 

REGRATOR (in Law). In England, 
one who buys and sells in the same market 
or fair, or within five miles thereef. 

REGULAR. Agreeable to the rulesof art. 

REGULAR (in Geometry). A regular 
figure, one whose sides and angles are all 
equal. 

REGULAR (in Grammar). A regular 
verb, one that is conjugated by some rule. 

REGULARS. Soldiers regularly disci¬ 
plined, and at the entire disposal of the 
government. 

REGULARS (in the Romish Church). 
Clergy that live under some rule of obedi¬ 
ence. 

REGULATOR OF A WATCH. A 
small spring belonging to the balance. 

REGULUS. A star of the first magni¬ 
tude in the constellation Leo. 

REGULUS (in Chemistry). An imper¬ 
fect or impure metallic substance. 

REIN-DEER. An animal of tbe deer 
kind, that inhabits the northern regions, 
chiefly in Norway, Lapland, and Green¬ 
land ; it is five feet in height, horns long 
and slender, besides a pair of brow ant¬ 
lers. It is used by the natives in Europe 
and Asia, but not in America, for drawing 
their sledges and for other purposes. 



REJOINDER (in Law). Tbe defend 
ant’s answer to the plaintiff’s reply. 

RELATIVE (in Grammar). A sort o 
pronoun which relates to some noun goint 
before, as which and who. 

RELEASE (in Law). An instrument 
in writing by which estates, rights, Sec 
are extinguished 



312 


hep 


RELIEVO, or Relief (in Sculpture). 
The projection or standing out of a figure 
above the ground or plane whereon it is 
formed. There are three kinds of relievo, 
namely, the alto, which projects as much 
as life; the basso relievo, when the work 
is raised but a little; and demi relievo, 
when one half of the figure rises. 

RELIGIOUS HOUSES. Convents, 
monasteries, nunneries, and the like, in 
the Romish Church, where persons live 
under certain rules, and are bound by 
their vows to lead a religious life ; at the 
Reformation, these religious houses were 
dissolved in England, and their wealth 
was seized by Henry VIII. 

REMAINDER (in Law). An estate in 
lands, tenements, &c., limited to be enjoy¬ 
ed after the expiration of another estate. 

REMAINDER (in Arithmetic). The 
difference, or that which is left after sub¬ 
tracting one quantity from another. 

REMEMBRANCER. In England, an 
officer in the exchequer. 

REMITTANCE. A sum of money sent 
from a distance. 

REMORA. The generic name for the 
sucking-fish. 

RENDEZVOUS. An appointed place 
of meeting, particularly for soldiers. 

RENNET. The gastric juice and con¬ 
tents of the stomach of a calf, used in 
turning milk to curds. 

RENT. A profit issuing yearly out of 
lands or tenements. 

RENTAL, or Rentroll. In England, 
a roll in which the rents of a manor are 
set down; the collective amount of rents 
from any man’s estates. 

RENT CHARGE. In England a 
charge of rent upon land, with a clause of 
distress in case af non-payment. 

REPEATER. A kind of watch, which, 
by means of a spring, repeats or strikes 
the hour. 

REPELLANTS. Medicines which 
drive the humours from the part where 
they have settled. 

REPERTORY. A place where things 
are deposited ; also a book in which things 
are methodically entered. 

REPLEVIN (in Law). A release of 
eattle or goods that are distrained. 

REPLICATION (in Law). The plain¬ 
tiff’s reply to the defendant’s answer. 

REPORT (in Law). A relation of cases 
judicially debated and decided upon. 

REPRESENTATION (in Law). 7*e 
personating another, as in the case of an 
,>eir by representation. 

REPRESENTATIVE (in Law). One 
who represents a district or corporation, 


REb 

as a member of parliament, a membei 
congress. 

REPRESENTATIVE MC'NARCHY. 
A government having national councils, 
consisting of persons chosen by the people, 
to represent their persons, and consult 
their interests. 

REPRESENTATIVE OR FREE GOV¬ 
ERNMENT. A government In which the 
laws are made by representatives freely 
chosen by the people ; such is the govern¬ 
ment of the United States. 

REPRIEVE (in Law). A warrant for 
suspending the execution of a malefactor. 

REPRINT. A book printed again. 

REPRISALS. The seizing the vessels 
or goods of merchant strangers, as an 
equivalent for some loss sustained from 
the nation of which they are subjects. 

REPRODUCTION. The power in 
some bodies of being restored by a process 
of nature, after having been destroyed, as 
the reproduction of a tree from a slip, but 
more particularly the reproduction of ani¬ 
mals which have been cut into pieces, as 
the polype, and some other worms; also 
the limbs of crabs, lobsters, &c., are re¬ 
produced when broken off. 

REPTILES. The first order of animals 
under the class amphibia, in the Linnxan 
system, comprehending the toad, the frog, 
the dragon, the lizard, crocodile, &c. 

REPUGNANCE (in Law). A contradic¬ 
tion of what has been said before, as in 
deeds, grants, &c., which makes them 
void. 

REPULSION (in Physics). A power 
in bodies of opposin g the approach of other 
bodies, as oil and water, which for a time 
refuse to be incorporated ; it is opposed to 
attraction. 

REQUESTS, Court of. In England, 
a court for the recovery of small debts. 

RESCUE (in Law). The violent tak¬ 
ing away, or causing to escape, one that 
is taken by lawful authority. 

RESERVE. A body of men kept apart 
in the day of battle for some particular ser¬ 
vice, as occasion may require. 

RESIANT (in Law). One residing in 
a certain place. 

RESIDENCE (in Law). In England, 
the continuance of a parson or vicar on his 
benefice. 

RESIDENT. A minister of state sent 
to reside at any court. 

RESIDUARY LEGATEE. He to whom 
the residue of a personal estate is given 
by will. 

RESIDUUM The residue, or waai u 
left after any chemical process. 





RET 


REV 


SIS 


EES IN, or Rosin. A solid infiamma- . 
rie substance exuding from trees, as the 
common resin, or turpentine, from the 
pine; mastich from the pistacea; sanda- 
rach from the thuya; ladanum from the 
cystus, &c. Pure resins are soluble in al¬ 
cohol, but the impure resins are not 
soluble. 

RESISTANCE, or Resisting Force. 
Any power which acts in an opposite di¬ 
rection to another. 

RESOLUTION (in Mathematics). A 
method by which the truth or falsehood 
of a proposition is discovered. 

RESOLUTION (in Chemistry). The 
reducing a body to its component parts. 

RESOLUTION (in Surgery). The dis¬ 
persing of tumours. 

RESOLUTION OF FORCES (in Me¬ 
chanics). The dividing any force or mo¬ 
tion into several others in other directions, 
but which, taken together, shall have the 
same effect as the single one. 

RESPIRATION. An important func¬ 
tion of the animal body, which consists 
in the alternate inhalation and exhalation 
of air, by which the lungs and chest are 
alternately dilated and contracted. 

RETAINER. An adherent or dependant. 

RETAINING FEE. A fee given to a 
barrister, or lawyer, to keep him from 
pleading for the other side. 

RETALIATION. The act of return¬ 
ing like for like 

RETARDATION (In Physics). The 
act of diminishing the velocity of a moving 
body. 

RETE MUCOSUM. A mucous mem¬ 
brane between the epidermis and the 
cutis, which is one part of the integument 
of the skin. 

R ETICULA. A contrivance amon g as¬ 
tronomers for measuring the quantity of 
eclipses. 

RETINA. The third or innermost 
membrane of the eye, which is the most 
important part of the organ of vision 

RETORT. A chemical vessel of a 
round figure, with a hollow peak or tube 
curved downward. 



RETREAT. The retrograde movement 
cf any army or body of men. 

RET. RENCHMENT. Any work raised 
to cover a p>st 


RETRO. Backward ; a prefix to many 
words, as retrocession, retrogradation, &c 

RETROCESSION OF THE EUUI- 
NOXES. The going backwards of the 
equinoctial points of the signs Aries and 
Taurus. 

RETROGRADATION. A moving 
backwards. 

RETURN. A certificate from sheriffs 
and bailiffs of what is done in the execu¬ 
tion of a writ. 

RETURN DAYS (in Law). Certain 
days in term time for the return of writs. 

RETURNS (in Commerce). That 
which is returned, whether in goods or 
specie, for merchandise sent abroad ; also 
the return of money laid out in the way 
of trade. 

RETURNS OF A MINE v in Fortifi¬ 
cation). The windings and turnings of 
a gallery leading to a mine. 

REVELATION. The miraculous com¬ 
munications made by God of his will to 
man, which are contained in the Bible. 

REVENUE (in Law). The yearly 
profit that accrues to a man from his lands 
or possessions. In England, the revenue 
of the crown is that which peculiarly ac¬ 
crues by way of profit to the king; in an 
extended sense, the public revenue, or the 
yearly income derived from the taxes and 
other sources, for the support of the gov¬ 
ernment. 

REVERBERATORY. A very strong 
furnace, used for calcining minerals, &c. 

REVERSAL OF JUDGMENT. The 
making it void. 

REVERSE OF A MEDAL. The back 
side, or that which does not contain the 
principal figure. 

REVERSION (in Law) is when the 
possession of an estate, which was parted 
with for a time, returns to the donor or 
his heirs. 

REVIEW (in Military Affairs). The 
display of a body of men before the gene¬ 
ral, that he may judge of their condition 

REVIEW, Bill of (in^Law). A bill 
in chancery for the re-examination of a 
cause 

REVIEW (in Literature). A periodi¬ 
cal publication, which professes to give a 
criticism of publications as they appear. 

REVISE. A second proof sheet of a 
work, for the revisal or re-examination of 
the errors corrected. 

REVOCATION. The recalling or mak 
ing void any grant. 

REVOLUTION (in Astronomy). The 
motion of any heavenly body in a cli cnlM 
line, until it returns to the same pcim 
j again. 


97 





3J4 




RID 


REVOLUTIONIST A favourer of 
political revolutions. 

RHEA. A large bird of the ostrich spe¬ 
cies, found in the plains of Patagonia, and 
incorrectly called the South American os¬ 
trich. 

RHETORIC. The art of speaking on 
any subject with propriety, and the force 
of persuasion. 

RHEUM. A thin, serous humour, that 
oozes occasionally from the glands about 
the throat and mouth. 

RHEUMATISM. Wandering pains in 
the body, accompanied with heaviness, 
difficulty of motion, and sometimes a 
fever. 

RHINOCEROS. A large beast in India, 
and the largest of all quadrupeds, except 
the elephant, having a horn in his front, 
and a skin full of wrinkles, which is so 
bard that it can scarcely be pierced by a 
sword 



RHODODENDRON. A shrub bearing 
a very fine flower. 

RHOMBOID. A quadrilateral figure, 
whose opposite sides and angles are equal, 
but it is neither equilateral nor rectan¬ 
gular. 



RHOMBUS. A quadrilateral figure 
which is equilateral, but not rectan¬ 
gular. 



RHUBARB. A perennial, the root of 
which is much used in medicine, particu¬ 


larly what comes from Turkey ; the stalk 
of the European rhubarb is also much ee> 
teemed in tarts. 

RH U M B. A vertical circle of any place, 
or the intersection of part of such circle 
with the horizon. 

RHYME. A sort of verse whkh termi¬ 
nates with words of the same sound 

RIB (in Anatomy). A side bone of the 
body. 

RIB (in Carpentry). Any piece of tim¬ 
ber that strengthens the side. 

RIB (in Ship building). The timber of 
the futtocks, when the planks are off, 
which resemble the ribs of the body. 

R1BBON. A aarrow sort of silk, chiefly 
used for head ornaments. 

RICKETS. A disease in the back bone, 
incident to children. 

RICE. A sort of esculent grain, culti¬ 
vated in warm countries, which grows ii 
husks of an oval figure. 



RICK-CLOTH. In England, a tarpaw- 
ling, which is set up by stacks or ricks of 
hay or corn, while it is stacking. It is 
worked with pulleys, as represented un¬ 
derneath 



RIDER. A leaf inserted In, or attache# 
to other leaves. 

RIDER (in Commerce). One who tra¬ 
vels for a trading or mercantile house to 
collect orders. 

RIDER (InOunnery). Apleceofwood 
equal to the length of the body of the axit- 
tree of the gun carriage. 

RIDER-ROLL (in Law)* A schedule 























RIO 


ROE 


311 


M jmall pie :e of parchment added to some 
fart of a roll or record. 

RIDERS (in Ship-building). Timbers 
bolted upon others to strengthen them. 

RIDGE The top of a house that rises 
to an acute angle ; also the top of the ver¬ 
tebra of the back 

RIDGE (in Husbandry). The highest 
part of the land between two furrows. 

RIDING. A division of a county, as 
the east and west riding of Yorkshire, 
England. 

RIDING-CLERK. In England, one of 
the six clerks in chancery, who, in his 
turn, keeps the comptrolment book of all 
grants^that pass the great mil. 

RIDING SCHOOL. A public place 
where persons are taught to sit gracefully 
on a horse, and use the bridle with pro¬ 
priety. 

RIFLE. A gun having spiral channels 
in the barrel. 

RIFLEMEN. Soldiers armed with ri¬ 
fles, and employed as marksmen to fire 
behind hedges. 

RIGGING. All the cordage or ropes 
belonging to the different parts of a ship. 

RIGHT (in Law). Any title or claim 
by virtue of a condition, mortgage, &c. 

RIGHT (in Geometry). Straight, as a 
right line. 

RIGHT ANGLE. The angle formed 
by one line falling perpendicularly upon 
another. 

RIGHT SPHERE (in Astronomy). That 
position of a sphere by which its poles are 
in the horizon. 

RIG LET (in Architecture). A flat, thin 
piece of wood, like what is designed for 
the frames of small pictures, before they 
are moulded. 

R1GLET (in Printing). A thin slip of 
wood used in making up a form, for 
tightening the pages, &c. 

RIND. The skin of any fruit. 

RINGDOVE. A European variety of 
the pigeon. 

RING HEAD. An instrument for stretch¬ 
ing woollen cloth with. 

RINGLEADER. The head of a party 
or faction. 

RING-OUGEL. A European bird, 
marked with a crescent of white upon the 
under part of the neck. 

RINGWORM A cutaneous disorder 
that comes on the skin in rings, and is 
contagious. 

RIOT (in Law). The forcible doing an 
unlawful thing by three or more persons, 
assembled together for that purpose. 

RIOT ACT. A legislative act, prohib¬ 
iting riotous or tumultuous assemblies, 


which, being read by a magistrate or j«ace 
officer to the mob, obliges all persons to 
disperse within an hour, on pain of being 
apprehended as rioters. 

RISING. The appearance of any star 
or planet above the horizon, which, before 
was hid beneath it. 

RITUAL. A book directing the order 
and manner to be observed, in celebrating 
religious ceremonies, and performing di¬ 
vine service in the church. 

RIVER. A stream or current of fresh 
water, flowing in a bed or channel, as the 
river Amazon in South America, the Mis¬ 
sissippi and Saint Lawrence in North 
America, the Nile in Egypt, the Euphrates 
and Ganges in India, the Rhine and Da¬ 
nube in Germany, the Rhone and Seine in 
France, the Tiber in Italy, the Tagus in 
Portugal, the Thames in Great Britain, 

&.C. 

RIVET A metal pin clinched at both 
ends. 

BIX DOLLAR. A coin in Germanv, 
worth from sixty cents to one dollar. 

ROACH A fish of the carp kind. 

ROAD. A highway, or a way prepared 
for travellers ; it is either a carriage road, 
where carriages may pass, or a foot road, 
or path for foot passengers. Military roads 
were formerly constructed by the Romans 
for the passage of their armies, of which 
there are still vestiges in England. Roads 
in the latter country are now principally 
made by small stones bound together with 
the earth, which is called Macadamizing. 

ROAD. A sea term for any place fit 
for anchorage, at some distance from the 
shore. 

ROADSTER. A horse accustomed tc 
travelling on the road 

ROBIN, or Robin Redbheast. A 
pretty little European bird with a red 
breast, which is very tame, and in winter 
time comes into the house. The Ameri¬ 
can robin is larger, but is a great favourite, 
and sings very sweetly. 

ROCHE ALUM, or Roc* Alum. A 
mineral salt of a very binding quality. 

ROCK. A atony mass, of which moun¬ 
tains are for the most part formed. Rocks 
are, however, to be met with in immensely 
large separate masses. 

ROCKET. A sort of fireworks, which, 
when let eff, go to a very great height in 
the air before they burst. 

ROCKBIL. A bituminous substance 
found in rocks. 

ROE. An animal of the deer kind: 
also the spawn of fish ; that of the males 
is called soft roe or melt, that of the fe 
males hard roe or spawn 




118 


ROS 


ROGATION WEEK. The week pre¬ 
ceding Whitsuntide. 

ROLL (in Law). A schedule or parch¬ 
ment which may be rolled up. 

ROLLER (in Husbandry and Garden¬ 
ing)- A wooden or iron instrument of a 
circular shape, and fitted for rolling along 
the ground to level grass land, break the 
clods of arable land, and to bind the grav¬ 
el in gravel walks. 



ROLLER (in Surgery). A long, broad 
ligature, for keeping the parts of the body 
in their places. 

ROLLER (in Ornithology) A sort of 
bird the size of a jay. 

ROLLING MILL. A machine for 
working metals into plates or bars. This 
sort of mill is chiefly used for drawing out 
the iron bars, after they have been manu¬ 
factured into bar iron by the forge hammer. 

ROMAN CATHOLICS. Those who 
hold the doctrines, and submit to the dis¬ 
cipline of the Romish church. 

ROOD. The fourth part of an acre. 

ROOF. The covering of a building. 

ROOK. A sociable European bird of 
the crow kind. 

ROOT (in Arithmetic). A number or 
quantity, which multiplied by itself produ¬ 
ces a higher power, as 2, the square root 
of 4 or the cube root of 8. 

ROOT (in Botany). That part of a plant 
which is under ground, and by which the 
plant derives its nourishment from the 
earth. 

ROOT (in Grammar). The original 
words from which others are formed. 

ROPE. The larger kind of cordage, 
formed by the twisting of several strings 
of yarn together; the smallest soil of 
rope is called cord, and the larger kinds 
cable, which is used for the rigging of ships* 

ROPEMAKING. The process of twist¬ 
ing yam into ropes by means of a wheel. 

ROPE YARN. The rope of any yarn 
untwisted. 

ROSE. A shrub equally celebrated and 
admired, by both ancients and moderns, 
for its sweetness and its beauty. The 
most esteemed species of this favourite 
shrub, are the hundred leaved rose da- 


ROU 

mask rose, Provence rose, white roe 
moss rose, &c. 

ROSE ACACIA. A prickly shrab, the 
flower of which resembles the rose in form 

ROSEMARY. A medicinal and fra¬ 
grant plant. 

ROSEWATER. Water distilled from 
roses. 

ROSIN. See Resin. 

ROSTRUM. A place in Rome where 
orations were made and pleadings carried 
on: it was so called from rostrum, tire 
beak of a ship, because it was made of tho 
beaks of the ships taken at Antium. 

ROT. A disease among sheep, in which 
their lungs are wasted and their throats 
swollen. 

ROTACE7E. One of Linmeus’s natural 
ordt r of plants, consisting of such as have 
one wheel-shaped petal without a tube. 

ROTATION (in Geometry). The cir¬ 
cumvolution of a surface round an immo¬ 
vable line, by which solids are conceived 
to be generated. 

ROTTEN STONE. A mineral, found 
in Derbyshire, which is used for all sorts 
of finer grinding and polishing, and some¬ 
times for cutting of stones 

ROTUNDA, or Rotundo. A circular 
building at Rome, which was anciently 
called the Pantheon ; also any circulai 
building. 

ROTUNDITY OF THE EARTH 
Roundness of form ascribed to the earth 
from various appearances which serve to 
prove it, as, for instance, that the masts of 
a vessel come in sight before the hull is 
visible. 

ROUGE. A red paint extracted from 
the plant called by botanists the carthamus 
tinctorius. 

ROUGH-CASTING. A kind of mortar 
used as a covering for external walls, 
which is thrown on roughly, instead of be¬ 
ing plastered on. 

ROUGHRIDER. A non-commissioned 
officer in the cavalry, who assists the rid¬ 
ing master. 

ROUNDHOUSE. In England, a tem¬ 
porary prison in a parish, where those 
who are apprehended by the constable are 
confined. 

ROUNDHOUSE (among Mariners). 
The uppermost room or cabin in the stern 
of a ship, where the master lies. 

ROUNDS. A watch commanded by an 
officer, who goes in the night time round 
a fortress. 

ROUND ROBIN. A paper containing 
a statement of grievances, on the part of 
any number of discontented persons in the 
army or navy, who sign their names in a 




















S A R 


31? 


SAB 


circular manner, that it maj not be seen 
who signed first. 

ROWEL. The pointed wheel in a spur. 

RUBELLITE. lied tourmaline con¬ 
taining a considerable proportion of 
manganese, generally occurring in 
closely-aggregated crystals, varying 
from a slight tinge of red to a fine pink. 

RUBEZAHL. N umber Nip, a famous 
mountain-spirit of Germany, sometimes 
friendly, sometimes mischievous, corre¬ 
sponding to English Puclc. 

RUBICELLE. A gem, a variety of 
ruby, of a yellow or orange red. 

RUBICON. A small river which 
formed the boundary between ancient 
Gaul and Italy, by passing which, 
Julius Caesar, the famous Roman gen¬ 
eral, declared war against his country. 
This stream was probably the modern 
Pisatello. 

RUBRIC. The directions given in the 
Book of Common Prayer. 

RUBY. A precious stone, next to the 
diamond in value Its constituent parts 
are alumina, silica, carbonate of lime, and 
oxide of iron. 

RUDDER. A piece of timber hung on 
ninges at the stern-posts of a ship, which, 
by being turned either way, directs the 
course of the vessel. 

RUDIMENTS. The first elements nr 
principles of any art or science. 

RUDOLPHINE TABLES A celebra¬ 
ted set of astronomical tables, published 
by Kepler, and thus entitled in honour of 
the emperor Rudolph or Rudolphus. 

RUFF. A European bird, about a 
foot in length, with long feathers standing 
out round the neck, like a ruff. The fe¬ 
male is called Reeve. 

RULE OF THREE (in Arithmetic). 
A rule which teaches by means of three 
numbers to find a fourth. 

RULE, or RULER. An instrument of 
wood or metal, marked off, so as to be of use 
in mensuration. 


RULE, Sliding. A mathematical in¬ 
strument, serving to perform computation! 
in gauging, measuring, &c., without the 
use of compasses, merely by the sliding of 
the parts of the instrument one by another. 

RULES OF COURT. Certain orders 
made from time to time in the courts of 
law, for regulating the practice of the court. 

RUM A spirituous liquor distilled from 
sugar canes. 

RUMEN (in Comparative Anatomy) 
The paunch or first stomach of such ani 
mals as chew the cud. 

RUMINANTIA.OR RUMINANTS. 
In zoology, an order of herbivorous ani¬ 
mals, provided with four stomachs— 
the first so situated as to receive a large 
quantity of vegetable matter, coarsely 
bruised by the first mastication, which 
passes into the second, where it is 
moistened and formed into little pellets, 
which the animal has the power of 
bringing again to the mouth to be re- 
cliewed, after which it is swallowed 
into the third stomach, and thence 
passes to the fourth. It comprehends 
the antelopes, oxen, stags, musks, and 
giraffes. 

RUNIC. Pei’taining to the ancient 
Goths, or their language and letters. 
The letters of the alphabet of the an¬ 
cient Scandinavians, principally formed 
of straight lines. 

RUTHENIUM. A grey metal, very 
hard and brittle, and very fusible, ex' 
tracted from the ore of platinum. 

RUTILE. Titantic acid of a dark 
red color, or reddish brown, occurring 
in four or eight sided prisms, massive, 
and in crystals—a mineral found in 
many places in Scotland. 

RYACOLITE. A mineral of a white 
or grey color, with a vitreous lustre, 
resembling glassy felspar. 

RYE. A cereal of a quality inferior 
to wheat, but more hardy, and hence 
much cultivated in northern countries. 


s 


S, the nineteenth letter of our alpbabet, 
as a numeral, stood for seven; in Music, as 
an abbreviation, it stands for solo; in navi¬ 
gation, for south; S. E., for south east; 
S. W., for south west; S. S. E., for south 
south east 5 S. S. W., for south south west. 

SABBATH. The seventh day, ob¬ 
served by the Jews as a festival or day of 
rest, in commemoration of God’s resting 
27 * 


on tne seventh day, after the work of the 
creation. The Jewish sabbath cominen 
ces at sunset on the Friday, aad ends at 
cunset on the Saturday. The term Sab 
bath is applied by Christians to the Lord’* 
Day, vulgarly called Sunday, which ha* 
been substituted for the Jewish Sabbath. 

SABLE (in Zoology). An animal of the 
weasel tribe, having a dark tawny body 





s:8 


8 A1 


. - 

8 A F 

It inhabits the northern regions, and is 
much esteemed for its fur. 


i 



SABLE (in Heraldry). The tincture of 
black represented in engraving by perpen¬ 
dicular and horizontal lines. 



SABRE. A sword with a broad, 
heavy blade, worn by the heavy cavalry. 

SABELLIAN. A follower of Sabel 
lius, a philosopher in the third century, 
who taught that there is only one per¬ 
son in the Godhead, and that the Son 
and Holy Spirit are only different attri¬ 
butes, or- functions of God the Father. 

SACKBUT A sort of trumpet fit for 
playing bass. 

SACLACTIC ACID. A powder procur¬ 
ed from the sugar of milk. 

SACRAMENT. A sign of a holy thing 
sontaining a divine mystery. 

SADDLE. A seat for a horseman fitted 
to a horse’s back, it is supposed that sad¬ 
dles uid not come into use till about the 
time of Constantine the Great, in the 
fourth century. 

SADDLER. One who makes and sells 
saddles. The company of saddlers in 
London is of great antiquity, having been 
incorporated as early as the reign of Ed¬ 
ward I. 

SADDUCEES. A sect among the Jews, 
which were esteemed as deists and free¬ 
thinkers. 

SAFE CONDUCT. A security given 
by the king under his great seal to any 
person, for his quiet coming into, or pas¬ 
sage out of his realm. 

SAFEGUARD. A protection given by 
a prince or his general to an enemy’s 
country, to protect it from being ravaged 
by an army. 

SAFETY-LAMP. A lamp invented by 
Sir Humphrey Davy, for the use of miners 
Vi the coal mines, to prevent the fatal ex¬ 


plosions which have arisen from the use 
of common lamps. The safety-lamp 
transmits its light through a cylinder of 
iron or copper wire gauze, the apertures in 
which are not above one twentieth of an 
inch square As the fire-damp is not ig¬ 
nited by heated wire, the thickness of the 
wire is of no importance. The principal 
parts of this lamp are a brass cistern con¬ 
taining the oil, the rim on which the wire 
gauze cover is fixed, an aperture for supply¬ 
ing oil, a central aperture for the wick, and 
the wire gauze cylinder. 



SAFFRON A bulbous root; also tha 
flower of the crocus; also a substance 
formed from the stigmata of the crocus 
officinalis dried on a kiln and pressed intc 
cakes. 

SAG1TTA A constellation in the 
northern hemisphere. 

SAGITTARIUS. The ninth sign of the 
zodiac, marked thus ( J :). 

SAGO. A simple produced from the 
pith of a kind of palm growing in the East 
Indies, called by botanists the cycas cir- 
cinalis. 

SAGOIN. A South American animal 
about the size of a rabbit. 

SAIL. A large piece of canvass com¬ 
posed of several breadths sewed together, 
which, when extended by means of lines 
on masts, catches the wind, and drives the 
vessel along. 

SAILING. The conducting a vessel 
from one port to another, which is the 
practical part of navigation. 

SALAMANDER. A sort of lizard, 
which exudes from its pores a milky li¬ 
quor, by which it is enabled for a time to 
resist the action of fire. From this virtue, 
it was formerly supposed capable of living 
in fire. 

SAL AMMONIAC. A fossi* salt which 
was said to he dug out of the sands of Am¬ 
monia in Libya, from which it took its 
name. There is no native salt of hia 


















3AL 


S A IS 


sis 

name known to the moderns, but a facti- j times distinguished from the two others 
tious salt composed of a volatile alkaline 


and the acid of sea salt, whence it is call¬ 
ed the muriate of ammonia. 

SALARY. The stipend or remunera¬ 
tion made to a man for his services, in dis¬ 
tinction from wages, which is for day 
labour, and pay, which is for military 
service. 

SALE (in Law). Transferring the pro¬ 
perty of goods from one to another, upon a 
valuable coosideration. 

SALESMAN. One who sells clothes 
or other commodities. It is also applied 
to one in a mercantile establishment, who 
sells the goods. 

SALIENT ANGLE (in Fortification). 
An angle projecting outwards. 

SALIVA. An excretion from certain 
glands of the mouth, which serves to 
:i;oisten the food before it is swallowed. 

SALIVATION. A drawing humours 
out of the mouth by mercurial prepara¬ 
tions ; also a preternatural increase of 
saliva. 

SALLOW. A sort of willow. 

SALLY. The issuing of the besieged 
from their fort and tower, and falling on 
the besiegers to cut them off. 

SALLY PORTS. Doorways on each 
quarter of a fire ship, out of which the 
men make their escape into the boats 
as soon as the train is laid. 

SALMON. A fish that lives in either 
fresh or salt water, but shuns that which 
is foul It is much esteemed for its iiesh. 



SALMON TROUT. A species of the 
salmon, having a body spotted with 
black. 

SALOON. A spacious room much used 
in Italy as a state room for the reception 
of ambassadors. 

SALOP. A substance brought from 
Persia, and prepared, as is supposed, from 
a species of the plant botanically called 
orchis. 

SALT. A name given by modern chy- 
mists to three sorts of substances, namely, 
acids, alkalies, and the compounds form¬ 
ed by acids in union with alkalies, earths, 
and metallic oxides. These latter are 
tails, projrerly so called, an I are sorne- 


by the name of neutral salts, as Epsom 
salts, nitre, &.c. Salts are likewise dis¬ 
tinguished according to the process by 
which they are prepared. Common salt, 
or bay salt, a muriate of soda, being a 
compound of muriatic acid and soda, is 
proem ed by evaporation from sea water 
Essential salts are drawn from the juices 
of plants by crystallization. Fixed salts 
| are made by calcining or reducing the mat- 
i ter to ashes, then boiling it in water, 
straining off the liquor, and evaporating 
all the moisture, when the salt will re¬ 
main in the foim of a powder. Volatile 
salts are procured principally from animal 
substances or the fermented parts of 
plants. 

SALTER A dealer in salt or salt fish 
The company of salters in London were 
incorporated in the reign of Henry VIII. 

SALTPETRE, or Nitujc. A nitrate of 
potash. 

SALTS, or Saltcellars. A name for 
the vessel that holds the salt when it is 
brought to the table. 

SALVAGE. A recompense allowed 
to such persons as have assisted in sa¬ 
ving merchandises, ships, &c., from ship¬ 
wrecks. 

SALUTE (in Military Etiquette). A 
discharge of artillery, or presenting of arms, 
as a mark of honour or respect to some 
person of distinction. 

SALUTE (in the Navy). The dis¬ 
charge of ordnance, striking of colours, 
and the like, as testimonies of respect tc 
the ships of an admiral or superior. 

SAMARITANS. A sect among the 
Jews, who rejected all the scriptures ex¬ 
cept the'five books of Moses. 

SANCTUARY (m Law). A privileged 
place, whither, anciently, offenders were 
allowed to fly, and to remain for some 
time under protection. 

SANDAL. A sort of slipper worn by 
the Greek and Roman ladies. 

SANDAL WOOD. The wood of an 
Indian tree, remarkable for its fragrance. 

SANDARACH. A resinous substance 
exuding from a tree that grows in Bar 
bary. 

SANDBAGS. Bags fitted for holding 
sand or earth, and used in repairing 
breaches in fortifications, <fcc. 

SANDIVER, or Gla*9 Gall. A saline 
matter which rises as a scum in the cruci¬ 
bles in which glass is made. 

SANDPIPER. A sort of heath bird. 

SANDSTONE. A soft, compound 
stone, consisting of grains of sand, &Ci 
cemented together The principal pie- 







SAW 


520 SAT 

ces are the grindstone and the filtering 
stone. 

SANGIAC. The governor of a Turkish 
province. 

SANHEDRIM. The supreme council 
or court of judicature among the Jews. 

SAP. The juice or fluid part of a tree, 
which is a mucilaginous liquid, oftentimes 
strongly saccharine, so as to yield a large 
quantity of sugar, and also to furnish a 
strong fermented liquor. 

SAPPERS. Soldiers attached to the en¬ 
gineers, and employed to assist in the la¬ 
bour of sapping. 

SAPPHIRE. A hard and precious 
stone of a beautiful azure or sky-blue col¬ 
our, nearly as transparent and glittering 
as the diamond 

SAPPING. A working underground 
to gain the descent of a ditch, counter¬ 
scarp, & o. 

SARCOCOL. A gum resi.i brought 
from Persia and Arabia in small grains, 
and supposed to be the product of a tree 
called by botanists the penaea sarcocolla. 

SARCOPHAGUS. A sort of stone 
coffins, which consumed the bodies placed 
in them in the space of forty days. It was 
used by the ancients sometimes instead 
of burning the bodies by fire. 

SARDONYX. A precious stone, con¬ 
sisting of a mixture of chalcedony and 
cornelian stone. 

SARMENTOSA2 (in Botany). One of 
Linnaeus’s natural orders, consisting of 
plants which have climbing stems and 
branches, like the vine. 

SARSAPARILLA. The root of the 
rough smilax, a plant growing in Peru. 
It has a bitterish taste, and is much used 
in medicine. 

SASH (among Carpenters). A frame 
of wood with panes of glass for a window. 

SASH. A girdle round the waist, which 
in the army is worn by the officers. 

SASSAFRAS. A yellow, odoriferous 
wood of an aromatic scent, common in 
America. 

SATELLITE. A secondary planet 
moving round another, as the moon does 
round the earth, so called because it at¬ 
tends the primary planet from rising f o 
setting, after the manner of the satellites 
who attended on the eastern princes as a 
guard. Jupiter has four such satellites, 
Saturn seven, and Herschel six. 

SATIN. A glossy kind of silk stuff. 

SATIRE. A biting sort of poetry, 
written to expose the follies of men. 

SATURATION An impregnation of 
i fluid with as much of any solid sub¬ 
stance as it can dissolve. Thus writer 


will dissolve about one third of Us weight 
of common salt, and when it holds thus 
much in solution, it is said to be saturated 
with it, because, if more be added, it will 
remain solid. 

SATURDAY. The last day in the 
week, so called from Saturn. 

SATURN (in Heathen Mythology). A 
son of Coelus and Terra, and the god of 
time, commonly represented with a sythe, 
to denote the destroying power of time ; 
sometimes with wings, to denote the 
swiftness of time, and with shackles, to 
denote the slow revolution and motion of 
the planet Saturn 



SATURN. One of the primary planets> 
the tenth in order of distance from the 
sun, which is thirty years in performing 
his sidereal revolution. He is marked by 
this character 1^. 

SATURNALIA. A festival at Rome, 
in commemoration of the golden age, or 
the age of Saturn, when all men enjoyed 
their liberty, as the poets tell us. 

SATURN’S RING. A broad, opaae, 
circular arc, which encompasses th« plan¬ 
et like the wooden horizon of an artificial 
globe. 



SAVOY A sorf* of winter cabbage 
with a crumpled leaf, which is greatly im¬ 
proved in flavour by being exposed to frost 
SAWMILL. A mill for sawing tree* 
into boards, planks, &c. 

SAWYER. A mechanic employed in 
sawing timber. There are two sawyers to 
one piece, one of whom is in the pit, or 
below, and the other stands on the timber 














SC A 


SAXIFRAGE A creeping perennial, 
«o called because it affects rocky or stony 
places. 

SAXON ARCH. A semicircular arch 
which characterizes the Saxon style 



SAXON STYLE A mode of building 
first used by the Saxons in Great Britain. 
See Architecture. 

SCABIOUS. A plant cultivated in 
gardens, which beare a handsome brown 
flower 

SCABRIDA3. One of Linnaeus’s nat¬ 
ural orders, including plants with rough 
leaves, as hemp, fig, &c. 

SCAFFOLD. A temporary erection, 
either for workmen or for spectators. 

SCALE (in Mathematics). The degrees 
of any arch of a circle or of right lines 
drawn or engraven on a rule 

SCALE (in Music). A series of 
sounds rising or falling towards acuteness 
cr gravity ; in Geography, a scale of miles 
on a map, for measuring the distances of 
places; in Arithmetic, scale of notation, 
the order of progression on which any 
system of arithmetic is founded, as the 
decennary scale, whi"h computes by 
tens. 

SUBLAPSAEIAN. One of those 
moderate Calvinists who believe that 
God only permitted the first man to 
fall into transgression without posi¬ 
tively predetermining his fall—that 
the decree of predestination regarded 
man as fallen, the elect themselves 
being in a fallen and guilty state—and 
that the election of grace was only a 
remedy for an existing evil. 

SUBMULTIPLE. A number or 
quantity which has a geometrical ratio 
to another number or quantity, by be¬ 
ing contained in it a certain number of 
times exactly; thus 3 is a submultiple 
of 21. 

SUBNORMAL. In geometry, that 
part of the axis of a curved line which 
is intercepted between the ordinate 
and the normal.—In all curves it is the 
third proportional to the subtangent 
and the ordinate. 


SCH Sfil 

SGALI’. The skin that covers the skuH 

bone. 

SCAMMONY. A concreted, resinous 
juice, light and friable, of a grayish brown 
colour, and disagreeable smell 

SCANNING Measuring Latin verses 
by the syllables and feet 

SCANTLING. The meusure, si*e, or 
standard, by which the dimensions of 
any thing, particularly timber, is deter¬ 
mined. 

SCAPEMENT (in Clock Work). The 
manner of communicating the impulse of 
the wheels to the pendulum Common 
scapements consist of the swing wheel 
and pallets only 

SCAPULA. * The shoMlder-blade 

SCARF. A sort of sash worn by offi¬ 
cers in the army, and also by divines, as 
well as females, over the left shoulder and 
down the right side 

SCARF SKIN. The first and outer¬ 
most of the three lamina of which the 
skin is composed. 

SCARIFICATION. Incisions made in 
the skin, as in cupping 

SCARP. The slope on that side of a 
ditch which is next to a fortified place, 
and looks towards the field. 

SCAVENGER. A person whose duty 
it is to see that the streets be cleansed 
from filth and dirt. 

SCENOGRAPH V. The perspective 
representation of a body on a plane. • 

SCHEDULE (in Law). A scroll of 
paper or parchment appended to a will 
or any other deed ; also an inventory of 
goods, &c. 

SCHIST. A name given to differ¬ 
ent kinds of stones of a slaty formation, 
but particularly those of the argillaceous 
kind 

SCHOLIUM. A note or annotation on 
an ancient author 

SCHOOL. A place set apart for the in¬ 
struction of youth 

SCHOOL (in Philosophy). A system 
of doctrine as delivered by particular 
teachers, as the Platonic school, the school 
of Aristotle, &c. 

SCHOOL (in Theoiogy> The age of 
the church and the form of divinity that 
succeeded the fathers. 

SCHOOL (among Painters). The style 
and manner of painting among the great 
masters of the art aLpny particular period, 
as the Italian, Flemish, Dutch, Spanish, 
and English schools 

SCHOONER. A small, fast sailing ves¬ 
sel with two masts, whose main and fore 
sails are suspended by gaffs, reaching fr*>u 
the mast to the stern 























322 


SCO 


SCO 



SCHERIF. A title in the East 
given to the descendants of Moham¬ 
med through his son-in-law Ali and 
daughter Fatima; given also to the 
chiefs of Mecca and Medina; an emir. 

SCIAGRAPHY. The art of finding out 
the hour of the day or the night by the 
shadow of the sun or the moon. 

SCION. A graft or young shoot of a 
tree. 

SCIOPTIC. A sphere or globe of wood 
with a hole, in which is placed a lens, so 
constructed that it may be turned round 
every way, and used in making experi¬ 
ments in a darkened room. 

SCIRE FACIAS. A writ of execution 
which lies a year and a day after judg¬ 
ment given. 

SCIRRHUS. A hard tumour of some 
gland. 

SCITAMINEAh One of Linnseus’s 
natural orders, comprehending ginger, car¬ 
damom, spices, and other aromatic plants. 

SCORING (in Music). Collecting and 
arranging the several detached parts of a 
piece into a certain order. 

SCORPIO. One of the twelve signs of 
the zodiac, marked thus Tlj). 

SCORPION. An insect, having eight 
>egs, which resembles the crab, but much 
smaller. It is armed with a pungent sting, 
the puncture of which in hot climates is 
very dangerous. 

SCREEN. An implement in husbandry 
which consists of a frame and wire work, 
with which wheat is cleared of the dust 
*nd the dross grain. 



distance before the army, in order to die 
cover the movements of the enemy. 

SCREW. One of the six mecbanicai 
powers, consisting of a spiral thread 01 
groove cut round a cylinder: when the 
thread is on the outside, it is a male or 
convex screw; but when it is cut along 
the inner surface of the cylinder, it is a fe 
male screw, otherwise called a nut. 



SCRIBE. A doctor in the Jewish law, 
whose business it was to write and inter¬ 
pret the scripture. 

SCRIBING (among Carpenters). Fit¬ 
ting the edge of a board to the side of 
another. 

SCRIP A bag formerly carried by pil¬ 
grims. 

SCRIP (in Commerce). That part ol 
any loan which remains unpaid for by the 
subscribers. 

SCRIVENER. One who draws up 
and engrosses writings. The company of 
scriveners in London was incorporated 
in 1616 . 

SCROFULA. A disease consisting of 
hard swellings in the glandules of the 
neck and ears. 

SCRUPLE. A small weight equal to 
twenty grains. 

SCPUPLES ECLIPSED. That part 1 1 
the diameter of the moon which enters the 
shadow. 

SCRUTINY (in Law). An examina¬ 
tion of suffrages or votes at an election, 
for the purpose of ascertaining whether 
they are good or not. 

SCULPSIT, or Sculp, annexed to an 
engraver’s name, denotes that he engrav¬ 
ed or carved the piece. 

SCULPTURE. An art which compre 
hends not only carving in wood, stone, or 
marble, but also enchasing, engraving in 
all its kinds, and casting in bronze, lea 4 , 
wax, &c. 

SCULL A little oar for rc wing a boal 
with. 


SCOUTS Horsemen sent out some 











































SEA 


SEC 


823 


SCULLER. A boat rowed with sculls. 

SCUM. That which rises to the top of 
any liquor. 

SCURF. A scaly swelling raised in the 
skin of the head. 

SCURVY. A disease, the symptoms of 
which are yellow spots on the hands and 
feet, weakness in the legs, a foul breath, 
&c. It arises from eating too much salt 
provisions. 

SCUTTLES. Square holes cut in the 
deck of a ship, large enough to admit a man. 

SCYLLA. A rock in the sea between 
Sicily ani Italy, vthich was very formida¬ 
ble to the mariners among the ancients. It 
was opposite to the whirlpool Charybdis. 

SCYTHE. An instrument for mowing. 
It consists of a thin steel blade attached at 
right angles to a handle of six or eight feet 
long. For cutting corn there is frequently 
the addition ef what is called a cradle. 
The English scythe is represented below. 



SEA A large tract of water wnich 
washes the coast of one or more countries, 
as the Irish Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, 
the Red Sea, the Sea of Marmora or the 
Black Sea, and the Baltic. A sea is less 
than an ocean. 

SEA COW. See Morse. 

SEAL, or Sea Calf (in Zoology). A 
harmless and sagacious animal inhabiting 
the shores of many islands and countries. 
The fur seal, is much hunted for its skin. 



SEAL. A pieee of metal having coats of 
arms or some other device engraven upon 
it j also the print in wax made by the seal. 

SEAL (in Law). The impression or de¬ 
vice printed on wax which is put to any 


deed by way of ratification. In England, 
the great seal is the seal used for the uni¬ 
ted kingdom of England and Scotland, 
and sometimes of J reland. The privy seal 
is that which the king uses to such grants, 
&c. as pass the great seal. 

SEALER. In England, an officer ii 
Chancery, who seals the writs and instru¬ 
ments there made. 

SEALINGWAX. A hard wax made of 
gum lac, resin, fitc. which is used in seal 
ing letters, <fcc 

SEALSKIN. The skin of the seal 

SEAMEN Men brought up to the sea 
life. 

SEAMEW. A sea bird about 18 inches 
in length. 

SEAPORCUPINE. A fish found m 
America, which puffs itself out in the 
shape of a bladder when enraged. 

SEARCHERS. Women appointed t< 
examine all persons immediately aftei 
their decease. 

SEASONS. The four portions of the 
year, namely, Spring, when the sun enters 
Aries; Summer, when he enters Cancer; 
Autumn, when he enters Libra; and Win¬ 
ter, when he enters Capricorn. 

SEA-STAR, or Starfish. An animal 
inhabiting the sea, which adheres to the 
bottoms of ships, and renews any of its 
parts which it loses. 



SEA-URCHIN. An animal inhabiting 
the sea, which is armed with five sharp 
teeth. 

SEAWEEDS. A sort of herbs found 
floating on the surface of the sea, which 
are botanically called algae. 

SEA-WOLF. A voracious fish found in 
the north of Europe. 

SEAWORTHY. An epithet for a ship 
fit for a voyage. 

SECOND. Any right angle that cuts 
another, whether a right line or a curve. 

SECOND (in Geometry and Horology). 
The sixtieth part of a minute, marked 
thus ("). 

SECONDARY (in Law). The second 
man it anv place who is next to ar f chief 
officer. 

SECONDARY CIRCLES. Cireler 













524 


SEM 


SER 


which into .•sect the six greater circles of 
die sphere at right angles. 

SECONDARY PLANETS. Those 
which revolve as satellites round the pri¬ 
mary planets. 

SECRETARY. One who is employed 
in writing letters, Ac. for a person. 

SECRETION. The separation of some 
fluid from another in an animal or vege¬ 
table substance by means of glands. 

SECT A religious party. 

SECTION. The cutting of one plant by 
another. 

SECTOR. A mathematical instru¬ 
ment used in measuring proportional quan¬ 
tities. 

SECTOR OF A CIRCLE. That por¬ 
tion of a circle comprehended between 
two radii and an arch. 

SECUNDUM ARTEM. By the rules 
of art. 

SECULAR GAMES. Games among 
the Romans, so called because they were 
celebrated but once in a seculum or age. 

SECULAR PRIEST. One who has 
not taken monastic vows. 

SEDAN. A close chair in which per¬ 
sons are carried by men. 

SEDIMENT. Whatever settles or sinks 
to the bottom of a fluid 

SEED. The essence of the fruit of every 
vegetable, containing the rudiments of the 
new vegetable. 

SEGMENT. Any part of a line in a 
.riangle or other figure, cut ofl' by a per¬ 
pendicular let fall upon it. 

SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE. A part 
cut off by a chord, or that pertion com¬ 
prehended between an arc and a chord. 

SEIGNIOR, Grand. The sultan or em¬ 
peror of the Turks. 

SEIGNORY. The jurisdiction and 
power of a lord. 

SEIZING. A sea term for binding two 
ropes together. 

SEIZURE (in Law). An arrest of mer¬ 
chandise, that is prohibited or otherwise 
forfeited. 

SELENIUM, or Selenite The sul¬ 
phate of lime. 

SELENOGRAPHY. A description of 
the face of the moon. 

SELLING OUT (among Stockbrokers). 
A transfer of one’s share of stock from one 
person to another, in distinction from buy¬ 
ing in, which is the purchase of the stock 
held by another. 

SELLING OUT (among Military Men 
in England). The selling one’s commis- 
tion 

SEMI. A prefix to man}’words, signify¬ 


ing half, as semicircle, half a circle; eemt 
colon, half a colon, &c. 

SEMIMETALS. Fossil bodies not maP 
leable, yet in some measure to be fixed by 
fire. 

SENIORITY. Priority of birth. 

SENIORITY (among Military Men). 
Priority in the time since the raising ot 
any regiment, or an officer’s receiving his 

commission, &c. 

SENSE. That faculty of the soul,whereby 
it perceives external objects by means of 
impressions made on particular parts of 
the body, called the organs of sense, and 
then conveyed to the sensory ; the senses 
are five, namely, seeing, hearing, smelling, 
taste, and feeling. 

SENSIBLE HORIZON. See Horizon. 

SENSITIVE PLANTS. Plants of the 
mimosa tribe, which have the extraordi 
nary property of closing on being touched 

SENTICOSiE. One of Linnaeus’s natu- 
ral orders of plants, including the rose, 
brier, hawthorn, &c. 

SENTINEL. A private soldier placed 
to watch at some post. 

SEPIARIA2. One of Linnaeus’s natural 
order of plants, including sucn as grow 
wild in hedges or are used for hedges, as 
the brier, privet, &c. 

SEPOYS. Natives who serve in the 
army in India. 

SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the 
year,so called because it wasSeptimus Men- 
sis, the seventh month of Romulus’s year 

SEPTENNIAL. Every seven years, 
as septennial parliaments, i. e. new par¬ 
liaments chosen every seven years, as they 
are at present appointed in England. 

SEPTUAGESIMA. The first Sunday 
in Lent. 

SEPTUAGINT. The Greek translation 
of the Bible from the Hebrew into the 
Greek by seventy-two Jewish interpreters, 
by order of Ptolemy Philadelphia king 
of Egypt. 

SEQUESTRATION (in Law). The 
separating a thing in controversy from the 
possession of both parties, till the right be 
determined by course of law. 

SEQUESTRATION (in the Civil Law) 
The act of the ordinary disposing of ths 
goods and chattels of a person deceased, 
whose estate no one will meddle with. 

SERAGLIO. The palace of the grand 
seignior. 

SERGE. A woollen stuff manufactured 
in a loom. 

SERGEANT, or Serobant at Law 
In England, the highest degree taken in 
the common law, answering to that e» 
doctor in the civil law 




SET 


SERGEANT (in Military Affairs). An 
inferior officer appointed to teach the sol¬ 
diers their exercise 

SERGEANTS AT ARMS. In England, 
officers appointed to attend the king, arrest 
offenders, and the like. 

SERIATIM. Successively, in order. 

SERIES. A rank or progression of quan¬ 
tities proceeding by some rule, as in arith¬ 
metical progression by addition, 1, 3, 5, 
&C.; and in geometrical progression by 
multiplication, as 2, 4, 8,16, &c. 

SERIES, Infinite. A series consisting 
of an infinite number of terms, to the end 
of which it is impossible to come. 

SERPENTES. An order in the Linnsean 
system under the class amphibia, inclu¬ 
ding animals which have no feet, fins, nor 
ears, and are cast naked on the earth with¬ 
out limbs, but frequently armed with a 
deadly poison. Under this order are the 
seven genera, namely, the boa constrictor, 
the rattlesnake, the viper, the snake, the 
acrochordus, amphisbsena, and coecilia. 

SERVAL* A beautiful animal of the cat 
family, spotted like the panther, and about 
the size of the lynx It is a native of 
India. 

SERVICE-TREE. A tree, the fruit of 
which is h'gb’y astringent; it is used in 
making brandy and cider 

SERVITOR. A poor scholar at Oxford 
in England, answering to a sizer at Cam¬ 
bridge, who attends on other students for 
his maintenance. 

SERUM. A thin transparent liquor 
which forms a part of the blood, and also 
of milk. 

SESSION. In England, a sitting of jus¬ 
tices in court upon their commission, as 
the session of oyer and terminer, &c. 

SESSIONS, or Quarter Sessions. In 
England, sessions held every quarter by 
two or more justices, whereof one is of the 
quorum. 

SETTING. The sinking below the hori¬ 
zon, applied to any star or planet. 

SETTING DOG, or Setter. A sport¬ 
ing dog who catches fowls. 



SET OFF (in Law). When the defen¬ 
dant acknowledges the plaintiff’s demand, 
but sets up a demand of his own, to set off 

28 


SHA 328 

or counterbalance the debt either wholly 
or in part. 

SETON. A sort of issue in the neck 
formed by means of horsehair or fine 
thread drawn through the skin. 

SETS (among Gardeners). The young 
plants of white thorn or other shrubs, 
which are raised as quick for hedges. 

SEWER. A passage or gutter made to 
carry water away into the sea. 

SEXAGENARY One who has liced 
sixty years. 

SEXAGESIMAL ARITHMETIC. A 
mode of computing by sixtieths, such as 
the division of a degree into sixty minutes, 
a minute into sixty seconds. 

SEXAGESIMA SUNDAY. The six¬ 
tieth day before Easter. 

SEXTANT. The sixth part of a circle, 
or an arc comprehending sixty degrees $ 
also an astronomical instrument like a 
quadrant, except that its limb only com¬ 
prehends sixty degrees. 

SEXTON. An officer who digs the 
graves, and assists the minister at fune¬ 
rals. 

SEXUAL SYSTEM (in Botany). The 
system of classifying plants, invented by 
Linnteus, and formed from the parts of 
fructification, as the stamens and the pistils. 
From the number of stamens are formed 
the classes monandria, diandria, triandria 
&c. for such plants as have one, two 
three, or more stamens ; from the numbei 
of pistils are formed the several orders 
under these classes, as monogynia, digynia, 
trigynia, <fcc. for such plants und«r each 
class as have one, two, three, or more 
pistils. 

SHACKLES. A sort of fetters for male¬ 
factors ; which confine the legs; also foi 
animals that go astray. 

SHADDOCK. A shrub, the fruit of 
which resembles a lemon. 

SHADOW (in Optics). A privation or 
diminution of light, by the interposition of 
an opaque body. 

SHADOWING (in Painting). The art 
of duly representing light and shade in a 
picture. 

SHAFT. The body of a column. 

SHAFT (among Miners). A hole like a 
well, which miners make to free the works 
from the springs that are in them. 

SHAGREEN. A kind of rough-grained 
leather, prepared from the skin of the 
hound-fish, and used for watchcases, &c. 

SHAMMY, or Chamois. A soft leathe/ 
prepared from the skin of the chamori 
goat. 

SHAMROCK. A name in Ireland foi 

the trefoil. 



32$ 


SHE 




SHANK, That pait of the fore log of 
a horse that is between the knee ami the 
*econd joint next tin? foot; also the long 
and cylinarral part of different things, as 
the shank of a candlestick, Ac. 

SHARE. The cutting part of a plough. 
SHARK. A voracious fish, that inhabits 
he ten only, and grows to an enormous 

it Tti 



SHARP. A half note, signifying an 
elevation, marked thus 



SHEARS A tool made in the form of 
scissors, for clipping hedges, &c. 

SHEATH. A case for a knife or sword. 

SHEATH-RILL. A bird inhabiting the 
South Sea islands, which has the upper 
inandiole of its bill covered with a sheath. 

SHEATHING. The covering nailed on 
a ship’s bottom, to protect the planks from 
worms. 

SHEEP. A domestic animal, much 
valued both for its flesh and its wool. Of 
the different breeds of this animal, the 
South Downs, Leicester, and Norfolk are 
the most esteemed in England. It is one 
of the most profitable part of the live stock 
of a farm, where the lands are dry. In 



th« United States, the merino breed brought 
'Vom Spain is preferred for the wool. 
SHEEP-SHEARING. The spring sea- 


SHI 

son, when the fleeces of the sheep are 
sheared or cut off. 

SHEET. A large linen cloth laid on a 

bed. 

SHEET. A breadth of paper, that ad¬ 
mits of being folded into a given form. 

SHEET (among Mariners}. A rope 
fastened to the corner of a sail. 

SHEIK. In Arabia, the chief or lord 
of a tribe or clan; among Mohamme¬ 
dans, a title of persons of the higher 
order who preach in the mosques. 

SHEKEL. Among the ancient Jews, 
a weight of about half an ounce avoir¬ 
dupois ; a coin of about the value of 
62 cents. 

SHELL. A crustaceous covering of 
fishes or fruits. 

SHELL-FISH. Fish invested with a 
hard covering, either testaceous, as oysters, 
or crustaceous, as lobsters. 

SHERIFF, or Shire-reeve. In Eng¬ 
land a reeve or officer of the shire, whe, as 
keeper of the king’s peace, is the first man 
in the county. He is appointed oy the 
king for every county except Middlesex, 
where he is elected, according to ancient 
usage, by the livery of London. In the 
United States, the Sheriff is an officer 
who attends upon court, has charge of 
the prisoners, sees to the execution of 
writs, &c. 

SHIELD. A weapon of defence, borne 
on the arm, to turn off lances ; also another 
name for an escutcheon, by which it is 
represented. 

SHIP. A general name for all large 
vessels which navigate the seas, particu¬ 
larly those equipped with three masts and 
a bowsprit, the masts being composed of 
a lower mast, topmast, and topgallant 
mast, each of which is provided with 
yards, sails, &c 

SHIP-BUILDING. The practical branch 
of naval architecture, or the art of con¬ 
structing vessels according to certain 
draughts. 

SHIP-MONEY An imposition formerly 
charged upon the ports, cities, towns, &c. 
of England. 

SHIPPING. A general term for what¬ 
ever relates to ships. 

SHIPS OF WAR, commonly called 
Men of War. Vessels properly equipped 
with artillery, ammunition, and all the 
implements of war necessary for attack 
and defence. Ships of the first rate or 
class mount from 100 to 110 guns and 
upwards; of the second from 90 to 98 
guns; third rate from 64 to 74 guns; 
fourth rate, from 50 to 60 guns ; fifth rate, 
from 32 to 44 guns; and sixth rate, frena 












SID 


SIL 


32*. 


90 to 28. Vessels carrying fewer than 
20 guns are denominated sloops, cutters, 
fireships, and bombs. 

SHIP-WORM. A testaceous a mal, 
the teredo of Linnaeus, that adheres to the 
bottom of vessels coming from India, and 
does much damage. 

SHIPWRIGHT. One who follows the 
art of building ships The company of 
shipwrights in London, was incorporated 
in the reign of James I. 

SHIRE. The Saxon name for a county. 

SHOAL. A shallow piece of water, or 
a shallow part of the sea near the coast. 

SHOARS. Props set up obliquely 
against a house 

SHOE. A covering for the foot, made 
of leather ; also the piece of iron nailed to 
a horse's foot, or under a sledge, &c. 

SHOE (among Mariners). A small 
block of wood on the back of an anchor. 

SHORE. A tract of land near the sea. 

SHORL. A mineral of a black colour. 

SHORTHAND, otherwise called Ste- 
etograthy. An abbreviated form of wri¬ 
ting. 

SHOT. A general name for all sorts of 
balls used in firearms. 

SHREW. An aniira-.l resembling the 
mole, that lives on insects. 

SHREWMOLE. A species of mole. 



SHRIKE. A fierce kind of bird, that 
preys on lesser birds, and, tearing them 
to pieces, leaves them sticking on the 
hedges 

SHRIMP A small sea-fish, resembling 
a lobster 

SHROUDS. A sea term for great ropes 
that come down both sides the masts. 

SHROVE-TIDE. The time just before 
Lent. 

SHRUB. A small low tree, between a 
bush and a tree. It is mostly an orna¬ 
mental plant, jearing beautiful ilowers, 
as the acacia, lilac, &c 

SPBYLS. Prophetesses, or such as pro- 
tessec to be so, among the Romans and 
Greeks. The Romans preserved their 
books with great care, and consulted them 
only or griat occasions. 

SIDEREAL. Pertaining to any star or 
planet, as a sidereal day, the time in 
which any star appears to revolve from 
the meridian to the meridian again, which 


is 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds and 6"' 
of mean solar time, there being 366 side 
real days in a year, or in the time of the 
365 diurnal revolutions of the sun. 

SIEGE. The encampment of an army 
before a fortified place, with a design to 
take it 

SIENITE. A compound granular ag 
gregated rock, composed of felspar and 
hornblende, with a portion sometimes o! 
quartz and black mica. 

SIEVE. An instrument for separating 
the fine from the coarser parts of powders 
liquors, grain, &c. 

SIGHTS OF A aUADRANT, &x. 
Thin pieces of brass raised perpendicular¬ 
ly on its side 

SIGN (in Arithmetic and Algebra , 
Any mark used in operation, as -J~ foi 
addition, — for subtraction, X f° r multi¬ 
plication, for division, = for equality. 

SIGN (in Astronomy). The twelfth part 
of the zodiac 

SIGNALS Notices given to a distant 
observer, forthe purpose of communicating 
intelligence 

SIGNATURE. The signing any paper, 
or putting any mark under a writing. 

SIGNATURE (among Printers). A let¬ 
ter of the alphabet, put at the bottom of 
the page in each sheet. 

SIGN ET. A seal set in a ring ; also the 
king’s seal, wherewith his private letters 
are signed. 

SIGN-MANUAL (in England). The 
signature to any bill or instrument in the 
I king’s own handwriting. 

SILICA. One of the primitive earths, 
which forms one of the constituent parts 
of all stones, and is found in greatest 
abundance in agates, jasper, flints, quartz 
and rock crystal. In the latter, it exists 
nearly in a state of purity. 

SILIQ.UA. A pod, like that of the pea 

SI LIQUOSiE. One of the Linnaean 
natural orders of plants, including those 
which have siliquae or pods for their seed 
vessels, like the pea, bean, lupin, &c 

SILK. The production of different spe¬ 
cies of the caterpillar, particularly the one 
called by the generic name of the bombyy 
mori, or silkworm by distinction, which 
is commonly used in Europe. The silk is 
found enclosed in two small bags, from 
which it is drawn in fine threads, to serve 
the insect as a covering while it lies ip 
the chrysalis state. The balls of silk which 
the worm spins are called cocoons, which 
are sold to persons whose business it is to 
reel them off*. A single cocoon is never 
reeled off* separately, it being too weak 
for that purpose ; but in the reeling* 










R28 


S I M 


31Z 


suds of several cocoons are joined and 
reeled together out of warm water, into 
wuich they are put for the purpose of 
softening their natural gum, and making 
them stick. 

SILK-THROWER, or Silk-Throw- 
9txr. One who throws or spins silk so 
as to fit it for weaving. The company of 
silk-throwers in London, was incorporated 
in 1629. 

SILKWORM. The worm from which 
silk is most commonly procured. 


Mali. 



SILVAN. Pertaining to woods, as the 
silvan nymphs, &c. 

SILVER. The whitest of all metals, is 
considerably harder than gold, hut not 
quite so ductile or malleable. It ignites 
before it melts, and requires a strong heat 
to fuse it. 

SILVERING. The art of covering the 
surfaces of substances with a thin coating 
of silver. It is of particular use for culi¬ 
nary utensils, as it resists the corroding 
power of vinegar, &c. 

SIMILAR (in Mathematics). An epi¬ 
thet mostly applied to figures, angles, Ac. 
which have the same disposition and con¬ 
formation of the parts. 

SIMONY (in England). The corrupt 
presentation of any one to an ecclesiasti¬ 
cal benefice, for money, gift, reward, or 
benefit. 

SIMPLE (in Medicine). What is not 
mixed with any other thing, as opposed 
;o a compound. 

SIMPLE (in Pharmacy). A general 
name for all herbs which have any parti¬ 
cular medicinal virtue. 


SIMPLER. One who gathers simples 
for the druggists. 

SIMULTANEOUSLY. At one and the 
same moment. 

SINECURE. An office to which little 
or no personal service is attached. 

SINE DIE, i. e. Without Day. A 
term in law for a defendant who is dis¬ 
missed court without trial. 

SINE OF AN ARC. A right line 
drawn from one end of an arc perpendi¬ 
cular to the radius drawn to the other end. 

SINE aUA NON. What cannot be 
dispensed with. 

SINEW. The ligament which joins 
two bones. 

SINGULAR NUMBER (in Grammar). 
A noun which denotes a single thing. 

SINKING FUND. A portion of the 
public revenue set apart to be applied to 
the reductio i or diminution of the national 
debt. This measure of appropriating a 
part of the revenue of the country for the 
discharge of the public debt was adopted 
in Holland in 1655, and in the Ecclesiasti¬ 
cal States in 1685. But the particular fund 
so called in England was first adopted by 
Mr. Pitt. 

SIPHON. See Syphon. 

SIR. A title of address to baronets and 
knights, coupled with their Christian 
name, as Sir William or Sir John, &c.; 
also a general complimentary form of ad¬ 
dress. 

SIRIUS, the Dogstar. A very bright 
star of the first magnitude in Canis Major 

SIROCCO. A periodical wiind in Italy 
and Barbary, which prevails about Easter 

SKELETON An assemblage cf the 



bones of any animal, cleaned, dried, and 
preserved in their natural position. 

SIZE. A sort of glue mad } ofthe shreds 









S LI 




am! parings leather, parchment, or vel- 
lum.boiled i i water, and strained. It is 
used hy painters, printers, &c. 

SIZER. A poor scholar at Cambridge, 
England. 

SKEIN. Any quantity of thread after 
ft is taken off the reel. 

SKETCH. The outline of any object, 
taken in pencil or otherwise. 

SKIFF. A small light boat. 

SKIN. One of the principal integuments 
of the body, consisting of three lamia®, 
namely, the skarf skin which is the outer¬ 
most; the rete mucosum, the second; and 
ihe cutis vera, or real skin, the third. 

SKINNER. One who deals in hides or 
skins The company of skinners in Lon¬ 
don, was incorporated in 1325. 

SKIRMISH. A loose desultory engage¬ 
ment between small parties detached from 
the armies. 

SKULL. The bony part of the head, 
fashioned in the form of a globe, and con¬ 
sisting of three divisions, namely, the sin¬ 
ciput, or fore part; the occiput, or hind 
part; and the vertex, or crown. 

SKUNK. An animal of the weasel kind, 
peculiar to North America, remarkable for 
emitting a fetid smell in self defence. 

SKY. The blue expanse of the heavens, 
or the region which surrounds the earth 
beyond the atmosphere. Sir Isaac Newton 
attributes the azure colour of the sky to 
vapours beginning to condense there, and 
acquiring a sufficient consistence to reflect 
the most refiexible rays 
SLAB (among Carpenters) An outside 
plank cut from a tree, which is generally 
rough and uneven; also a table of marble 
for hearths, &c. 

SLATE. A bluish fossil stone, which is 
so soft that it can be cut into squares, and 
used either for the roofs of houses or other 
purposes. # 

SLEDGE. A carriage without wheels, 
used for carrying ploughs or other imple¬ 
ments from place to place; also a carriage 
in Russia, fitted for going along the snow. 
In Lapland the sledges are drawn by 
reindeer. 

SLEEPERS. Timbers lying next to 
the ground, or under the boarding of the 
floor. 

SLEIGHT OF HAND, ?r Slight of 
Hind. The tricks of jugglers performed 
with such dexterity as to deceive the 
quickest eye 

SLIDING-RULE. A mathematical in¬ 
strument, to be used without compasses in 
guaging. 

SLING. A leathern strap, o' hlch a 
soldier’s musket is slung. 

28 * 


S M E 329 

SLING (in Surgeiy). A bandage for 
supporting a wounded limb. 

SLOOP. A small vessel with one mast. 
In the navy, sloops are, tenders carrying 
ten or twelve guns and about thirty men. 



slow motion in walking. It climbs quicker 
than it walks. 



SLUG. A variety of the snail tribe, that 
has no shell. It is very destructive in 
gardens. 

SLUG. A cylindrical or cubical piece 
of metal shot from a gun. 

SLUICE. A frame of wood set in a 
river, &c. to raise the water or to let it 
pass off, as occasion may require. 

SMACK. A small vessel used in the 
fishing trade. 

SMALL ARMS. A general name for 
muskets, fusils, carabines, &c. 

SMALL CRAFT. All manner of small 
sea vessels, as catches, hoys, &c. 

SMALL-POX. A cutaneous disorder, 
to which persons are mostly subject once 
in their lives. If taken by infection, it is 
often dangerous, but if taken by inocula¬ 
tion, it mostly passes off without any ill 
consequence. Vaccination orinoculation 
with the cow-pox, is milder, but not so 
certain a remedy against future infection. 

SMALT. A sort of blue colour used in 
painting. 

SMELL, or SMELLING. One of the 
five senses, performed by a vascular porous 
membrane which lines the internal cavity 
of the nostrils. This is effected by the 
odorous particles which proceed from ex 
ternal substances. 

SMELT A fish of the salmon tribe 







SOL 


330 SOC 

which ascends rivers in vast shoals in the 
•pawning season. 

SMELTING (in Metallurgy). The fu¬ 
sion or melting of ores, in order to separate 
the metallic from the earthy or stony parts. 
The art of fusing ores after washing is one 
of the moat important operations in metal- 
urgy. 

SMITH. One who works in iron. The 
company of blacksmiths in London, was 
incorporated in the sixteenth century 

SMITHERY. The art of working iron 
nto particular shapes as occasion requires. 

SMOKE A humid matter, exhaled in 
he form a i a vapour, which ascends from 
Ihe fire. 

SMOKE-JACK. See Jack. 

SMUGGLERS (in Law). Those who 
get prohibited goods, clandestinely and 
fraudulently imported. 

SMUT. A disease in wheat, which 
consumes the germ and substance of the 
grain. It is a sort of fungus. 

SNAIL. A sort of testaceous animal, of 
which there are numerous species, that 
vary mostly in regard to their shells. 
Snails without shells are called slugs. 

SNAKE. An amphibious animal, which 
resembles an eel in its cylindrical body. 

SNEEZING. A convulsive contraction 
of the cheat. 

SNIPE. A heath bird, nearly allied to 
the woodcock. 



SNOW. A well Known meteor, formed 
by the freezing of the vapotir in the at¬ 
mosphere. » 

SNUFF. A narcotic powder prepared 
from the leaves of the tobacco plant. 

SOAP. A composition of oil or fat, and 
potashes, or any other alkali. The soft 
soap is made of potash, and oil or tallow; 
the Spanish or Castile soap, of oil of 
olives, and soda or barilla: black soap is 
a composition of train oil and an alkali. 

SOCIETY. A name given to any asso¬ 
ciation of persons uniting together, and co¬ 
operating to effect some particular object, 
as the societies or academies for promoting 
the cause of literature; charitable societies, 
for purposes of public charity; missionary 
societies, for sendi ng missionaries abroad; 
and the like 


SODA. A mineral alkaV, sometimes 
found in a native state as in the lakes in 
Egypt, which, being dried by tire heat of 
the sub, leave beds of soda, or natron, as 
it is there called. Soda is, however, for 
the most part, procured from a plant, 
botanically called the salsola soda, which 
grows among the cliffs on the coast, and 
also from other plants on the seashore; 
but, in this case, it is more or less pure, 
according to the nature of the plant from 
which it is procured. Soda resembles pot¬ 
ash very much, but it is rather more fusi¬ 
ble; and when it comes into the air, it 
crumbles into powder instead of liquefy¬ 
ing, as potash does. 

SODA WATER. Water impregnated 
with carbonic acid gas. 

SOI-DISANT. Self-styled 

SOIL. The ground in a state for culti¬ 
vation, or for the growth of plants. 

SOLAR SYSTEM. That system of as¬ 
tronomy, which is founded on the hypo¬ 
thesis that the sun is the immoveable 
centre of the universe, round which all 
the other planets revolve at different dis¬ 
tances, and in different spaces of time. 

SOLDER. A metallic composition used 
by plumbers and other artificers, for the 
purpose of uniting metallic bodies more 
firmly together. Iron is generally soldered 
with copper; copper and brass, with tin. 

SOLE. An European fish much valued 
for the table. 

SOLECISM. An impropriety of speech 
contrary to the rules of grammar. 

SOLICITOR. A person who is employ¬ 
ed in conducting suits in courts of equity 

SOLID (in Geometry). A magnitude 
which has length, breadth, and thickness. 

SOLID (in Physics). A body whose 
minute parts are so connected together as 
not to yield readily to the impression of 
external force, in distinction from a fluid. 

SOLIDITY* That property of matter 
by which it excludes every other body 
from the place which it occupies. 

SOLITARY CONFINEMENT. The 
confinement of prisoners by themselves in 
cells. 

SOLO (in Music Books). A name for 
any part that is performed by one single 
person. 

SOLSTICE. The time when the sun is 
at the greatest distance from the equator, 
namely, 23° 28'; which happens about the 
21st of June, when he enters the tropic of 
Cancer, or the summer solstice; and about 
the 21st of December, when he enters the 
tropic of Capricorn, which is the winter 
solstice 

SOLSTITIAL POINTS The tw* 








SPA 


points in the cliptic, namely, the first of 
Cancer, and the first of Capricorn, when 
the solstices happen. 

SOLVENT. Any menstruum or corro¬ 
sive liquor which will dissolve bodies. 

SOLUTION. The intimate mixture cr 
perfect union of solid bodies with fluids, 
so as seemingly to form one homogeneous 
liquor. 

SOMNAMBULISM. Walking in one’s 
sleep. 

SOOT. A volatile matter arising from 
the smoke of wood or other fuel •, or more 
properly, the smoke itself dried and con¬ 
densed on the sides of the chimney. 

SOPHISM. A specious but false argu¬ 
ment, that serves to mislead. 

SOUND. That effect or impression on 
the ear, supposed to be occasioned by the 
tremulous motion of the air acting on that 
organ. If this motion be uniform, then it 
produces a musical note or sound. 

SOUND (in Geography). Any great in¬ 
let of the sea between two capes or head¬ 
lands, where there is no passage through, 
as Plymouth Sound, or that part of the 
Baltic called by distinction the Sound. 

SOUNDBOARD (in an Organ). A re¬ 
servoir into which the wind is conducted, 
and thence distributed to the pipes. 

SOUNDING (in Navigation). Trying 
the depth of the water, and the quality of 
the bottom, by a line with a plummet at 
the end. 

SOUP. A strong decoction of flesh or 
other substances. 

SOW (in the Iron Works). A block or 
lump of metal worked at once in the fur¬ 
nace. 

SPA. A mineral spring. 

SPACE (in Geometry). The area of 
any figure. 

SPACE (among Printers). A slip of 
wood or metal for making a space between 
words or lines. 

SPANIEL. A sort of dog, with a long 
shaggy coat and pendulous ears. There 



are beside this, a variety of other dogs of 
the spaniel kind. 


SPE 331 

SPAN An English measure of nine 
inches. 

SPANISH FLY. An insect which i« 
used in raising blisters. 

SPAR. Any sort of earth which breaks 
easily into cubical or laminated fragments 
with polished surfaces. 

SPARROW. A bird so nearly allied to 
the finch, that they are classed by Linnxus 
under the generic name of fringilla. But 
the sparrow differs in its habits essentiallj 
from the finch. It is a mischievous, cun 
ning, spiteful bird, that is very destructive 
in corn-fields, and in the roofs of houses 
where it builds. We here speak of the 
European species. In America, there are 
several varieties, of which the chipping bird 
is the most common. 

SPARROW-HAWK. A kind of short¬ 
winged hawk. 

SPASM. An involuntary contraction of 
the muscular fibres. 

SPATHACE/E. One of the Linmean 
natural orders, comprehending plants very 
similar to the liliaceous plants, as the nar¬ 
cissus, &c. 

SPATULA. An instrument for spread¬ 
ing salves or plasters. 

SPAVIN. A disease in the feet of 
horses, which causes them to swell. 

SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE OP 
COMMONS. In England, a member cho¬ 
sen by the house, and approved by the 
king, who regulates all their proceedings, 
and speaks in the name of the whole on all 
public occasions. The speaker of legisla¬ 
tive bodies in the United States has similar 
duties. 

SPEAKING-TRUMPET. A sort of 
trumpet used at sea, by the help of which 
persons may hear at a great distance. 



point. 

SPECIAL JURY (in Law). A Jury of 
a higher order of persons, sworn to try a 
particular cause. 

SPECIALTY (in Law). A bond, bill, 
or similar instrument. 

SPECIE. Gold r coin, in distinction 
from paper money. 

SPECIES. Any particular plant, ani¬ 
mal, or mineral, contained under a genus. 

SPECIFIC A medicine having a par¬ 
ticular efficacy. 

•SPKCIFIC GRAVITY. The reiatlvt 










882 


SPI 


sro 


proportion of the weight of bodies of the 
same bulk, which is determined by im¬ 
mersing them in any fluid. 

SPECTRUM. A luminous spot formed 
by a ray of light on a white surface, when 
admitted through a small hole. 

SPECULUM. Any polished body im¬ 
pervious to the rays of light, such as 
polished metals, looking-glasses, &c. 

SPERMACETI. An oilv substance 
found in the head of the physeter macro- 
eephalus, a species of whale 

SPHERE (in Geometry). A selid con¬ 
tained under one uniform round surface, 
such as would be formed by the revolution 
of a circle about a diameter thereof, as an 
axis. 

SPHERE (in Astronomy). The concave 
orb or expanse which invests our globe, 
and in which the heavenly bodies appear 
to be fixed, at an equal distance from the 
eye. 

SPHERICS. The doctrine of the sphere, 
particularly of the several circles described 
on its surface, with the method of project¬ 
ing the same on a plane. 

SPHEROID. A solid body approaching 
to the figure of a sphere. 

SPHINX. A fabulous monster of Thebes, 
said to have put forth riddles, and to have 
killed those who could not expound them ; 
also an Egyptian statue, with the head of 
a woman and the body of a lion. 

SPIDER. An insect which is remark¬ 
able for its ingenuity in forming its web, 
which it effects by means of papilla; or 
teats at the bottom of its belly. It uses its 
web as a snare for flies and other insects, 
whom it seizes and kills with great fe¬ 
rocity. 



SPIDER-WORT. A perenp-ial and a 
flowering plant, cultivated in gardens. 

SPINAoE. A pot-herb. 

SPINE (in Anatomy). The bony column, 
which consists of the twenty-four vertebra; 
of the back. 

SPINET A musical instrument some¬ 
thing similar to a harpsichord. 

SPINNING The act of drawing silk, 
flax, or wool, into threads, which is per¬ 
formed either by means of a wheel, or by 
machines particularly constructed for the 
purpose. 

SPINSTER (in Law). In England, an 


addition usually given to unmarried wo 
men, from a viscount’s daughter down 
wards. The term is also used in the 
United States, in application to any un 
married woman. 

SPIRACULA. Holes or pores in the 
abdomen of insects, through which they 
breathe. 

SPIRAL. A curve line, which in it.# 
progress always recedes more and more 
from its centre. 

SPIRE. A steeple that rises tapering 
by degrees, and ends in a point. 

SPIRITS. A general name for all vo 
latile substances collected by distillation, 
now confined by chymists to alcohol. 

SPLEEN (in Anatomy). A spongy vis 
cus, of a livid colour, lying on the left 
side of the body. 

SPLICING. Joining one rope to ano¬ 
ther. 

SPLINTER. A small shiver of wood or 
bone suddenly and violently broken off. 

SPOKES. The bars in the wheel of a 
carriage. 

SPONDEE. A foot of two syllables. 

SPONGE. A substance which, at one 
time, was supposed to be a sea-moss grow 
ing on rocks, but now discovered to be a 
sort of zoophyte, that is torpid, and clothed 
with a gelatinous porous flesh, by which it 
absorbs or rejects water at pleasure 

SPOONBILL. A bird so called front 
its flat orbicular beak, which is in the 
shape of a spoon. 



SPONTANEOUS. An epithet for things 
that act of themselves, without any appa¬ 
rent external agency, as the spontaneous 
combustion of vegetable substances, which 
when highly dried, and closely heaped, 
will burst into a flame; so the spontaneous 
generation of th© limbs or parts of animals 
which have been cut off or destroyed. 

SPOTS ON THE SUN, &c. Dark 
places observed on the sun. moon, and 






3QU 

planets, of the nature which, little is 
known at present. 

SPRAT. A fish very similar to a herring, 
but smaller. It is a species of the same 
genus, under the generic name of clupea 

SPRAY. The sprinkling of the sea 
driven from the top of a wave in stormy 
weather. 

SPRING (in Astronomy). One of the 
seasons, commencing in the northern hemi ¬ 
sphere when the sun enters Aries, about 
the 21st of March. 

SPRING. A fountain or source of water 
rising out of the ground. 

SPRING (among Mechanics). A piece 
of tempered steel, fitted to give an elastic 
power to any machine, as the spring of a 
watch, represented underneath 


iliillli 



SPRING COE. A species of African 
Antelope. 

SPRINGER A lively and pleasant 
species of dug, very expeit in raising 
woodcocks and snipes 

SPRING-TIDES. Tides at new and 
full moon. 

SPRIT. A small boom or pole crossing 
the sail of a boat diagonally. 

SPRUCE. A lluid extracted by decoc¬ 
tion from the spruce fir. 

SPRUCE-BEER. A ciieap and whole¬ 
some liquor, made of treacle or molasses, 
and the essence of spruce, well boiled in 
water, to which yeast is afterwards added 
to assistHbe fermentation. 

SPRUCE-FIR. A kind of Scotch or 
Norway fir, common in America. 

SPUNGE. See Si’onge. 

SPUNGING-HOUSE (in England). A 
victualling house, or place of temporary 
confinement, for persons arrested for debt. 

SPUNK. A substance growing on tfc9 
f ides of trees, which serves as tinder. 

SPUN YARN. The yarn of untwisted 
ropes, the ends of which are scraped and 
beaten thin, to be let into the ends of 
other ropes. 

SPUR. A piece of metal made to fit 
the heel of the horseman, and armed with 
a rowel, which is used for urging a horse on. 

SPY. A person hired to watch the mo¬ 
tions of another, particularly what passes 
In an enemy’s camp. 

SQUADRON (in the Navy). A detach¬ 
ment of ships employed in any expedition. 

SQUADRON (in the Army). A body 
of h >rse, from one to two hundred. 

SQUARE Geometry). A quadrila- 


STA £38 

teral figure, whose angles are right angles, 
and sides equal. 

SQUARE (in Arithmetic). The product 
of any number multiplied by itself; also 
the squares of lineal measures, as a square 
foot, a square yard. 

SQUARE (among Carpenters). An in¬ 
strument for squaring their work or redu¬ 
cing it to a square. 

SQUARE (in Military Affairs.) A body 
of soldiers formed into a square. 

SQUARE-ROOT. A number which, 
multiplied in itself, produces the square 
number; thus, 2 is the square-root of 4. 

SQUIRREL. An agile animal, that 
climbs dexterously, and leaps nimbly from 
tree to tree. It lives mostly on seeds and 
fruit. The most common varieties in 
North America are the gray, red, and strb 
ped 



STACK, or Rick. A structure of hay 
or corn, so formed that it may be thatched 
by way of defence from the wet. The 
stem or body of the stack should be about 
two-thirds, and the roof one-third, of the 
whole stack. A funnel or chimney, called 
the well, is frequently left in circular 
stacks, to prevent their heating too strongly. 
As a preservative against the wet, while 
the hay or corn is stacking, rick-cloths 
are fixed up. 

STADIUM. A Greek long measure, 
equal to our furlong; also the race-course 
among the Greeks. 

STAFF. An ensign of office. 

STAFF (in the Army). A specified 
number of officers acting together. 

STAFF (among Mariners). A light poie 
erected in a ship, on which the colours 
are hoisted. 

STAFF-OFFICERS. Those officers 
who constitute the staff. 

STAGE. The elevated place In the ares 
of a theatre, where the actors perform 
their parts; also any elevated place for 
the purpose of exhibiting any tiling, or of 
carrying on any work In huildinf 













STA 


STA 


SS4 

STAG E-COACH. A public vehicle, so 
called because the horses go only a certain 
distance at a time, which is called a stage. 

STAG-BEETLE. An insect which lives 
n the decayed trunks of trees. 

STAG. An elegant animal, the male of 
which has branching and recurvate horns. 
The branches of a well grown stag are at 
least six or seven. This animal is not 
found in America. 



STALACTITES. A sort of calcareous 
earths, consisting of carbonate of lime, 
caroonic acid, and wate.. It is found 
suspended from vaults or the roofs of 
caverns in calcareous mountains. 

STALK, Caulis (in Botany). That 
part of a plant which receives the nourish¬ 
ment from the root, and distributes it to 
the other parts. 

STALL. A particular seat in a cathe¬ 
dral; also a partition in a stable; and an 
open shop in a market or fair. 

STAMEN (in Botany). One of the 
principal parts of fructification in plants, on 
which Linnaeus’s sexual system is founded. 

STAMINA. The simple original parts 
of an animal body, which existed in the 
embryo. 

STAMP. Any instrument with which 
an impression is made; also in England, 
paper bearing a particular mark or impres¬ 
sion, which is used for receipts, deeds, and 
other instruments, and for which a tax is 
paid. 

STANDARD. An original weight or 
measure by which other measures are reg¬ 
ulated. These measures are committed 
in England, to the keeping of a magistrate, 
or deposited in some public place, as the 
Exchequer. 

STANDARD (in Military Affairs). A 
flag or banner, borne as a signal for the 
r ortning of troops into a body The royal 


standard of England is a flag in which the 
imperial arms of England, Scotland, and 
Ireland are quartered, with those ©f Han 
over. 

STANNERIES. Tin mines or works. 

STAPLE (in England). A town where 
there were public storehouses for merchan¬ 
dises. 

STAPLE COMMODITIES. Articles 
such as wool, cloth, lead, &c. which might 
be laid up in the staples or storehouses 
without damage. 

STAR. A general name for the heaven ly 
bodies, but more particularly for what are 
otherwise denominated fixed stars, as dis¬ 
tinguished from planets, comets, satellites, 
&.C. The stars were distinguished by the 
ancients into different collections, included 
within imaginary figures called constella¬ 
tions. The particular stars in each con¬ 
stellation have been moreover distinguish¬ 
ed, by the moderns, by the letters of the 
Greek, and also according to their magni¬ 
tude, from the first or largest to the sixth 
or the smallest that are visible to the naked 
eye. 

STARBOARD. The right hand of a 
ship, when 'ooking towards'Hhe head or 
fore part. 

STARCH. A powder drawn from wheat 
flour, and used in stiffening linen. 

STAR-CHAMBER (in England). A 
court where anciently the Lord Chancel¬ 
lor, assisted by others, used to sit to punish 
riots, forgeries, and other great offences. 

STARFISH. See Sea-star. 

STARLING. An European bird about 
nine inches long, that is very docile, and 
may be easily taught to speak. 

STATICS. That branch of the science 
of mechanics which teaches the properties 
of bodies in respect to their weight, equi¬ 
librium, &e. when in a state of rest. See 
Mechanics. 

STATIONER. A dealer in paper, pens, 
and all writing utensils, &c. The station¬ 
ers in London, form one of the city com¬ 
panies. 

STATUARY. A branch of sculpture 
employed in the making of statues. 

STATUES. Figures of men or other 
objects formed, with the chisel, of marble 
or stone, &.c., or carved in wood, and caxt 
in plaster of Paris, or in different kinds of 
metals. 

STATUTES (in England). Acts of par¬ 
liament made by the three estates of the 
realm, which are either public or private. 
The courts of Westminster must take cog¬ 
nizance of the public statutes without theii 
being specially pleaded, but not so of pri¬ 
vate statutes, fn the United States th» 






STE 


STO 


itatutes are the laws, enacted by congress 
er any state legislature. 

STAV® (in Music). The five horizontal 
and paraJfed lines on and between which 
the notes are placed. 


STEALING (in Law). The fraudulent 
taking away of another man’s goods with 
an intent to steal them, against or without 
the will of him, to whom they belong. 

STEAM. The vapour which arises from 
the application of heat to water or any 
other fluid. 

STEAM-ENGINE. An engine first con¬ 
structed by Mr. James Watt, a native of 
Greenock, for raising water by means of 
the expansive force of steam. It has since 
undergone many improvements, and been 
made applicable to every sort of work 
which requires an extraordinary moving 
power. The steam engine was first suc¬ 
cessfully applied to navigation by Robert 
Fulton of the United States. 



STEEL. Iron refined and purified by 

fire. It is chemically described as a car¬ 
buret of iron, or iron combined with a 
small portion of carbon. 

STEEL-YARDS A balance for weigh¬ 
ing things. 


STEGANOGRAPHY. The art of 
writing; in secret characters or ciphers. 

STEINERITE. In mineralogy, a 
variety of iolite, of a blue color. 

STEINMANNITE. A mineral with 
a fine granular composition tin cl metallic 
lustre: sp. gr. 6’83; H = 2 5. 

STELLAT2E. One of the Linntean 


33d 

natural orders of plants, comprehending 
those which have their leaves disposed 
round the stem in the form of a star 

STEM (in Botany). That part of a 
plant which sustains the root, leaves, and 
flower. 

STEM (in Shipbuilding). The circulai 
piece of timber into which the two sides 
of the ship are united at the fore end ; the 
fore part of the ship, as opposed to the 
stern. 

STENOGRAPHY, or Short-Hand. 
The art of writing in short characters 
instead of words. 

STEPPES. Barren tracts of elevated 
land in Russia, and the northern part of 
Asia. 

STEREOGRAPHY The art of repre¬ 
senting solids on a plane. 

STEREOMETRY. The science which 
teaches the measuring of solids. 

STEREOTYPE. One entire solid piece 
of type cast from an impression in gypsum, 
of a page- composed with moveable tj pes. 

STERLING MONEY. The lawful 
money of Great Britain. 

STERN. The hindermost part of a ship. 

STEWARD (in Law). A term applied 
in England, to several officersof distinction, 
particularly the Lord High Steward, who 
presides at the trial of a peer or the corona¬ 
tion of the king, &c. 

STEWARD (in Con merce). One who 
manages the affairs of another, particularly 
in the management of estates. 

STIGMA (in Botany). The top of the 
pistil. 

STILL. The apparatus used in the dis 
filiation of ardent spirits. See Distilla 
ti on. 

STILTS. A set of piles driven into the 
ground plot, for the intended pier of a 
bridge. 

STIMULANTS. Medicines which tend 
to excite the animal energy. 

STING. A weapon in the form of a 
barbed spear, with which some insects are 
armed. 

STIRRUP. The step of a saddle. 

STIRRUP (in Shipbuilding). A piece 
of timber put under the keel when some 
part of it is lost; also the name of some 
short ropes. 

STIVER. A Dutch coin, equal to about 
a penny. 

STOAT. See Ermine 

STOCK. The wooden part of many in¬ 
struments, as the stock of an anchor, the 
stock of a gun, &c. 

STOCK (in the Army). Part of a sol¬ 
dier’s dress worn pound the neck instead 
of a neckcloth. 



































S36 


STO 


STU 


STOCK (in Commerce). Any fund con- 
listing of money or goods employed by a 
person in trade, particularly the sum of 
money raised by a company for carrying 
on any trading concern. 

STOCK-BROKER. One who deals in 
the public funds for others. 

STOCK-DOVE. An European bi*d, 
supposed to be the original stock of the 
various kinds of pigeons. 

STOCK-EXCIIANGE, The place where 
stock is bought and sold. 

STOCK-JOBBER. A speculator or 
dealer in the public stocks or funds. 

STOCKING. A covering for the legs, 
made either of silk, wool, cotton, or 
tnread, &c. knri with the hands or wove 
in a frame. 

STOCKS (in Domestic Policy). The 
public fhnds or government securities, 
which bear an interest, and are regularly 
bought and sold. 

STOCKS (in Law). A mode of con¬ 
fining the legs of disorderly persons by 
way of punishment, which was ordained 
by statute. 

STOCKS (in Shipbuilding). A frame 
of timber for building pinnaces, ketches, 
and other small craft; also sometimes 
small frigates. 

STOICS. A sect of philosophers among 
the ancients, who maintained that pain 
was no evil, and many other paradoxes 
of a similar nature. 

STOLE, Groom of thi. In England, 
the head officer in the bedchamber of a 
king or prince. 

STOMACH. The membranous, oblong 
receptacle in the lower region, destined to 
receive the food and convert it into chyle. 

STONE. A hard mineral, that may be 
used in various ways in building. The 
principal component parts of stones are 
silica, alumina, zircona, glucina, lime, and 
magnesia: sometimes the oxides of iron, 
manganese, nickel, chronium, and copper 
are also found to enter into their composi¬ 
tion. 

STONE-FRUIT. Fruit having its seed 
enclosed in a stony substance. 

STONEHENGE. A pile of huge stones 
on Salisbury Plain, in England, six miles 
distant from that city, which is generally 
admitted by antiquaries to have been a 
British temple. It consists of the remains 
of four ranks of rough stones ranged one 
within another, and sustaining others ths.; 
are laid across and fastened by mortices. 

STONE-WARE. A general name for 
svery thing which is manufactured of 
sarth or clay, particularly the coarser 
rarti of earthen-ware. 


STOP (in Music). The pressure el the 
strings by performers on the violin and 
violoncello, by which they are brought 
into contact with the finger-board. 

STOP OF AN ORGAN. A collection 
of pipes similar in tone and quality, which 
run through the whole or a great part of 
the compass of an instrument. 

STORAX. The gum benzoin. 

STORES, or Naval Stores. The ma 
terials laid up in store for the use of the 
navy, such as ordnance, ammunition, 
masts, sails, cordage, &c. 

STORK. A bird nearly allied to the 
heron and the crane, with which it is 
classed by Linnaeus under the generic 
name of ardea. It is a white bird, having 
the orbits of the eye naked. This bird is 
a native of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and 
feeds upon amphibious animals. In Hoi 
land and Germany the storks are much 
favoured, and are to be seen on the tops of 
the houses, and even in the public streets 



STORMY PETREL. See Petrel 

STRAIT, or STRAITS. A narrow arrr 
of the sea shut in by land on both sides 
as the Straits of Gibraltar, Sec. 

STRATUM. A bed or layer, and Strata, 
the beds or layers, of different earths or 
mineral substances of which the whole 
earth is composed. 

STREAMER A flag or pendant in a 
ship. 

STREPD1TEROS. A species of Goat, 
with tall spiral horns, found In the island 
of Crete. 

STRIKE. A measure of capacity, con¬ 
taining four bushels. 

STRONTIA. A sort of ponderous earths 

STROUDS. The several twists at the 
end of a cable. 

STRUMA. A scrofulous swelling. 

STUCCO. A composition of white mar¬ 
ble pulverized and mixed with plaster of 
lime, it is used on walls, or ih making 
ornamental figures. 



S t'B 


sue 


337 


STUD. A stock of breeding mares, par 
tlcolarly those of the finer sort. 

STUDDING SAILS. Light sails ex¬ 
tended beyond the skirts of the principal 
sails. 

STUDENT. One studying for his de¬ 
grees at the university; also one who is 
preparing himself for the bar. 

STUFF. Any sort of thin cloth made 
af wool or other matter. 

STUM. Wine revived by a new fer¬ 
mentation. 

STURGEON. A large kind of fish, 
which inhabits the sea, but ascends the 
rivers annually The flesh of all the spe¬ 
cies is good. 

STYLE. A sort of bodkin with which 
the ancients wrote on wax or on lead, 
now used for writing on ivory, leaves, and 
paper particularly prepared for the pur¬ 
pose. 

STYLE (in Dialling). The pin which, 
by its shadow, points out the hour. 

STYLE (in Botany). The columnar 
portion of the pistil. 

STYLE. A name which j in several sci¬ 
ences, denotes a particular rule or method, 
as in rhetoric and grammar, the manner 
of expressing one’s sentiments. 

STYLE (in Chronology). The manner 
of computing time, which is either old 
style or new style. By the old style the 
year consisted of 365 days and 6 hours; 
out the new or Gregorian style was made 
to correspond more nearly with the period 
of the sun’s revolution, reckoning the year 
to be 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes 20 se¬ 
conds, by retrenching 11 days from the 
old style. The new style was introduced 
into Germany in 1700, and in 1752 into 
England by act of parliament, whereby 
the 2d of September in that year was 
reckoned the 14th. 

STYLE (in Architecture;. A particular 
mode of erecting buildings, as the Gothic 
style, Saxon style, Sc c. 

STYPTICS. Substances which have a 
binding quality, and are used to stop 
bieeding, &c. 

SUB. A prefix which denotes inferiority 
of rank or defect of quality, as subaltern, 
subordinate. 

SUBALTERN. An inferior officer, act¬ 
ing under the immediate direction of 
another, as cornets, ensigns, &c. 

SUBDIVISION. A division or part 
under another or greater division. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. A mood of 
verbs which imply a condition annexed 
loan affirmation. 

SUBLIMATE. Any substance procured 
by the process ot sublimation, particularly 
’ 39 


the sublimate of mercury, an eitremely 
acrid and violently poisonous preparation 
SUBLIMATION. A process by which 
volatile substances are raised by heat, and 
again condensed in the solid form. 

SUBMARINE. An epithet for what is 
or happens under the sea or water, as a 
submarine explosion or submarine naviga¬ 
tion, &c. 

SUBMULTIPLE. A number or quan 
tity contained in another number or quan¬ 
tity a certain number of times exactly, as 
4, which is the submultiple of 24. 

SUBORNATION. A hiring or getting 
persons to swear falsely. 

SUBPOENA (in Law). A writ for sum¬ 
moning witnesses. 

SUBSCRIPTION. The signing or set¬ 
ting one’s hand to a paper; also the giving 
a sum of money, or engaging to give it, 
for the furtherance of some common ob¬ 
ject in which several are interested, as 
subscriptions in support of charitable in¬ 
stitutions, and the like. 

SCAGLIOLA. In architecture, a 
kind of ornamental plaster, or artificial 
stone, prepared from gypsum and 
Flanders glue, and made to imitate 
the colors of marble. 

SCALENE. In geometry, a triangle 
having the three sides unequal.—A 
scalene cone or cylinder is one of which 
the axis is inclined to the base. 

SCALESIASIS. In physiology, a 
disease peculiar to swine, which is 
purely parasitic, and depends for its 
origin on the introduction into the 
system of the mature and fecundated 
ova of Taania solium. It is sometimes 
known as the measles; and the malady 
is most prevalent in those counties in 
Ireland where pigs are reared. 

SUBSTANTIVE. Another name for a 
noun. 

SUBSTITUTE (in Law). One delegated 
to act for another. 

SUBSTITUTE (in the Militia). One 
engaged to serve in the room of another. 
SUBSTRATUM A stratum underneath. 
SUBTENSE OF AN ARC. A right line 
opposite to an angle, supposed to be drawn 
between the two extremities of the arc. 

SUBTERRANEAN. Underground, or 
within the bowels of the earth, as subter¬ 
ranean caverns or subterranean fires. 

SUBTRACTION. The taking of on# 
number or quantity from another, ex¬ 
pressed by this character —; as 5—3=2. 

SUBTRAHEND. The quantity to be 
subtracted. 

SUCCEDANEUM. A medicine subeti- 
tuted for another. 

SUCCINIC ACID. An aold draw* 
from amber 







188 


SU1 


SUN 


SUCCOTRINE ALOES. A sort of 
aloes obtained from a species of the aloe, 
namely, the aloe perfoliata of Linnaeus. 

STJCCULENT.dE. One of the Linnasan 
natural orders of plants, including the 
juicy evergreens, as the mesymbrianthe- 
mum, &c. 

SUCKER The piston of a pump; also 
a piece of leather laid wet upon a stone, 
which owing to the pressure of the atmo¬ 
sphere, adheres very closely, and is not to 
be pulled off without great force. 

SUCKER (in Botany). A young twig 
shooting from the stock. 

SUCKER (in Ichthyology). A sort of 
fish, that adheres so firmly that it cannot 
be removed without great difficulty. 

SUCKING-FISH. A fish having a fat 
naked head and a naked body, which ad¬ 
heres very firmly to the bottom and sides 
of vessels. It was called by the ancients 
remora, and in the Linntean system echi- 
neis remora. 



SUFFERANCE. A term in law, ap¬ 
plied to tenants. A tenant at sufferance, 
is one that continues after his estate is 
ended, and wrongfully holdeth against 
another. 

SUFFRAGAN. A bishop that is sub¬ 
ordinate to an archbishop. 

SUFFRAGE. A vote at an election in 
favour of a person. 

SUGAR. A sweet substance procured 
from many plants or parts of plants, as 
from the stem of the maple, birch, &c.; 
the root of the carrot, beet, &c.; the leaf 
of the ash, the grain of wheat, &c.; but 
particularly from the sugar-cane by boiling 
the expressed juice with quick lime or 
vegetable alkali. Sugar is made, principal¬ 
ly in the West Indies and in the Southern 
United States. 

SUGAR-BAKING. The process of re¬ 
fining the raw sugar after it comes from the 
sugar plantations. 

SUGAR-CANE. A plant growing in 
the East and West Indies, and other trop¬ 
ical countries, which consists of a knotted 
reed, that rises sometimes to the height of 
twenty feet, but reeds of a more moderate 
size are preferred, that are full of juice. 
From this, sugar and molasses are made. 

SUGAR OF LEAD. Acetate of lead. 

SUI GENERIS. Of its cwn nature or 
kind. 

SUIT. An action at Law. 

SULPHATES Salts formed by the 


an »n of sulphuric acid with different 
bases, as the sulphate of soda, called Glau¬ 
ber’s salts; the sulphate of magnesia, called 
Epsom salts; so the sulphate of copper the 
sulphate of zinc. 

SULPHITES. Salts formed by the 
union of sulphurous acid with the different 
bases. 

SULPHUR. A simple combustible sub 
stance, vulgarly called brimstone, which is 
found pure in great abundance. In com¬ 
bination with metals it forms the ores 
called pyrites. It is a nonconductor of 
electricity, and becomes electric negatively 
by friction. Its specific gravity is 1.990, &c 

SULPHUR, Flowers of. A powdei 
procured from sulphur when it is heated 
to the point of 170 degrees. 

SULPHUR ETS. Compounds of sulphur 
with different alkaline earths and metallic 
bases, as the sulphuret of lime, of potash, 
&c. 

SULPHURIC ACID. An acid contain¬ 
ing sulphur (its basis), and oxj gen. Con¬ 
centrated sulphuric acid is called oil of 
vitriol. 

SULPHUROUS ACID. An acid form¬ 
ed by the combination of sulphur with a 
less degree of oxygen than is requisite ti 
form sulphuric acid. 

SULTAN. The title of the emperor ot 
the Turks. He resides at Constantinople. 
Many inferior Arabic princes are styled 
sultans. 

SUMACH. A shrub which grows natu¬ 
rally in Syria, Palestine, Spain, and Por¬ 
tugal. From its roots, when dried and 
ground at the mill, is procured a powdei 
used in tanning and dyeing. 

SUMMER. One of the four seasons of 
the year, beginning, in the northern hem¬ 
isphere, when the sun enters Cancer, 
about the 21st of June. 

SUMMER (in Architecture). A main 
piece of timber that supports a building. 

SUMMONS (in Law). A citation by 
virtue of which any man is called to ap¬ 
pear before a magistrate or judge. 

SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws regu¬ 
lating dress and domestic diet. 

SUN. The great luminary, supposed, 
according to the Copernican system, to be 
the immoveable centre of the universe, 
having all the planets revolving around 
him at different distances, and in different 
periods of time. He is marked thus, 0 

SUNDAY. The sabbath or Lord’s Day 

SUN-FLOWER. A plant, the yellow 
flower of which expands like the rays of 
the sun 

SUPER. A prefix signifying excess, w 
superabundant, superannuated, &e 





SUR 


SWA 


339 


SUPERANNUATED. Past the fixed 
or stated time. Soldiers are superannuated 
who are too old for active service : boys 
are superannuated when they are too old 
to be admitted into any institution. 

SUPERCARGO. One who takes charge 
of a cargo or lading. 

SUPERFICIES. A magnitude bounded 
by lines. 

SUPERLATIVE. The highest degree 
of comparison expressed by adjectives. 

SUPERNATURAL. Beyond or out of 
the course of nature. 

SUPERNUMERARY. Above the fixed 
or stated number, as soldiers attached to a 
regiment which has already its complete 
number 

SUPERSCRIPTION. A writing on 
tfie outside of a paper or any other object. 

SUPERSEDING (in Law). In Eng¬ 
land, setting aside a bankruptcy. 

SUPERSEDING (in the Army and 
Navy). Taking the place of another by 
special appointment 

SUPPLIES In England, extraordina¬ 
ry grants to government by parliament. 

SUPPORTERS (*n Heraldry). Orna¬ 
ments without the escutcheon, which, as 
in the annexed figure, seem to bear it up 
or support it 



SUPPORTERS (in Architecture) 
Images which serve to bear up any part 
of a building in the place of a column. 

SUPPRESSION. The stoppage of any 

fluid. 

' SUPPURATION. The gathering of pus 
or matter in a boil or wound. 

SUPREMACY (in England). The su¬ 
preme and undivided authority of the king 
over all persons and things in his realm, 
whether spiritual or temporal, which is 
denied to him by the members of the Ro¬ 
mish church according to the tenets of their 
religion. 

SURCH ARG E. Any extra charge made 
by assessors, upon such as neglect to make 
due returns of the taxes to which they are 
liable. 

SURCINGLE. The girdle with which 
elerfymen ’ ind their cassocks ; also a girth 
frr horses. 


SURD. A number or quantity that i« 
incommensurable to unity, as the square 
root of 2 or the cube root of 10. 

SURETY. One that gives security ui 
another. 

SURF. The swell of the sea breaking 
upon the shore. 

SURGE. A large wave rising above 
the waters of the sea. 

SURGEON. One who cures by manna 
operation or exteinal applications. 

SURGERY. Tin art of curing or alle¬ 
viating diseases by local and external ap 
plications, or operations by means of the 
hand or of instruments 

SURRENDER. A deed or instrumen 
testifying that the tenant yields up the es 
tate to him that hath the immediate estate 
in remainder or reversion 

SURRENDER OF A BANKRUPT 
The surrendering or giving up all his pro¬ 
perty into the hands of his creditors or 
their assignees. 

SURVEYING. The art of measuring 
the area or superficial contents of lands, 
grounds, fields, &c. by the help of proper 
instruments. 

SURVEYOR. One who follows the art 
or business of surveying. 

SURVEYOR (in Law). One who sui 
veys or superintends any business, as the 
surveyor of the highways, a parochial 
officer who sees that they are kept in re¬ 
pair, &c. 

SURVIVOR (in Law). The longer Ever 
of two tenants. 

SUSPENSION, or Points of Suspkn- 
sion. Those points in the axis or beam 
of a balance, wherein the weights are 
applied, or from which they are suspend¬ 
ed. 

SUTLER. A victualler that follows a 
camp. 

SUTURE. The union of bones by meam 
of dentiform margins. 

SWALLOW A bird that builds it* 



nest in the corners of barns. The «wa» 
low is the harbinger of spring 





840 


S Y C 


SYN 


SWAN. A noble bird, nearly allied to 
the goose, with which it is classed by Lin- 
nieus under the generic name of the anus. 
A species entirely black has been recently 

discovered in New-Hc’Jand. 



SWARD. The coal of grass on a mea¬ 
dow. 

SWARTH. The row of grass as it falls 
from the scythe of the mower. 

SWEEPS. Large oars used on board 
ships of war. 

SWEEPSTAKES. Tlie different stakes 
laid down by several persons, which all 
go by a sweep to one. 

SWEET PEA. An annual which bears 
a beautifhl sweet-smelling flower. 

SWIFT. A sort of lizard which moves 
very swiftly ; also a sort of bird. 

SWIMMING. The act of sustaining the 
body in water, and moving in it as fishes 
and other animals do naturally, and as 
man also, by an acquired art, may do. 

SWINE-STONE. A sort of calcareous 
earth. 

SWIVEL. A small piece of artillery, 
ihat may be turned on a pivot in any di 
rection 

SWORD. A weapon of offence, worn 
by a soldier’s side 

SWORD-BEARER (in England). An 
officer who carries the sword of state before 
a magistrate. 

SWORD-CUTLER. One who prepares 
swords for use. 

SWORD-FISH. A fish furnished with 
s. swordlike snout with which it attacks 
other fish, particularly the whale. 



SYCAMORE. A large tree like a Ag¬ 
ree, that grows very fast, and is used in 
plantations and pleasure-grounds. It is 
vulgarly called Button ball. 

SYCOPHANT An informer among 


the Athenians, who gave information ot 
those that exported figs contrary to law 
now taken for a cringing, sneaking flat 
terer 

SYLLABLE. An articulate sound form 
ed by a vowel alone, or a vowel and con 
sonant. 

SYLLABUS. A list of the chief heada 
of a book. 

S\ LLOGISM. A logical argument con¬ 
sisting of three propositions, called the 
major and minor, which are the premises; 
and the question which, after it is drawn 
from the other two, is called the conse¬ 
quence or conclusion: thus, ‘ every animal 
has life; man has life; therefore man is 
an animal.’ 

SYMBOL. The emblem or representa¬ 
tion of some moral quality by some ani¬ 
mal or thing supposed to possess the same 
quality: as, a lion is the symbol of courage; 
two hands joined together, a symbol of 
union. These symbols were much used 
by the ancients in representing their dei¬ 
ties, as the eagle, attributed to Jupiter is 
the symbol of his power. 

SYMMETRY. A due proportion of al / 
the parts to one another and to the whole 

SYMPATHETIC INK. A kind of ink 
which, when written with, is invisible 
until it is held to the fire. It is made 
from the solution of lead, bismuth, gold, 
and green vitriol. 

SYMPATHETIC POWDER. A pow¬ 
der prepared from green or blue vitriol. 

SYMPHONY. A consonance or concert 
of several sounds agreeable to the ear, 
whether voca. or instrumental. 

SYMPTOM. A sign or mark by which 
the nature of the disorder is discovered. 

SYNALOEPHA. A contraction of twc 
vowels into one. 

SYNCHRONOUS. Happening at the 
same time. 

SYNCOPE (in Medicine). A fainting 
or swooning. 

SYNCOPE (in Grammar). Taking a 
letter out of a word. 

SYNCOPE (in Rhetoric). A concise 
form of speech. 

SYNCOPE (in Music). The division of 
a note. 

SYNDIC. A magistrate in Germany. 

SYNOD. An assembly of the clergy. 

SYNOD (in Astronomy). A conjunction 
of heavenly bodies, or concourse of two 
planets in the same optical place of the 
heavens. 

SYNODICAL MONTH. The period 
wherein the moon departing from the sun 
returns to a conjunction with him again 
this is twenty-nine days, twelve houw 
















TAC 


TAL 


forty-eight minutes, twenty-eight seconds. 

SYNGENESIA (in Botany). One of 
the Linnaean classes, containing plants the 
stamina of which form fncylinder. 



8YNONYMES. Words of the same or 
similar signification, which serve to am¬ 
plify a subject. 

SYNOPSIS. A general view of a sub¬ 
ject;. 

SYNOVIA. An unctuous fluid secreted 
within the capsular ligaments of the joints, 
which serves to lubricate them and facili¬ 
tate their motion. 

SYNTAX. That part of grammar which 
treats of concord and government. 

SYNTHESIS (in Mathematics). A meth¬ 
od of composition, as opposed to analysis. 


841 

SYPHON, or SIPHON. A bent tube 
used in drawing off wine, liquors, and 
other fluids out of a vessel. 

SYRINGA. A flowering shrub p.anted 
in gardens. 

SYRINGE. An instrument that admits 
of any fluid, and expels it again at plea¬ 
sure. 

SYRUP. A thick composition, formed 
from the juices of herbs and fruits boiled 
with sugar. 

SYSTEM. An assemblage or chain of 
principles, the several parts of which de 
pend upon or are connected with eacl 
other. Systems vary in different sciences 
according to the hypothesis on which the) 
are founded, as in astronomy, the Coper 
nican or Ptolemaic system; in botany, the 
system of Tournefort, Ray, Linnaeus, &.c 

SYSTEM (in Music). An interval com¬ 
pounded or supposed to be compounded of 
several lesser intervals. 

SYZIGY (in Astronomy). The con¬ 
junction or opposition of any planet in 
regard to the sun. 


T. 


T, the twentieth letter of the alphabet, 
stands as an abbreviation amongst the 
Roman writers for Titus, Tiberius, &c. 

TABBY. A rich kind of sit-k that has 
undergone the process of being tabbied. 

TABBYING. The passing any silk or 
stuffthrough a calender, the rollers of which 
are variously engraven, so as to give the 
surface a wavy appearance. 

TABLE. A level surface raised above 
the ground, of various forms, and used for 
meals anu various other purposes. 

TABLE (in Perspective). The transpa¬ 
rent or perspective plane. 

TABLE (in Arithmetic). Any series of 
numbers formed so as to expedite calcu¬ 
lations, as the tables of weights and mea- 
mres. 

TABLE (in Astronomy). Computations 
of the motions and other phenomena of 
the heavenly bodies. 

TABRET. A small drum. 

TACIT. Not expressed, as a tacit con¬ 
fession, one that may be inferred some¬ 
times from a person’s silence. 

TACKING. Changing the course. 

TACKLE, or Tackling. The general 
tumituie of a ship, particularly the ropes 
and th> assemblage of blocks by which 
heavy iodies are moved. 

TAG! ICS The science of disposing 
•Ithei aa army or a fleet of ships, and 
29* 


regulating their movements for the more 
effectual attainment of the ends proposed. 

TADPOLE. A frog in its unformed 
state. 

TAFFETY. A fine sort of silk remark 
ably glossy. 

TALC. A soft kind of earth, soapy to 
the touch, and composed of magresia, 
alumine, and silica. 

TALENT. A money of account among 
the Jews and Greeks. The Jewish talent 

of silver was equal to $1710.00, and that 
of the Greeks to $970.00. The Jewish 
talent of gold was equal to $22,800.00. 

TALENT. A weight among the Jews, 
containing one hundred and eighty-nine 
pounds eight ounces fifteen pennyweights 
and seventeen grains The talent among 
the Egyptians ana Greeks did not weigh 
so much. 

TALES (in Law ) Jurors added to make 
up the number wanted. 

TALLOWCHANDLER. A maker and 
vender of tallow candles, as distinguished 
from a waxchandler. The company of 
tallowchandlers in London, was incorpo¬ 
rated in 1461. 

TALLOW TREE. A tree in Cnina 
which produces an unctuous juice, ot 
which candles are made. 

TALLY. A cleft piece of wood on which 
an account is scored 






TAR 


TEA 




542 . 

TALMUD. The book of the oral law of 
the Jews, containing their laws, customs, 
and traditions. 

TAMARIND. The fruit of an Indian 
tree, which has an agreeable acidity com- 
oined with sweetness. It is used very 
much in medicine. 

TAMBOUR (in Fortification). A kind 
of work formed of palisades. 

TAN. The bark of the oak or other tree 
ground or chopped, and used in tanning 
leather. 

TANGENT. A line touching a circle or 
other curve without cutting it. 



TANNIN. The substance procured from 
tan, b) macerating it in cold water; this 
has the property of forming with animal 
gelatine a tough insoluble matter, and is 
therefore used in converting skins into 
leather by the process of tanning. 

TANNING. The process of preparing 
leather from the skins of animals, which, 
after being cleared of the hair, wool, and 
fleshy parts by the help of lime, scraping, 
and other means, are macerated in an 
astringent liquor formed from the bark of 
the oak tree. This is usually done by 
putting into the tan pit, layers of ground 
oak-bark and skins alternately, with the 
addition of a. small quantity of water. 

TANREE. A small animal covered with 
prickles mixed with hair, found in some 
parts of Asia. 

TANTALUS. A sort of birds. 

TAPESTRY. Cloth woven in figures. 

TAPEWORM. A kind of worms re¬ 
sembling a tape in its form, which infests 
the intestines of the human body, and 
causes many disorders. 

TAPIOCA. The starch of the cassava 
root. 

TAPIR. A genus of animals of the class 
mammalia, order belluinae, that inhabits 
South America. 

TAR. A thick, black, unctuous sub¬ 
stance, obtained from old pines and fir trees. 

TARANTULA. The largest of all Eu¬ 
ropean spiders, the bite of which was 
formerly supposed to be venomous. 

TARE. An allowance to the buyer for the 
outside package in the weighing of goods. 

TARES. A sort of vetches much used 
u spring fodder for cattle 


TARGET. A kind of shield anciently 
used by the Scotch; a mark set up to b« 
fired at. 

TARGUM. The Chaldee paraphrase of 
the Old Testament. 

TARIFF. A table of the rates or duties 
agreed upon between two states to be 
paid upon the goods of their respective 
countries. 

TARPAULIN. A canvass cloth to keep 
ofl'the rain. 

TARTAN. A small coasting vessel in 
the Levant, having one mast and a bow¬ 
sprit. 

TARTAR. The concreted substance 
formed on the sides of wine casks. 

TARTAR, Cream of. A powder com¬ 
pounded of tartaric acid and potash. 

TARTARIC ACID. An acid procured 
by the solution, filtration, and crystalliza¬ 
tion of the tartar. 

TARTRATES. Salts formed by the 
combination of tartaric acid with different 
bases. 

TATTOOING. Puncturing the skin and 
rubbing in a dye, which is practised among 
the natives of the South Sea Islands. 

TASTE. One ofthe five senses, by which 
the savour or relish of any thing is per¬ 
ceived. This resides principally in tht 
papilla? of the tongue and palate. 

TAURUS. The second sign ofthe zodiac 
marked thus y ; it contains among othei 
stars the two clusters called the Pleiade 
and Hyades. 

TAUTOLOGY. Useless repetition. 

TAXES. Impositions laid upon the sub¬ 
ject by act of government. 

TEA. The leaf of a Chinese tree, from 
which a useful beverage of the same nam« 



has been made ever since its first intro 
duction into Europe in the eeventeentl 
century The tea plant is a native ot 









TEL 


TEL 


343 


tentna, Japan, and Tonquin, and has not 
been found growing spontaneously in any 
other part of the world. It affects valleys, 
the sloping sides of mountains, and the 
banks of rivers exposed to the southern 
rays of the sun. There are two principal 
sorts of tea, namely, the Green and the 
Bohea, or black; ttese are distinguished 
into different species, according to the 
nature of the leaf, as of the Greens, the 
Imperial, Hyson, and Singloj of the Bo- 
heas, the Souchong, Carnho, Congo, Pekoe, 
and Common Bohea. 

TEAK TREE. The Indian oak, not 
equal in durability to the British oak. 

TEAL. The smallest of the duck kind. 

TEARS (in Anatomy). The limpid fluid 
•’‘■creted by the lachrymal glands. 

TEARS (in Chemistry). Any fluid fall¬ 
ing in drops, as gums or resins exuding 
in the form of tears. 

TECHNICAL. Pertaining to arts and 
sciences, as technical terms, terms of art. 

TEETH. The hardest and smoothest 
bones of the body, fixed in the alveoli or 
sockets of the two jaws, which begin to 
appear about the seventh or eighth month 
after the birth, first the dentes mcisuri or 
incisores, the four front teeth of the upper 
and lower jaw; then the canini, or eye 
teeth, one on each side the incisores in 
each jaw ; and then the molares, or grind¬ 
ers, mostly ten in each jaw, making alto¬ 
gether thirty-two, although the number 
varies in different subjects. In the seventh 
year new teeth are formed, and in the 
twenty-first the two last of the molares 
mostly spring up, called the dentes sapien- 
tise. 

TEGUMENTS (in Anatomy). Cover¬ 
ings of the body, as the cuticle, rete mu- 
cosum, skin, and adipose membrane 

TEINT. An artificial colour. 

TEAK. A tree of the East Indies, af- 
/brding durable timber for shipbuilding. 

TELEGRAPH. An instrument by 
which intelligence can be communi¬ 
cated rapidly to a considerable dis¬ 
tance.— Electro-magnetic telegraph , an 
instrument or apparatus for communi-| 
eating words or language to a distance 
by means of electricity. There are also 
the indicator telegraph, which conveys 
its signals by the movements of point¬ 
ers; the type-printing telegraph; the 
symbol-printing telegraph; and the 
chemical-printing telegraph. 

TELEGRAPHY. The art or prac¬ 
tice of communicating intelligence by 
a telegraph. 

TELENGI$COPE. In optics, an in¬ 
strument which combines the power of 
the telescope and the microscope. 


TELEPHONE. An instrument for 
conveying information by sound. The 
Telephone was first presented to the 
world at the Centennial Exhibition in 
1876; but its introduction as a practical 
telegraphic apparatus dates from May 
4, 1877, when Prof. Graham Bell ex¬ 
hibited it in the Music Hall, Boston. 

TELESCOPE. An optical instrument 
composed of lenses, so situated as to bring 
remote objects near to the view. To whom 
we are indebted for the discovery of the 
powers of this instrument is not precisely 
known. Wolfius infers from a passage .r 
the ‘ Magia Naturalis’ of John Baptbaj 
Porta, that he was the first who made & 
telescope, and this inference is the more 
probable as Baptista Porta had particu¬ 
larly directed his attention to optical in¬ 
struments ; but no certain mention is made 
of any te«escope before 1590, thirty years 
afterwards, when a telescope sixteen inches 
long was made and presented to Prince 
Maurice of Nassau, by a spectacle maker 
of Middleburg, whose name is not exactly 
known, being called Luppersheim, Jansen 
and also Hansen. No advances were, how¬ 
ever, made in the construction of tele¬ 
scopes before the time of Galileo, who 
whiOe at Venice accidentally heard that a 
sort of optic glass was made in Holland, 
which brought distant objects nearer, and 
considering how this thing might be, he 
set to work and ground two pieces of glass 
into a form, as well as he could, and fitted 
them to the two ends of an organ pipe, 
with which he produced an effect that 
delighted and astonished all beholders 
After exhibiting the wonders of this inven¬ 
tion to the Venetians on the top of the 
tower of St. Mark, he devoted himself 
wholly to the improving and perfectiag 
the telescope, in which he was so success 
ful that it has been usual to give him the 
honour of being the inventor. An anecdo*e 
mentioned by F. MabiBon in his Travels, 
of having met, in a monastery of liis own 
order, with a manuscript copy of the 
»vo»ks of Cominestor, written by one Con- 
radus m the thirteenth century, and con¬ 
taining a portrait of Ptolemy looking 
through a tube at the stars, would seem to 
justify the supposition that this contrivance 
of facilitating the view of distant objects 
was of earlier date than is generally con¬ 
sidered ; but we are not informed whether 
the tube was furnished with glasses, and 
very probably tubes were then used to 
defend and direct the sight, and render the 
object more distinct by singling it from all 
other objects in the vicinity. It must not, 
however, be denied that the eptical pria 





144 


TEM 


TEN 


tiples up«.it which the effect of telescopes 
Is founded are as old as Euclid at least, 
and wanted nothing but accident or re¬ 
flection to lead to this mode of applying 
them. 

Telescopes are either refracting or reflect- 
(n f ; the former consist of different lenses 
through which the objects are seen by rays 
refracted by them to the eye, and the latter 
eonsist of specula from which the rays are 
reflected and passed to the eye. The lens 
or glass turned to the object is called the 
object glass, and that next to the eye the 
eye glass, and when the telescope consists 
of more than two lenses all but that imme¬ 
diately next the object are called eye 
glasses. Great improvements have been 
made in the construction of telescopes, 
both reflecting and refracting. That con¬ 
structed under Dr. Herschel’s direction is 
the largest instrument of the kind, and pos¬ 
sesses the highest magnifying power of any 
that was ever made. The tube of this 
telescope is thirty-nine feet four inches, it 
measures four feet ten inches, and every 
part of it is of iron that is rolled, or sheet 
iron, joined together by a kind of seaming, 
like the iron funnel of a stove. In order 
to command every altitude, the point of 
support is moveable, and its motion is 
effected by the help of pulleys, so that it 
nay be moved backward or forward and 
ret to any altitude up to the very zenith. 
The tube is also made to rest with the 
point of support in a pivot which permits 
it to be turned sidewise 



TELLER. One in a bank, who receives, 
and pays out money. 

TELLERS Those who reckon the votes 
in any legislature. 

TELLERS. In England, officers of the 
exchequer, who receive all moneys due to 
the crown. 

TELLURIUM. A kind of metal of a 
blue white colour, soft, brittle, and easily 
reducible to powder. It melts in a heat 
romething above the fusing point of lead. 

TELLUS (in Heathen Mythology). The 
goddess of the earth ; the earth itself. 

TEMPERAMENT (in Music). The 
accommodation or adjustment of imper¬ 
fect sounds. 

TEMPERATURE. The constitution of 
the air according to the diversity of the 
seasons, or the different situations ofclimate 
and other circumstances 


TEMPERING (in Iron WorKs) Making 
iron and steel of a suitable degree of hard¬ 
ness or softness. 

TEMPERING (among Brickmakers) 
The duly mixing the materials of which 
bricks are made, that they may be more 
easily cut and reduced to the proper shape. 

TEMPLARS, or Knights Templars. 
An ancient order of knighthood, which 
was abolished at the beginning of the 
fourteenth century. 

TEMPLE. A place appropriated for the 
performance of public worship. 

TEMPLE (in Anatomy). The upper part 
on each side of the head, where the pulse 
is felt. 

TEMPORAL. Not spiritual; as the 
temporal revenues of the church in Eng¬ 
land, called the temporals, or temporalities. 

TEMPORAL (in Anatomy). Pertaining 
to the temples, as the temporal arteries, 
& c. 

TENACITY. The degree of force with 
which the particles of bodies cohere or are 
held together; a term applied particularly 
to metals which may be drawn into wire, 
as gold and silver 

TENAILLE. An outwork of a fortress. 

TENANT (in Law). One who holds 
lands by any right, particularly one who 
occupies lands or tenements at a yearly 
rent, for life, years, or will. 

TENCH. A fish with a golden body 
and transparent fins, that inhabits rivers 
and ponds. 

TENDER (in the Navy). A small ship 
that attends a larger. 

TENDER (in Law). The offering of 
money in payment of a debt. 

TENDON ACHILLES. That which 
connects the calf of the leg with the heel. 

TENDONS. The extremities of the 
muscles. 

TENDRIL. The curling part of plants, 
as in the vine, with which they lay hold 
of any thing for support. 

TENEMENT (in Law). Ary thing 
which may be holden, particularly houses 
or any other buildings. 

TENNIS. A game with a ball, driven 
by a racket. 

TENNIS-COURT. The place where the 
game of tennis is played. 

TENON. The square end of a piece of 
timber. 

TENOR (in Music). The middle pan 

between. 

TENSE. That part of a verb which He 
notes time, as the present tense, denoting 
the time that now is; the preterit or oast 
the time that was; and the future, the time 
that will be Some tenses likew se denote 






TEll 


TEb 


He slate of the action, as to its completi- 
aess or otherwise, in a certain degree or 
time, as the imperfect tense, which denotes 
an unfinished action at a certain time; the 
perfect, a finished action at any time;and 
the pluperfect, a finished action before a 
certain time. 

TENSION. The act of stretching or be¬ 
ing stretched, as the tension of the muscles 
when the body is in motion. 

TENTER (in the Cloth Manufacture). 
A railing constructed tostretch cloths upon. 

TENTERHOOK. A particular hook 
on which tli.ngs are hung that are to be 
stretched. 

TENURE (in Law). The conditions on 
which lands and tenements are held. 

TERCE. A wine vessel containing for¬ 
ty-two gallons. 

TERM (in Geometry). The extremity 
or bound of a magnitude. 

TERM tin Law). A fixed and limited 
time within which courts of judicature are 
open. 

TERM (in the Universities). The fixed 
periods within which students are obliged 
to re.s'de for the prosecution of their 
stmHes. 

TKRMES The white ant, a genus of 
insects, inhabitants of the East Indies, 
Africa, and South America, which are 
said to exceed the common ant, the bee, 
and the beaver in their skill, ingenuity, 
and good government. They build pyra¬ 
midal structures ten or twelve feet high, 
that resemble villages in extent, and divide 
them off into several apartments, as maga¬ 
zines, chambers, galleries, &x. They are 
no less dexterous and remarkable in their 
manner of providing themselves with food, 
for they destroy food, furniture, books, and 
timber with such rapidity, that abeam will 
be eaten by them to a mere shell in a few 
hours. 



TERMINI. Figures used by the Romans 
*br the support of entablatures, in the place 
of columns ; the upper part consisted of the 
head and breast of a human body, and the 
lower of the inverted frustum of a cone. 
They were so called because they were 
principally used ars boundary marks, and 
represented their god Terminus. 

TERMS OF AN EQUATION. The 
members of which it is composed. 

TERN A bird of which there are seve- 


344 

ral varieties, as the great, lesser black 
and striated. They live on fish, and are 
sometimes called sea swallows. 

TERRACE. A platform or bank of earth 
raised and breasted, particularly in fortifi¬ 
cations; also a raised walk. 

TERRA FIRM A. Main land; the name 
particularly given to a country of South 
America, extending from the Atlantic to 
the Pacific Ocean to the extent of 1300 
miles. 

TERRA JAPONICA. Japan earth, the 
inspissated juice of a species of acacia. 

TERRAR, or Terrier. A land roll, 
containing the quantity of acres, tenants’ 
names, and the like. 

TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. An artificial 
representation of the earth’s surface, by 
the help of which many problems in as¬ 
tronomy and geography are worked. 

TERRIER A kind of dog that hunts 
underground. 



TEST (in England). An oath prescribed 
by act of parliament for renouncing the 
pope’s supremacy, &c.; also the Sacramen 
tal Test, which was formerly required as 
the qualification of taking an office, but is 
now abolished 

TEST (in Chemistry). A term applieu 
to any substance which serves to detect 
the presence of a poisonous ingredient in 
a composition; also a cupel or pot, for 
separating base metals from gold or silver. 

TESTACEA. Testaceous animals, or 
shell fish; the third order of animals under 
the class vermes, in the Linnsean system. 

TEST ACT (in England). An act of 
parliament which required all persons to 
take the sacrament according to the rites 
of the church of England, on their accep¬ 
tance of a public office. This act is so far 
repealed as relates to the sacramental test, 
for which a declaration is substituted, sig¬ 
nifying that the party will do nothing to 
t-he injury of the established religion of 
England. 

TESTAMENT (in Law). The solemn 
act whereby a man declares his last will 
as to the disposal of his estate after hi» 

death. 





846 


THA 


THE 


TESTAMENT (in Theology). Each of 
the volumes of the Holy Scriptures, that 
is the Old and the New Testament. 

TESTATOR. % man who makes his 
will. 

TESTATRIX A female who makes 
her will. 

TESTUDO. A machine among the an¬ 
cients, which served to screen the soldiers 
when they approached the walls to mine. 

TESTUDO (in Zoology). A genus of 
animals, including the marine turt*3, the 
river turtle, and the land tortoise. 

TETANUS. A locked jaw. 

TETRAD YN AMI A. One of the Lin 
mean classes of plams, including those 
plants the flowers of which have six sta¬ 
mens, four of them longer than the other 
two, as candytuft, wallflower, cabbage, 
fee 



TETRAGYNIA. An order of plants 
under several classes, in the Linnaean 
system, the flowers of which have four 
pistils. 

TETRANDRIA. One of the Linntean 
classes, comprehending plants the flowers 
of which have four stamens, as the scabi¬ 
ous, holly, plantain, &c. 



TETRARCH. Anciently the governor 
of the fourth part of a province. 

TEXT. The original part of an author’s 
work, as distinguished from any note or 
commentary 

TEXT. A passage of scripture chosen 
as the subject of a sermon. 

TEXT (in Printing or Writing). A par¬ 
ticular kind of handwriting or form of 
letters, used by lawyers and others. 

THANE. A baron among the Saxons. 

THAUMATURGUS. A worker of mira- 
rlesj a title given by the Roman Catholics 
>/- of their saints 


THEATRE. A building constructed to 
dramatic exhibitions, with a stage for the 
performers, and pit, boxes, and galleries 
for the audience. 

THEOCRACY. A government whereof 
God himself is the king, as that of the 
Jews before they were governed by king 
Saul. 

THEODOLITE. An instrument used 
in surveying, for taking angles, &.c. This 
instrument is supported on three staffs, 
screwed into hell metal joints that are 
moveable, having a limb, or a strong 
bell metal ring, upon which are three 
moveable indexes, a bell metal double 
sextant, within which is a spiral level, and 
over it a telescope, all suitably adjusted 
with screws. 

THEOLOGY. The study of religion, o 
the science which instructs in the know 
ledge of God and divine things. 

THEOREM. A position laid down at 
truth. 

THEORY. A doctrine which confines 
itself to the speculative parts of a subject, 
without regard to its practical application 
or illustration. 

THERAPEUTICS. The healing art. 

THERMAE. Hot baths. 

THERMOMETER. An instrument for 
measuring the temperature of the air, as 
respects heat and cold, founded on the 
principle that the expansions of matter 
are proportional to the augmentations of 
the temperature. The invention of the 
thermometer lias been ascribed to different 
authors, to Cornelius Drebbet of Alcmaar 
by his countrymen Roerhaave and Mus- 
cliinbroeck; to Father Paul, by his bio¬ 
grapher Fulgenzio; to Galileo by Vincenzio 
Viviani; but Sanctorino assumes the inven¬ 
tion to himself, and his claim is fully 
admitted by Malpighi and Borelli. The 
first form of this invention was the aii 
thermometer, consisting of a glass tube 
connect a* m3 end with a large glass 
ball, an* at the other end immersed in an 
open vessel or terminating in a ball with a 
narrow bottom. The vessel was filled with 
a coloured liquor that would not easily 
freeze, as aquafortis tinged with a solution 
of vitriol or copperas. The ball at the 
top being then moderately warmed, the 
air contained in it was in part expelled, 
and then the liquor pressed by the external 
air entered at the lower ball and rose to a 
certain height in the tube, according to 
the temperature. The air being found not 
so fit for measuring with accuracy the 
variations of heat and cold according 
this form of the thermometer, which was 
first adr|>'-sd, alcohol or spirit of wwit. 





THR 


TIG 347 

THRESHING. The beating the grain 
out of the ears of wheat with a flail. 

THRESHING MACHINE Ama:hine 
for threshing wheat, instead ofthe old jiac- 
tice of threshing with a flail. 

THRUSH (in Ornithology). A genus of 
birds, the turdus of Linnaeus, of which the 
principal species are the missel thrush, the 
throstle or song thrush, in England, the 
fieldfare, and the black bird. The thrush 
or throstle, properly so called, is one of 
the finest singing birds in this country. Its 
song, which is rich and varied, commences 
early in the season, and continue® for nine 
months. 

THRUSH (in Medicine). A distemper 
in the mouths of children. 

THUNDER. The noise occasioned by 
the explosion of electrical clouds. 

THUNNY. A kind of mackerel. 

THURSDAY. The fifth day of the 
week, so called from Thor, the god of the 
Saxons and other northern tribes. 

THYME. A fragrant herb. 

TIARA, or Papal Crown. An orna¬ 
mental cap formerly worn by the Persians, 
and since adopted by the Pope. See 
Papal Crown. 

TIBIA. The largest bone of the leg. 

TIC DOLOUREUX. A painful affection 
of the nerves. 

TTCK. A little insect, one species of 
which, called the dog-tick, infests dogs. 

TIDE. The regular periodical current of 
water, which when it rises is called tire 
flux, and when it goes back is the eob or 
reflux. This is ascribed by Newton to 
the attraction of the sun and moon, but 
particularly to the latter, owing to its 
proximity to the earth. 

TIDE WAITER. A customhouse office! 
who sees to the goods landed on the quay. 

TIER. A range of cannon mounted on 
one side of a deck. 

TIERCE. A measure of liquids contain¬ 
ing forty-two gallons. 

TIGER. A large ferocious beast, of the 


was used by the FUa-ewtine academy, en¬ 
closed in a very fine cylindrical ^.ass tube, 
having a hollow ball at one end, and her¬ 
metically sealed at the other. To the tube 
is applied a scale, divided from the middle 
intoonehundred parts, upwards and down¬ 
wards. As spirit of wine is capable of a 
very considerable degree of rarefaction 
and condensation by heat and cold, when 
the heat of the atmosphere increases the 
spirit dilates, and consequently rises in the 
tube; and when the heat decreases the 
spirit descends. As inconveniences were 
found to attend each cf these thermome¬ 
ters, as also that of M. Reaumur, which 
was constructed in a similar manner, Mr. 
Fahrenheit first employed mercury for this 
purpose, which has since been universally 
adopted. The method of constructing his 
thermometer, of which a representation is 
here given, is as follows, a small ball is 
blown at the end .of a glass tube, of an 
uniform width throughout. The ball and 
part of the tube are then to be filled with 
quicksilver which has been previously 
boiled to expel the air, the open end of 
the tube then being hermetically sealed, a 
scale is constructed by taking the two fixed 
points, namely, 32° for the freezing point 
and 212° for the boiling point, and divid¬ 
ing the intermediate space into equal parts, 
or 180*. 



THISTLE. A prickly weed that infests 
com fields. 

THORACIC. An order of fishes in the 
Linnaean system, which have the ventral 
fins placed directly under the thorax. 

THORAX. The chest, situated between 
the neck and the abdomen. 

THOROUGH BASS (in Music). That 
w_deh includes the fundamental rules in 
composition. 

THRAVE, or THREAVE OF CORN. 
Twenty-four sheaves, or four shocks of six 
sheaves. 

THREAD. A small line made of a few 
fibres of silk, cotton, or hemp, from which 
It. derives its names of silk, cotton, or thread 
p.operlv so called. 



cat tribe, classed by Linn<eus with the 

cat, uv-der the generic name felis. It is a 
native of the hot climates of Asia, w here 

1 









Ttf 


m 

it is consideied as a scourge. It is of so 
fierce and sanguinary a nature that it is 
not to be tamed. 

TILE. A thin piece of clay in a flat 
form, dried and baked so as to fit it for 
covering the roofs of houses. 

TILLAGE The art and practice of cul¬ 
tivating the ground, by ploughing, harrow¬ 
ing, rolling, and other works of husbandry. 

TILLER OF A SHIP. A piece of wood 
fastened in the head of the rudder, by 
which it is moved. In small ships and 
boats it is called tfee helm. 

TIMBER. The wood of trees felled and 
seasoned for the use of the carpenter, as 
the wood of the oak, fir, elm, ash, beech, 
chestnut, walnut, lime, sycamore, and 
birch; of these, however, the oak, ash, 
and elm are properly denominated timber 
trees. 

TIME. A certain measure or portion of 
eternity distinguished by the motion of the 
heavenly bodies. 

TIME (in Music). The measure of sounds 
in regard to their continuance or duration. 

TIMEKEEPER. An instrument for 
measuring time. 

TiN. A metal which ia very rarely 
found native. It is one of the lightest 
metals, its specific gravity when hammered 
being no more than 7-299, but it is so fusible 
as to melt et about 442° of Fahrenheit. 

TiNCTURE. A solution of any sub¬ 
stance in spirit of wine. 

TINMAN. A manufacturer of tin. 

TINNING. The art of covering iron or 
copper with a coat of tin, by immersing 
the plates into melted tin. This is one of 
the most useful purposes for which tin is 
employed, as it renders iron fit for various 
uses which, on account of its tendency to 
rust, would otherwise be unavailable. 

TIN PLATE, otherwise called White 
Iron. Iron covered with tin. 

TIPSTAFFS (in England). Officers that 
attend up*on the judges of the King’s 
Bench, and also take persons into cus¬ 
tody. 

TIRE. The iron brace that goes round 
a wheel. 

TISSUE. Stuff made of silk and silver. 

TITANIUM. A newly discovered metal 
of an orange red colour. It is very brittle, 
but sc refractory that it can scaicely be 
reduced. 

TITHE in England). The tenth part of 
ell fruits, which is due to the parson of the 
parish. The great tithes are chiefly corn, 
hay, and wood : other things of less value 
are comprehended under the name of small 
tithes. 


f OB 

TiTIIING. A community cf ten meft 
into which all England was divided i& 
the time of the Saxons. 

TITLE (in Law). Any right which a 
person has to the possession, or an authentic 
instrument whereby he can prove his 
right. 

TITMOUSE. A small European bird 
which feeds on the brains of other birds 
which it attacks with great ferocity. 



TOAD. A reptile of unsightly appear 
ance, which was formerly accounted vea 
omous, but now considered as harmless 



It is nearly allied to the frog, with which 
it is classed by Linnreus under the generis 
name rana. 

TOBACCO. An herbaceous plant, re¬ 
markable for its narcotic proper!'es, which 



is used either in the leaf, when it Is che* 
ed.orcHt, when itissinoked It origicahj 








TOft 

Came from the island of Tobago, and was 
introduced into England by .Sir Walter 
Raleigh. 

TODDY. A compound spirituous liquor. 

TOGA. The mantle worn by Roman 
citizens. 

TOLERATION ACT. An act passed in 
the reign of William and Mary in favour 
of Dissenters 

TOLL. A payment in towns, markets, 
and fairs lor goods and cattle bought and 
sold; also on passing through a turnpike 
gate. 

TOLUFERA. A balsam of the tolu 
tree, less healing and stimulating than the 
balm of Gilead. 

TOMBAC. A metal composed of copper 
and arsenic. 

TON. Twenty hundred weight. 

TONE. The degree of elevation which 
any sound has, so as to determine its 
acuteness or gravity. 

TONGUE. A soft fleshy viscus, which 
is the organ of taste and speech in man. 

TONIC. A medicine which braces the 
nerves. 

TONNAGE. A duty paid at a certain 
rate for every ton of goods exported or 

imported. 

TONSURE The act of cutting off the 

hair. 

TONTINE. A sort of increasing annu¬ 
ity, or a loan given by a number of persons 
with the benefit of survivorship. 

TOPAZ. A precious stone of the colour 
of gold. 

TOPICS. Common places, or the heads 
of a discourse. 

TOPOGRAPHY. A description or 
draught of some particular place or tract 
of land, as of any particular county, city, 
town, castle, &c. 

TORPEDO. A fish which is endowed 
with a strong electric power 



TORPEDO. A machine invented for 
destroying ships by explosion. 

TOERELITE. A mineral composed 
of peroxide of cerium, silica, protoxide 
of iron, alumina, lime, and water. 

TORNADO. A sudden and vehement 
gust of wind from all parts of the com¬ 
pass, frequent on the coast of Guinea. It 
common^'" very suddenly, several clouds 

'10 


tou i4i 

being previously drawn together, when a 
gust of wind rushing from them strikes 
the ground in around spot of a few perches 
diameter, and thus proceeds for the dis¬ 
tance of a mile or more, not in a straight 
line, but in all directions, tearing up ail 
before it. 

TORRID ZONE. That region at the 
distance of twenty-three and a half degrees 
from the equator, where the heat of the 
sun is most violent. 

TORTOISE. An ainphib.ous animal 
that is covered with a hard shell; there 
are tortoises both on the land and in the 
water. 



TORTOISESHELL. The shell whlca 
covers the tortoise is used in inlaying, and 
for various ornamental purposes. 

TORY. A name given to those who 
hold high principles of government. 

TOUCAN. A bird of South America 
that has a very large bill. 



TOUCH, or Feeling. One of the five 
senses, which is formed by the nervous 
papillfe of the skin. The sensations ac¬ 
quired by the sense of feeling are those of 
heat, hardness, solidity, roughness, dry¬ 
ness, motion, distance, figures, &c. 

TOUCH (in Coining). A trial of gold 
and silver in the Mint. 

TOUCHHOLE. The vent through whicH 
the fire is conveyed to the powder in a 
gun. 

TOUCH-NEEDLE (among Assayem 
and Refiners). Little bars of gold, silver 
and copper combined together in all the 
different proportions and degrees of mix¬ 
ture. These are used in the trial called 
the touch, to discover the purity of any 
piece of gold or silver by comparing .the 








TRE 


UO TRA 

mark it leaves on the touchstone with 
those of the bars. 

TOUCHSTONE. A siliceous sort of 
stone used in trying metals. 

TOUCHWOOD. A sort of agaric that 
is used as tinder. 

TOURNAMENTS. Military sports, 
where knights used to display their gal¬ 
lantry by encountering each other on 
horseback with spears or lances. 

TOURNEQ.UET. An instrument for 
stopping the flow of blood after an am¬ 
putation. 

TOWER. A fortress or citadel, as the 
Tower of London 

TOXICOLOGY. The doctrine of poi¬ 
sons. 

TRACHEA. The windpipe, a cartilagi¬ 
nous and membranous canal, through 
which the air passes into the lungs. 

TRADE WINDS. The monsoons. 

TRAGACANTH. A gum which exudes 
from a prickly bush, the astragalus traga- 
cantha of Linnaeus, which grows wild in 
warm climates. The tragacanth is most¬ 
ly brought from Turkey in lumps. 

TRAGEDY. A drama representing some 
grand and serious action, and mostly ter¬ 
minating in some fatal event. 

TRAJECTORY. The path described 
by any moving body, as a comet describ¬ 
ing a curve. 

TRAIN. A line of gunpowder, forming 
a communication with any body that is to 
be set on fire. 

TRAMMEL. A drag net, or large fish¬ 
ing net; also a long net for catching birds. 

TRAMMELS. An instrument for draw¬ 
ing ovals on a board; also a kind of 
shackles for a horse. 

TRANSCRIPT. The copy of any orig¬ 
inal writing. 

TRANSFER. The making over stock, 
&c. from the seller to the buyer. 

TRANSFER DAYS. Particular days 
appointed for the transfer of particular 
stocks. 

TRANSFORMATION. The change out 
of one form into another, as app ied to 
insects. 

TRANSIT The passage of any planet 
just by or over a fixed star or the sun’s 
disk, particularly the transit of Mercury 
*.nd Venus, which are interesting phe¬ 
nomena. 

TRANSITIVE VERB. A verb which 
in Its meaning passes over to an object, as 
to love or hate. 

TRANSMIGRATION. The passing of 
the human soul out of one body into ano¬ 
ther, a doctrine which is ascribed to Py¬ 
thagoras. 


TRANSMUTATION. A supposed pow 
er of changing the base metals into gold 
which alchymists pretended to possess. 

TRANSMUTATION (in Chymistry) 
Any operation by which the properties of 
mixed bodies are changed. 

TRANSPARENCY. The property ol 
some bodies of giving passage to the rayi 
of light, as distinguished from opacity. 

TRANSPARENCY (among Painters) 
Any painting illuminated behind, so as to 
render it perfectly visible at night. 

TRANSPORT. A vessel in which sol 
diers are conveyed by sea. 

TRANSPORTATION (in England) 
Sending away criminals into a distant 
country, either for a term of years or for 
life. 

TRANSPORTATION (in Commerce) 
The carrying of goods by land to a dis 
tance. 

TRANSPOSITION (in Muiic). The 
change made in a composition by which 
the whole is removed into a higher o? 
lower key. 

TRANSPOSITION (in Algebra). The 
bringing any term of an equation over & 
the other side. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION. The con 
version of the bread and wine according 
to the doctrine of the Romish church into 
the actual body and blood of Christ, which 
is supposed to be miraculously wrought 
by the consecration of the priest. 

TRANSVERSE. A cross, as a tran« 
verse axis in conic sections. 

TRAP. A sort of mountain rock, com 
posed of horizontal strata. 

TRAPEZIUM. An irregular quadrilate 
ral figure. 

TRAVERSE (in Law). That which the 
defendant pleads in bar to avoid the plain 
tiff’s bill 

TRAVERSE (in Fortification). A trench 
made quite across the mote of a place. 

TRAVERSE (in Navigation). The va 
riation or alte.ation of a ship’s course 

TRAVESTIE. The burlesque imitation 
of an author’s style and composition. 

TREACLE The scum of sugar. 

TREASON in England is divided into 
High Treason and Petty Treason. High 
Treason is an offence against the king or 
his government, whether it be by imagina¬ 
tion, word, or deed. Petty Treason is 
the crime of a wife killing her husband, 
or a servant his master. Treason in the 
United States, consists in overt acts, man 
ifesting a design against the government. 

TREASURER. An ofticerto whose care 
the treasury of the country or of any com¬ 
pany is committed The Lord H'eh Trea- 





TRI 


rarer of England ha* the charge of all 

tee king’s money, &c. in the Exchequer. 

TREADMILL. A mill for grinding corn, 
which is moved by persons stationed on 
the main wheel. It has been introduced 
into prisons as a scrt of punishment. 



TREASURE-TROVE (In Law). Mo¬ 
ney or any other treasure found hidden 
under the earth, which belongs to the king 
or some other who claims by the king’s 
grant or by prescription. 

TREASURY. The place where the 
public money is deposited. 

TREBLE (in Music). The acutest or 
highest note adapted to the voice of fe¬ 
males or boys. 

TREBLE NOTE. The note in the 
treble stave, placed on the line with the 
cliff. 



TREE. A plant with a woody trunk. 

TREFOIL. Three leaved grass. 

TREMOLITE. A sort of calcareous 

earth. 

TRENCHES. Ditches in fortifications. 

TREPAN. A surgical instrument, like 
a saw, for removing a broken bone from 
the skull. 

TRESPASS (in Law). Any wrong 
done by one private man to another, eith¬ 
er to his person or his property 

TRET. An allowance for waste, or 
for the dirt that may be mixed with any 
commodity 

TRIAD (in Music). The common chord, 
consisting of the third, fifth, and eighth. 

TRIAL. The examination of causes 
before a proper judge, which, as regards 
matters cf fact, are to be tried by a jury, 
as regird matters of law by the judge, 
and as regards records by the record itself. 

TRIANDRIA. One of the Lin-mean 
lasses, comprehending plants the flowers 


TRI « 0 ] 

of which have three stamens, as the cro¬ 
cus, gladrole, valerian, &c. 

TRIANGLE. A figure bounded by three 
sides. 

TRIBUNE. An officer among the Ro 
mans, chosen from among the people to 
defend their rights. 

TRICOCCiE. One of Linnceus’s natu 
ral orders of plants, comprehending such 
as have a three armed capsule, as the eu 
phorbia, &c. 

TRIDENT. A three forked instrument 

TRIENNIAL. Every three years, as 
triennial parliaments. 

TRIGGER. The catch of a gun lock, 
which when pulled disengages the cock 
and causes it to strike fire. 

TRIGLYPH. A member of the Doric 
frieze. 

TRIGONOMETRY The art of inea 
suring the sides and angles of triangles. 
The business of this science is to find the 
angles where the sides are given; and the 
sides of their respective ratios when the 
angles are giver}. 

TRILLION (in Arithmetic). A billion 

of billions. 

TRIM OF A SHIP. Her best posture, 
proportion of ballast, and hanging of her 
masts, &c. for sailing. 

TRINITARIANS. Those who believe 
in the Trinity. 

TRINITY. The doctrine ot three per 
sons in the Godhead, namely, the Father 
the Son, and the Holy Ghost. 

TRIO (in Music). A piece for three 
voices. 

TRIUMPHAL CROWN. A crown 



among the Romans given to a victonout. 
general ; it was made at first of wreath* 
of laurel, and afterwards of gold. 

TRIUMVIRATE. A form of govern 
ment in which three persons bear rule, a* 
the Roman triumvirate of Poinpey, Ctesai, 
and Crassus, and afterwards that of Au 
gusfus, Marc Antony, and Lepidus. 

TRIPLE CROWN. The tiara, or pa 
pal crown. 



















TRU 


TUR 


TRIPLE TIME (in Music). A time 
consisting ol three measures in a bar. 

TRIPOD. The sacred seat, supported 
by three feet, on which the priestesses 
among the ancients used to deliver the 
oracles. 

TRIPOLI. A mineral of an earthy 
texture, but for the most part found con¬ 
siderably indurated. 

TRISECTION. The dividing a thing 
into three parts. 

TRISYLLABLE. A word co. sisting 
of three syllables. 

TRITON. A sea god. 

TROCAR. An instrument used in tap¬ 
ping for the dropsy. 

TROOP. A certain number of horse 
soldiers. 

TROOPER. A horse soldier. 

TROPICS (in Astronomy). Circles 
lrawn at the distance of twenty-three and 
a half degrees on each side the aquator, 
that on the north side called the Tropic of 
Cancer, that on the south the Tropic of 
Capricorn. 

TROPICS (in Geography). The regions 
on the earth which lie within the tropical 
circles. 

TROUBADOURS. Ancient bards of 
Provence and Normandy. 

TROVER. An action which a man has 
against any one who, having found his 
goods, or having them unjustly in his pos¬ 
session, refuses to deliver them up. 

TROUGH. A hollow piece of wood, 
which serves to hold water or any other 
fluid. 

TROUT. A fish of the salmon tribe. 

TROWEL. A bricklayer’s tool for 
spreading mortar. 

TROY WEIGHT. A weight of twelve 
ounces to the pound, twenty penny¬ 
weights to the ounce, and twenty-four 
grains to the pennyweight, used for weigh¬ 
ing gold and silver. It is so called from 
Troyes, a town in France. 

TRUCE. A suspension of hostilities. 

TRUFFLES. A sort of mushrooms. 

TRUMPET. The loudest of all wind 
instruments, consisting of a folded tube, 
generally of brass 



TRUMPETER. The soldier who sounds 
•he trumpet. 

TRUMPETER-BIRD. A bird of South 
America, so called from its harsh cry, like 
a child’s trtmpet. 

TRUSS (in Surgery). An elastic bon¬ 


dage worn in cases of hernia or ruptures 

TRUSS (among Mariners). Amachin* 
for pulling a yard home to the mast. 

TRUSS (in Commerce). A bundle oi 
hay or straw, containing fifty-six pounds 
of hay and thirty-six pounds of straw. 

TRUST (in Law). A right to receive 
the profits of land ; and in equity to dis¬ 
pose of the land. 

TRUSTED (in Law). One who has ai 
estate or money put into his hands for the 
use of an< flier. 

TUBE. Any pipe or canal which serves 
as a passage for air or any other fluid. 

TUFAS, Bed? of lime. 

TULIP. A kind of plants which, for 
the diversity and beautiful arrangement of 
their colours have fetched extraordinarily 
high prices. 

TUMBRIL. A dung cart. 

TUMOUR. A preternatural or hard 
swelling. 

TUN, or TON. A vessel for wine and 
other liquors ; also a certain measure of 
capacity, containing 2-19 gallons; also a 
weight equal to 2240 pounds, whereby the 
burden of ships is estimated. 

TUNIC. An under garment in use 
among the Romans. 

TUNING (in Music). Rectifying the 
false sounds of musical instruments. 

TUNTSTEN. An opaque mineral of a 
white colour and great weight, composed 
of lime and other earthy substances. 

TUNNEL. A subterraneous passage 
cut through hills, mountains, and even in 
some cases under water. 

TURBOT. Asortof fish inhabiting the 
European seas, which grows sometimes 
to thirty pounds weight. 

TURKEY. A large domestic bird, the 
young of which are exceedingly tender. 
The cock is very proud and irascible, 
and struts about with his tail expanded, 
when moved either by pride or anger 



This bird is found in a wild state, Tn thr 
western country. The domestia turkey 
is the wild turkey tamed. 











ULT 


UMB 


IN 


rUMERIC. A drug procured from an 
Indian tree, the curcuma of Linncua, 
which is used in dyeing. 

TUSCAN ORDER. An order of ar¬ 
chitecture first used in Tuscany in Italy, 
which has but few ornaments or mould¬ 
ing*. 




TUSKS. The great teeth that stand 
mt in a boar’s mouth. 

TURNER. One who follows the art of 
turning. The company of turners in Lon¬ 
don, was incorporated in 1603. 

TURNING. The art of forming wood, 
Ivory, and other hard substances into a 
round or oval shape, by means of a ma¬ 
chine called a lathe, and several instru¬ 


ments, as gouges, chisels, drills, formers, 
and screw tales, with which the turnei 
works the thing into the desired form, as 
the lathe is turning. 

TURNPIKE. A gate set across a road, 
through which all travellers passing either 
on horseback or in a conveyance, must 
pay toll; also the road which has such a 
gate. 

TURNSPIT. A sort of dog that used t. 
be taught to turn a spit before the intro 
duction of smoke jacks. 

TURPENTINE. A resinous substance 
procured from different species of the pine 
and fir. The best sort grows in North 
America. The method of obtaining it is 
by making a series of incisions in the bark 
of the tree, from which the turpentine 
exudes, and falls down into holes or other 
receptacles prepared to catch it. 

TURTLE. A species of the tortoise that 
mostly inhabits the sea. Its flesh is held 
to be a great delicacy. 

TURTLE DOVE. See Dove. 

TUTTY. A gray oxide of zinc. 

TWELFTH DAY, or Epiphany The 
twelfth day after Christmas. 

TWILIGHT. That period of light be 
tween darkness and the rising or setting 
of the sun. 

TYMPAN. A frame belonging to a 
printing press. 

TYMPANIUM. The drum or barrel of 
the ear, in which are lodged the bones of 
the ear. 

TYPES. Pieces of metal cut or cast, 
which are employed in printing. 

TYPHUS. A violently contagious fever, 
accompanied with a tendency in all the 
fluids to putrefaction. 

TYPOGRAPHY. A description of all 
that relates to the use of types in the 
formation of books; a history of the art 
of printing. 


U 


U, the twenty-first letter of the alphabet. 

UBIQUITY. The property of being 
every where; the attribute of God. 

UDDER. The milk bag of a cow or 
other four-footed beast. 

ULCER. A purulent wound or running 
•ore. 

ULLAGE. A want of measure in a cask. 
ULTIMATUM. The final conditions 
on which any party consents to treat for 

peace. 

ULTRAMARINE. The finest sort of 
Mne paint, prepared from lapis lazuli. 

30* 


UMBEL. A sort of inflorescence like 
an umbrella. 

UMBELLATA3. One of the Llnnasan 
natural orders, comprehending umbel 
liferous plants, or those which have flow¬ 
ers in the form of an umbel, as fennel, dill, 
Ac. 

UMBER. A dark yellow colour used 
in shading. 

UMBRELLA. A kind of screen held 
over the head to keep off the sun and 
rain. It was introduced into England as 
the close of the last century. 































VAD 


854 VAC 

UNA VOCE. Wit* one voice, unani¬ 
mously. 

UNCTION. Anointing with consecrated 
oil, a practice among the Jews in conse¬ 
crating kings and priests; also still in use 
at coronations, and in the Romish church 
on different occasions. The anointing of 
persons who are on their deathbed is cal¬ 
led extreme unction. 

UNCTUOUS. Oily, or like an oint¬ 
ment. 

UNDECAGO>’ A figure having eleven 
sides. 

UNDER SHERIFF. An assistant to 
the high sheriff. 

UNDERTAKERS. Persons whc con¬ 
duct funerals. 

UNDERTAKING (in Law). An en¬ 
gagement to do a particular thing. 

UNDERWRITER. The person who 
undertakes to insure against losses at sea. 

UNDULATION. The tremulous or vi¬ 
bratory motion in a liquid. 

UNICORN. An animal said to have 
nut one horn in the forehead. 

UNIFORMITY. One form of public 
worship, as prescribed by different statutes 
to be observed in England. 

UNION. The bringing of two countries 
under one form of government, as the 
Union of England and Scotland, and the 
Union of Great Britain and Ireland. In 
the United States the term is applied to 
the confederation of the several states un¬ 
der one general government. 

UNISON. Unity of sound, mostly ap¬ 
plied to that which proceeds from differ¬ 
ent voices. 

UNIT. A figure expressing the number 
one. 

UNITARIANS. Those who deny the 
divinity of our Saviour, and consequently 
the doctrine of the Trinity. 

UNIVALVE. A shell consisting of one 
valve or piece. 

UNIVERSITY. An institution estab¬ 
lished by public authority for the educa¬ 
tion of youth in the liberal arts, and con¬ 


ferring degrees in the several fkesltiea 
In England an university consists of sere 
ral colleges under the government of a 
chancellor, vicechancellor, proctors, and 
beadles, besides the heads of the severa 
houses, as in the universities of Cambridgs 
and Oxford. 

URANIUM. A newly discovered metal 
soft and brittle, but hardly fusible before 
the blowpipe; but with phosphate of soda 
and ammonia melts into a grass-green 
glass. 

URETER. The membranous canal 
which conveys the urine from each kid¬ 
ney to the urinary bladder. 

URETHRA. A membranous canal 
which serves as a passage for the discharge 
of the urine. 

URN. A vessel among the Romans, In 
which they put the names of those who 
were to engage at the public games, 
taking them in the order in which they 
were drawn out. In such a vessel also 
they threw in the notes of their votes at 
the elections. 

URSA. The name of two northern 
constellations, namely, Ursa Major and 
Ursa Minor, the Great and Little Bear. 

URSUS. A genus of animals in the 
Linnsean system, including the bear, bad¬ 
ger, racoon, glutton, Sec. 

USANCE. A determinate time fixed 
for the payment of a bill of exchange, 
reckoned either from the day of the bill’s 
being accepted, or from the day of its 
date, and so calied because it is regulated 
by the usage or custom of the place. 

USHER (in Law). An officer who has 
the care and direction of the door of a 
court or hall. 

USHER (in Schools). An assistant or 
lower master. 

USHER OF THE BLACK ROD (in 
England). An officer whose business it is 
to bear the rod before the king at the feast 
of St. George and other solemnities. 

USURY. The taking more interest for 
the loan of money than is allowed by law 


V 


V, the twenty second letter In the alpha¬ 
bet, stands as a numeral for 5, and former¬ 
ly with a dash over it, thus V, for 5000-, 
as an abbreviation, V. G. Verbi gratia, 
V L. videlicet, &c. 

VACANCY (in Law). A post or bene¬ 
fice wanting the regular officer or incum¬ 
bent. 

VACATION (in Law). The period be¬ 
tween the end of one term and the be¬ 


ginning of another: and the same in i)u 
Universities. 

VACCINATION. Inoculation with 
the cow pox, intended as a preserv¬ 
ative against infection from the small 
pox. 

VACUUM (in Philosophy). A space 
supposed to be devoid of all matter or 
body. 

VADE MECUM. The name of any 




VAR 

<mb* 1 book that may be carried about with 
one. 

VAGRANTS (in Law). Beggars,strol¬ 
ling and idle persons who wander from 
place to place. 

V A LET. Formerly a young gentleman 
of family, but now applied to a serving- 
man of low degree. 

VALLAR CROWN. A crown bestowed 
among the Romans c.i a general who first 
entered an enemy’s camp. 



VALVE. A kind of lid or cover to a 
tube or vessel, contrived to open one way. 

VALVES (in Conchology). The princi¬ 
pal pieces of which a shell i3 composed; 
by their shells they are distinguished into 
univalves, for such as have only one piece; 
bivalves, for those that have two pieces; 
and multivalves, for those that have three 
or more pieces. 

VALVE, Safety An orifice which 
allows the escape of steam when the 
pressure is so great as to endanger the 
apparatus. 

VAMPIRE An animal of the bat 
tribe. 

VAN (in the Army) The front of the 
army, or the first line. 

VA N (in the Navy). The foremost 
division of a naval armament. 

VANE. A device on the top of build¬ 
ings to show the direction of the wind. 

VAPOUR. A watery exhalation that, 
being rarefied by heat, ascends to a cer¬ 
tain height in the atmosphere. 

VASE. An ornamental urn 



VASES (in Architecture.). Ornaments 
p aced on cornices, socles, or pediments, 
representing such vessels as the ancients 
used in sacrifices, &c. 

VARIATION (in Geography and Navi- 


VEN m 

gation). A deviation of the magneticat 
needle in the mariner’s compass. 

VARIETY. Any individual plant or 
animal that differs from the rest of the 
species in some accidental circumstances. 

VARIORUM EDITIONS. Editions of 
the Greek and Latin authors, with the 
notes of different critics. 

VARNISH. A thick, viscid, shining 
liquor, used by painters and other artifi 
cers to give a gloss to their works. Resin 
is the principal constituent of varnish. 

VEGETABLE. An organic body desti 
tute of sense and spontaneous motion, but 
furnished with pores nd vessels, by the 
help of which it draws nourishment from 
other bodies. 

VEGETABLE MARROW. The fruil 
of a plant of the gourd kind growing in 
Persia. Its flesh is very tender, soft, and 
of a buttery quality. 

VEIN (among Miners). A space con¬ 
taining ores, spar, clay, &c. : when it 
bears ore it is called a quick vein, when 
no ore a dead vein. 

VEINS (in Anatomy). The long mem¬ 
braneous canals which return the blood 
from the arteries to the heart. 

VELLUM. The finest kind of parch¬ 
ment. 

VELOCITY. That affection of motion 
whereby a moveable body is disposed tc 
run over a certain space in a certain time. 

VELVET. A sort of fine shagged silk 
or cotton. 

VENA CAVA, the Hollow Vein (in 
Anatomy). The largest vein in the body, 
so called from its great cavity or hollow 
space into which, as a common channel 
all the lesser veins, except the pulmona- 
ris, empty themselves. This vein receives 
the blood from the liver and other parts, 
and carries it to the heart. 



VENEERING A kind of inlaying 
thin slices of fine woods of different kind* 1 

and colours. 














$66 


VER 


VENA PORTA. The great vela situat¬ 
ed at the entrance ef the liver 



VENTILATOR A eontrivance for sup¬ 
plying rooms with fresh air. 

VENTRICLE. A cavity of the heart or 
brain. 

VENTRILOQUIST. One who by art, 
or by a particular conformation of organs, 
is enabled in speaking to make the sound 
appear to come from the stomach, or from 
a distance. 

VENUE (in Law). The neighbourhood 
whence juries are to be summoned for the 
trial of causes. 

VENUS. The goddess of beauty, and 
laughter of Jupiter. 

VEDAS. The ancient sacred litera¬ 
ture of the Hindoos, or the Hindoo 
Scriptures; the four oldest sacred books 
of the Hindoos. 

VELOCIPEDE. A sort of machine 
with two wheels, placed one before the 
other, and connected by a beam, on 
which a person sits astride; and the 
vehicle is propelled by the muscular 
power of the rider acting upon treadles 
and levers, which communicate with a 
cranked-wheel axle. 

VENUS. In astronomy, a brilliant 
planet, the second in order of distance 
from the sun, and the most brilliant 
of all the planetary bodies. Her dis¬ 
tance from the sun is about 68,000,000 
miles. 

VEPvMICULITE. A mineral which 
consists of micaceous-looking plates, 
composed of silica, magnesia, peroxide 
of iron, alumina, and water. 

VEPRECULAL One of Linnaeus's na¬ 
tural orders, containing briarlike plants, 
as the bramble, thorn, &c. 

VERB. A part of speech w hich serves 
to express action, passion, or existence j it 
is either active, passive, or neuter. 

VERBATIM. Word for word. 

VERDEGRIS. An acetate of copper 
used as a pigment; It is the rust of brass 
gathered by laying plates of that metal in 
beds with the husks of pressed grapes, and 
then scraping it off the plates. 

VERDICT. The report or determination 
af a jury upon any cause. 

VERDITER. A green pniiu 


VES 

VERGE. In England, the com**s«of ths 
king’s court. 

VERGER. In England, an officer of H 
court or a cathedral, who carries a rod 
before the judge or the bishop 

VERJUICE. The expressed juice of the 
wild apple or crab. 

VERMES. Worms, a class of animals 
in the Liuncean system, that are slow of 
motion, of a soft substance, extremely 
tenacious of life, capable of reproducing 
parts that have been destroyed, and in¬ 
habiting moist places. 

VERMICELLI. An Italian dish. 

VERSE. A line in poetry, consisting of 
a number of long and short syllables ; alsc 
the division of a chapter in the Bible. 

VERSIFICATION. The art and prac¬ 
tice of making verses. 

VERSION. A translation out of one 
language into another. 

VERT. In England, every thing in a 
forest that bears a green leaf which may 
serve as a cover for deer 

VERT (in Heraldry). The colour of 
green on coats of arms, represented in 
engraving by lines drawn from the dexter 
chief to the sinister base. 

VERTEBRAL A chain of little bones 
reaching from the neck down to the back, 
and forming the spine. 

VERTEX (in Geometry). The top of 
any line or figure, as the vertex of a 
triangle. 

VERTEX (in Anatomy). The crown ef 
the head. 

VERTICAL. Pertaining to the vertex 
or zenith: a star is said to be vertica 
when it is in the zenith. 

VERTICAL CIRCLE. A great circle 
of the sphere passing through the zenith 
and nadir, and cutting the horizon at right 
angles. 

VERTICAL POINT (in Astronomy/ 
Tiiat point in the heavens which is ovet 
our heads, otherwise called the zenith. 

VERTICELLATAL One of the Lin 
ntean natural orders of plants, including 
those whose flowers grow in the form of a 
whorl, as the mint, &c. 

VERTIGO. Giddiness. 

VERVAIN. A perennial, a sort o! 
mallow 

VESICLE. Any small vessels, either in 
the animal body or in plants. 

VESPERS. The evening prayers in the 
Romish church. 

VESPERTILIO. A gums of animals 
in the Linncean system, comprehending 
the species of the bat and the vampire. 

VESSEL. Any sort of utensil used for 
holding liquid's. 





VET 


VIC 


357 


VESSEL (among Mariner*). Every kind 
of ship, large or small, that serves to carry 
men or goods on water. 

VESSELS (in Anatomy). The conduits 
or canals for conveying the blood or other 
juices to the different parts of the animal 
body, as the arteries, veins, &c. 

VESSELS (in Botany). The channels 
or reservoirs which convey the sap or air 
to different parts of plants for their nutri¬ 
ment. 

VESTA (in the Heathen Mythology). 
The daughter of Rhea and Saturn, and 
the goddess of fire. 

VESTA. A newly discovered planet. 

VESTAL VIRGINS- Priestesses to the 
goddess Vesta among the Roma ns, to whom 
was committed the care of the vestal fire. 

VESTIBULE. The entrance to a house, 
or an open space before a door. 

VESTIBULUM. A cavity in the bone 
of the ear. 

VESTRY. A small apartment adjoining 
a chinch, where the vestments of the 
clergyman are kept, and where the pa¬ 
rishioners assemble for the discharge of 
parochial business ; also the persons assem¬ 
bled in the vestry. In England, a select 
vestry is a certain number of persons per¬ 
manently appointed to conduct the affairs 
of the parish, who are chosen from among 
the higher orders, and fill up their own 
vacancies. 

VESTRY CLERK. A scrivener who 
keeps the parish accounts. 

VESTRYMEN. Members of the vestry 
who conduct the affairs of the parish. 

VESUVIAN. A mineral found in lava, 
especially on Mount Vesuvius, which is 
often confounded with hyacinth ; the prim¬ 
itive form of its crystal is a cube 

VETCH. A kind of pulse or peas, bear¬ 
ing a papilionaceous flower. 

VETERINARY ART, otherwise called 
Farriery. The art of managing cattle, 
and curing their diseases, whence a vete¬ 
rinary surgeon, vulgarly called a horse 
doctor or farrier, and the veterinary col¬ 
lege, where horses are taken in for cure, 
and persons resort to acquire practice and 
information in all that relates to the care 
of animals. The principal diseases to which 
horses are subject are the water farcy, or 
dropsy of the skin •, ascites, or dropsy of 
the belly ; broken wind, supposed to arise 
from a rupture of the cells In the lungs; 
cracks in the heels, from gross habit or 
from filth ; farcy, an infection of the skin ; 
foot-foundering, wnen a horse is unable to 
rest on any of his feet; greasy heels, from 
weakness or overlabour; lampers, a swell¬ 
ing of the bars in the roof of the mouth ; 


mange, an affection of the skin, when the 
hair falls off; staggers, a Bort of lethargy, 
and mad staggers, a sort of frenzy from 
a pressure on the brain ; strangles, a dis¬ 
ease attended with a fever, cough, and 
running at the nose ; thrush, a discharge 
from the frog of the foot; pole evil, arising 
from friction of the collar at the back of 
the ears ; besides inflammations, fevers, 
dysenteries, and other disorders which 
they have in common with human sub¬ 
jects. 

VETURINO. A hirer of horses in Italy ; 
also a guide to travellers. 

V. G. Verbi gratia, as for instance 

VIA LAG’TEA. The milky way. 

VIBRATION. The alternate motion of 
any suspended body, like tiie pendulum of 
a clock, which swings this way and then 
that. The regular motion of the pendulum 
of a clock is 3600 vibrations in an hour 
Vibration is also a quivering motion that 
acts by quick returns. 

VICAR (in England). One that acts in 
the stead of another; more particularly 
taken for the parson of a parish where the 
tithes are impropriated. 

VICE (in Smithery). An instrument 
used for holding fast any pieceof iron which 
the artificer is working upon. 



VICE (among Glaziers). A machine foi 
drawing lead into flat rods for case win 
dows. 

VICE. In the stead or turn ; hence the 
compounds vice-gerent, vice-admiral, &c. 

V1CEADM1RAL. In England, the se¬ 
cond commander in a fleet; the admiral who 
commands the second squadron in a fleet. 

VICECHAMBERLAIN. In England, 
the officer next to the chamberlain, wiio 
acts in his stead. 

VICECHANCELLOR. In England, an 
officer appointed to assist the Lord Chan¬ 
cellor; in the Universities, the superior 
acling officer, whi performs the duties of 
the Chancellor- 

VICEGERENT A governor acting with 
a delegated power 

VICEROY. The lord lieutenant of a 
kingdom, as the Viceroy of Ireland. 


« 




•68 


VIP 


VIR 


VICE VERSA. On the contrary, the 
aide being turned or changed. 

VIDELICET, generally written Viz. 
That is, namely. 

VI ET ARMIS (in Law). By force of 
arms, terms in an indictment charging a 
forcible and violent commission of tres¬ 
pass. 

VIGIL. The service used in the Romish 
church on the night preceding a holyday. 

VIGILS. Certain fasts preceding festi¬ 
vals. 

VIGNETTE. A frontispiece, or an or¬ 
namental picture preceding the title page. 

VILLAINS (in England). Men of base 
and servile condition, who in the feudal 
times were immediately attached to the 
'and, and bound to the lord to do services 
for him. 

VINCULUM (in Algebra). A m ark or 
line drawn over a quantity, thus, a-[-6, 
denoting it to be one quantity 

VINE. A plant that flourishes most in 
warm countries, as Italy, Spain, Portugal, 
and France, where its cultivation forms a 
part of husbandry It grows in those parts 
in the open fields, and is not suffered to 
rise much higher than gooseberry or cur¬ 
rant bushes. The fruit of the vine is there 
an important article of trade. 

VINEGAR. Wine or any other liquor 
exposed to the sun, until it is become acid. 
In this country vinegar is chiefly made 
from cider 

VINEYARD. A place set apart for vhe 
cultivation of the vine. 

VIOL. A musical stringed instrument. 

VIOLIN A common musical stringed 
instrument, which requires great skill in 
the performer to make it agreeable 



VIOLONCELLO A small bass viol. 
VIPER. An animal of the snake tribe, 
die bite of which is more or ’ess venomous 



every where; in hot countries it is almost 
Instantly fatal 


VIOLET A plant beaiing a blue sweet 
scented flower; also the colour of the vio¬ 
let, or purple. 

VIRGO. The sixth eign of the zodiac, 
marked thus Tl£, and a constellation con¬ 
taining from 32 to 110 stars, according to 
different authors. 

VIRTUOSO. One skilled in antique or 
natural curiosities ; a lover of the liberal 
arts. 

VISCERA. The intestines. 

VIS INERTIrE. The power in bodies 
that are in a state of rest, to resist any 
change that is endeavoured to be made 
upon them to change their state. This, 
according to Newton, is implanted in all 
matter. 

VISCOUNT (in England). A nobleman 
next in degree to an earl. The first vis¬ 
count was created in the reign of Henry VI 

VISCOUNT’S CORONET. Has nei¬ 
ther flowers nor points raised above the 
circle, like those of superior degree, but 
only pearls placed on the circle itself. 



VISC US. Any organ having an appr 
priate use in the human body, as th 
liver, gall, bladder, &c. ; but particular!} 
the intestines. 

VISION. The sensation in the brain 
produced by the rays of light passing or 
acting on the optic nerves of the eye. 

VISITATION (in England). An act of 
jurisdiction, whereby the bishop once in 
three years, and the archdeacon once 
every year, visits the churches within his 
diocess or district, to see that the disciplin* 
of the church is observed 

VISITOR (in Law). An inspector into 
the government of a corporation. 

VISUAL ANGLE. An angle under 
which an object is seen. 

VISUAL POINT. A point in the hori 
zontal line wherein all the ocular rays 
unite. 

VITAL AIR, now called Oxtoim 
T he air of which the atmosphere is prin 
cipally composed, which is essential to 
the support of life in animals and plants. 

VITAL FUNCTIONS. Those functions 
or faculties of the body, on which life 
immediately depends. 

VIRTREOUS HUMOUR. The pellucid 
body which fills the whole bulb of the 
' eye behind the crystalline lens. 








WAD 


WAF 


859 


VITRIOL. A salt, of a very caustic 
taste. It is a sulphate generally found In 
mines in a capillary state, or in a loose 
powdery efflorescence. The three princi¬ 
pal sorts are the green vitriol, copperas, 
or sulphate of iron; the blue vitriol, or 
sulphate of copper; and the white vitriol, 
or sulphate of zinc. 

VITRIOL, Oil or. Sulphuric acid. 

VITUS’ DANCE, or St. Vitu»’ Disci. 
A nervous disease accompanied with in¬ 
voluntary gesticulations. 

VIVA VOCE By word of mouth. 

VIVIPAROUS. An epithet for animals 
which bring forth living young. 

VOCAL MUSIC. Musical sounds pro¬ 
ceeding from the human voice; also com¬ 
positions for the voice. 

VOCATIVE CASE. The fifth case in 
Latin nouns. 

VOLATILE. An epithet for bodies that 
are apt to evaporate. 

VOLATILE ALKALIES. Ammonia 
and carbonic acid. 

VOLATILIZATION. The process by 
which bodies are resolved into air. 

VOLCANO. A burning mountain, such 
as Vesuvius, A2tna, and Hecla, in Europe; 
which send forth flame, ashes, lava, stones, 
smoke, &c, 

VOLTAIC BATTERY. See BattUrt. 

VOLUME (in Music). The compass of 
a voice from grave to acute. 

VOLUME (in Literature) A book, or 
any thing folded into the form of a book. 

VOLUNTARY (in Music). An extem¬ 
porary performance upon the organ, intro¬ 
duced as an incidental part of divine 
service. 

VOLUTE. A spiral scroll in the Ionic 
ind Composite capitals. 

VOMICA. See Nux Vomica. 

VOWEL. A letter which affords a com¬ 
plete sound of itself. 

VOX POPULI. The popular or uni¬ 
versal opinion. 

VULGATE. Avery ancient Latin trans¬ 
ition of the Bible, which was translated 


from the Greek of the Septuaglnt. It is 
the only one acknowledged by the Romish 
church to be authentic. 

VULCAN. The son of Jupiter and Juno, 
and the god of fire. He is commonly re¬ 
presented with a hammer, anvil &®. 



VULTURE. A bird common in all 
warm climates, that lives chiefly on putrid 
flesh, and is very useful in removing filth 
that would otherwise produce disease 



The turkey buzzard, common in the 
southern states, is a species of vulture so 
useful in clearing away offensive mat 
ter, as to be protected by law in large 
cities 


w. 


VV, the twenty-third letter of the alphabet, 
composed of two V’s. It was not known 
o the Hebrews, Greeks, or Romans, being 
peculiar to the Teutones and other north¬ 
ern tribes 

WACKE. An argillaceous earth. 

WADD Plumbago or black lead. I 


BlacK waaa is an ore of manganese, found 
in Derbyshire in England. 

WADDING. A stopple of paper or tow 
forced into a gun, to keep in the powdet 
and shot. 

WAFER. Paste made of flour, eggs 
isinglass, &c. cut into a thin round cake 







800 W AL 

and coloured, for the purpoee of sealing 
etters. 

WAFER (in the Romish Church). A 
thin piece of consecrated bread used at 
the holy rite of the sacrament. 

WAGNERITE. A rare mineral re¬ 
sembling the Brazilian topaz. 

WALLERITE. A variety of ortko- 
elase, found in small compact masses, 
yellowish and translucent. 

WALL-PLATE. In architecture, a 
piece of timber lying on a wall, on 
which girders, joists, &c., rest. 

WAItWICKITE. A mineral con¬ 
taining titanium. 

WAGES. Money paid for labour. 

WAGGON. A large kind of four- 
wheeled conveyance, much used in hus¬ 
bandry. 



WAGTAIL. A bird that is continually 
wagging its tail. 

WAIFS (in England). Goods stolen, and 
afterwards waived or abandoned, which 
are forfeited to the king. 

WAIST. That part of a ship between 
the quarterdeck and forecastle 

WAITERS (in Law). Officers appointed 
to see that goods are not landed clandes¬ 
tinely. Those who go on board the vessels 
ire called tide-waiters ; those who do this 
4uty on shore are land-waiters. 

WAITS. In England, nightly musicians, 
who go their rounds in the night-time and 
play just before Christmas. 

WALKING LEAF. A singular insect 
of China, that has a neck longer than the 
rest of the body. 

WALLFLOWER. A plant bearing a 
sweet-scented flower. 

WALRUS. An animal of the seal kind 
inhabiting the northern seas, which in form 
resembles an ox. 



WALTZ. A particular kind of dance, 
introduced into England from Germany 


WAS 

It is mostly performed by the partse* 
going with measured steps in circles. 

WAPENTAKE. The same as a Han 

DRKD. 

WARD (in Law). A district or portion 
of a city committed to the ward or special 
charge, of one of the aldermen ; also one 
in the care of a guardian, or in particular 
cases in England, under the special care of 
the court of Chancery. 

WARDEN (in England). One who has 
the charge or keeping of any person or thing 
by virtue of his office, as the warden of 
the Fleet, who has charge of the prisoners 
committed there ; so likewise the warden 
of a college, or the warden of the C*nqu* 
Ports, &c. 

WARDMOTE. The court of each ward 
in the city of London. 

WARDROBE. A place for keeping 
clothes ; also the clothes themselves. 

WARDROBE, Clerk of the. In Eng¬ 
land, an officer who takes charge of the 
king’s wardrobe. 

WAREHOUSE. A place where mer¬ 
chandises are kept. 

WARNING-WHEEL. The third or 
fourth wheel of a clock, according to its 
distance from the first wheel. 

WARP. The thread extended lengthwise 
on the weaver’s loom, which is crossed by 
the workman in forming the cloth, stuff 
or silk. 

WARRANT (in Law). A writ com¬ 
manding an officer of justice to take up 
any offender. 

WARRANT OF ATTORNEY. An 
authority given to an attorney by ilia 
client to appear and plead for him. 

WARRANT, Press (in the Navy) In 
England is issued by the admiralty, an 
thorizing an officer to impress seamen. 

WARRANTING (among Horsedealers) 
An assurance given by the seller to the 
buyer, that the horse sold, is free from al 
defects at the time of sale. 

WARREN (in Law). In England, a 
franchise or privileged place for keeping 
beasts and fowls of the warren, as hares 
partridges, and pheasants. 

WART. A spongy substance growing 
near the eye of a horse. 

WASHES. A dangerous shore in Nor 
folk, England. 

WASHING (amongGoldsmiths). Draw¬ 
ing particles of silver and gold out of ashes 

WASHING (among Painters). Colour¬ 
ing a pencil design with one colour, as 
Indian ink, &c 

WASP. A stinging insect resembling a 
bee. 

WASTE (in Law) A spoil or desire*- 














YV A T 

made in houses, woods, and lands, by 
'-he tenant for life or years. 

WASTE-BOOK A book containing an 
Recount of a merchant’s transactions in 
the order of time as they occur. 

WASTE-LANDS Such as are notin 
any man’s occupation, that lie common. 

WATCH (in the Navy). The space of 
time during which one division of the 
ship’s crew remains on deck, to keep 
watch at night. 

WATCH (in the Police). Persons ap¬ 
pointed to guard the streets or particular 
places at night 

WATCH. A small portable machine, 
constructed with wheels, that serves to 
•how the hour of the day. A watch con¬ 
sists of a spiral steel spring, which is the 
moving power: the barrel, a brass box, 
for receiving the spring when coiled up; 
the worm-wheel, which is turned round 
by a worm; the fusee, which receives the 
chain when the watch is wound up; the 
ratchet wheel, at the lower end of the 
fusee; the great wheel, which has forty- 
eight teeth; the centre wheel, which has 
fifty-four teeth; the third wheel, which 
has forty-eight teeth; the centrate wheel, 
which has forty-eight teeth: and the bal¬ 
ance wheel, which has fifteen teeth: be¬ 
sides the arbour of the balance wheel, 
called the verge, and the two pallets be¬ 
longing to this arbour, &.c. 

WATCH-GLASS. Hour and half-hour 
glasses of sand, employed on board vessels 
to measure the period of the watch 



WATCHMAKER. One who puts to¬ 
gether the different parts of a watch, so 
as to make the whole machine act. 

WATER. A simple substance in the 
opinion of the ancients, and one of the 
five elements. It is now considered as a 
compound fluid consisting of two gases, 
hydrogen gas and oxygen gas. 

WATER (among Lapidaries). The lus¬ 
tre of precious stones. 

WATER (among Manufacturers). A 
lustre imitating waves, set on silks, mo¬ 
hair, &c. 

WATER (amoicg Farriers). A filthy 
humour issuing from a wound in a horse. 

WATER-BAILIFF (in Law). An offi¬ 
cer in seaport towns who searches ships, 
31 


WAT M 

and in London has particular charge of the 
fish brought t j market. 

WATERCOLOURS. Colours made of 
water instead of oil. The principal of the 
water-colours are as follow: White—Ce¬ 
ruse, white lead, Spanish white, flake 
white, spodium : Black—Burnt cherr> 
stones, ivory black, lamp black : Green- 
Green bice, green verditer, grass green, sap 
green, verdigrise distilled : Blue—Sanders 
blue, terre blue, blue verditer, indigo lit¬ 
mus, smalt, Prussian blue, light blue, ul- 
tiamarine, blue bice: Brown—Spanish 
brown, Spanish liquorice, umber, bistre, 
terra de Sienna burnt and unburnt: Red— 
Native cinnabar, burnt ochre, Indian red 
red lead, minium, lake, vermilion, cap 
mine, red ink, Indian lake: Yellow—Eng- 
lish ochre, gall stones, gamboge, masticot, 
ochre de luce, orpiment, Roman ochre, 
Dutch pink, saffron water, king’s yellow, 
gold yellow, French berries. 

WATER-COURSE. Any natural or 
artificial stream of water, as a river, a 
canal, and the like. 

WATER HEN. An European bird that 
swims well, and runs swiftly on the land. 

WATER-LEVEL. A kind of level used 
in agriculture for finding the level of roads 
or grounds by means of a surface of water 
or other fluid, founded on the principle 
that water always finds its own level. It 
consists of a long wooden trough, as rep¬ 
resented underneath, which, being filled 
with water, shows the line of level. 



WATERMAN One who plies with a 
boat upon a river. The company of wa¬ 
termen in London, was incorporated in the 
reign of Philip and Marry. 

WATERMARK. The utmost limit of 
the rise of the flood. 

WATERMARK. The mark visible in 
paper, which is made in the manufacturing 
of it. 

WATER-SPOUT. An aqueous meteor, 
most frequently observed at sea, rising at 
first in the form of a small cloud, which 
afterwards enlarges, and, assuming the 
shape of a cylinder or cone, emits thus- 













862 


WED 


WHA 


der, lightning, as also rain and hail, in 
such quantities as to inundate vessels, and 
overset trees, houses, and every thing else 
which comes in its way. 

WATERMILL. A mill that is put In 
motion by means of water. 

WATER-WH EEL. An engine for rais¬ 
ing water out of a well. 

WATERWORKS. All kinds of ma¬ 
chines employed in raising or sustaining 
water, as watermills, sluices, aqueducts, 
and the like. 

WATTLE. A kind of hurdle used in 
making sheepfolds. 

WATTLES. Fleshy appendages at the 
sides of the lower mandibles in some birds, 
as turkeys. 

WAX. A soft, yellowish, and tenacious 
matter wherewith the bees form cells for 
the reception of the honey. It is a vege¬ 
table substance, that may be extracted 
from several plants : also a tenacious sub¬ 
stance made of wax for the purpose of 
sealing letters. 

WAXCHANDLER. One who makes 
candles of wax. The company of wax- 
chandlers in London, was incorporated in 
the reign of Richard III. 

WAY A road, as the highway. 

WAY (among Seamen). The ship’s 
course. 

WAYS AND MEANS (in England). 
The supplies for meeting the expenditure 
of the year, either voted by parliament or 
drawn from other sources. 

WEAR, or WEIR. A dam made to 
stop water. 

WEASEL. An animal of the same 
genus or kind as the otter, but otters live 
mostly in the water, and weasels on the 
land. It is a name for several of the spe¬ 
cies of the viverra and mustela of Linns- 
us. See Ermine 



WEATHER-GLASSES. Instruments 
contrived to show the state of the atmo¬ 
sphere, as barometers, thermometers, &c. 

WEAVING. The art of forming single 
threads of silk, cotton, or flax, into a close 
fabric in a loom with a shuttle. 

WEDGE. One of the mechanical pow- 
•w, which baa one end thick that gradu¬ 


ally tapers to a thin edge. It is used pat 
ticularly in cleaving wood. 



WEDNESDAY. The fourth day ol the 
week. 

WEEK. A division comprising seven 
days. Fifty-two weeks make the year. 

WEEPERS. Pieces of white cambric, 
crape, or muslin, sewed upon the sleeves 
in deep mourning. 

WEIGHT (in Mechanics;. Anything 
that is to be sustained, raised, or moved 
by a machine. 

WEIGHT (in Commerce). Any body 
of a known weight that is made the mea¬ 
sure of weighing other bodies. Two sorts 
of weights are admired in England, 
namely, Troy weight and avoirdupois 
weight. 

WELD. A sort of herb that grows is 
Kent, Herefordshire, and other parts of 
England, the stalk and root of which are 
used in dyeing bright yellow and lemon 
colours. 

WELDING. Working two pieces of 
iron together by means of heat, until they 
form one mass. 

WELL. A hole dug in the ground, of 
sufficient dSpth to admit the water to 
spring up. When the water is got out of 
it by means of a line and a bucket, it is a 
well properly so called, but when the 
water is raised by means of a pump, it is 
called a pump. 

W EST. One of the four cardinal points 
of the horizon, at which the sun sets 
WHALE. A huge animal that inhabits 
most parts of the ocean and particularly 
the northern seas, and is said to measure 
sometimes from 50 to 100 feet. The blubber 



of the whale contains the oil. which is an 
article of commerce, and the homy lamina 
in the upper jaw yield what Is called 
whalebone 







WIN 


WHARF, or Q.uat. A structure raised 
on the shore of a road or harbour. 

WHEAT. A valuable grain, of which 
iread is made. 

WHEAT-EAR An European bird of 
die finch kind. 

WHEEL. One of the most important 
of the six mecha'nical powers, which is 
employed in the structure of almost every 
machine. 

WHIG. In England, the name of those 
who uphold the rights of the people in op¬ 
position to the prerogatives of the crown. 

WHIPPOORWILL. A solitary bird of 
America, whose mournful song is often 
heard at night. It consists of a repetition 
of the word whippoorwill, generally utter¬ 
ed with great rapidity, in a tone of exqui¬ 
site sweetness. 

WHIRLPOOL. An eddy or vortex. 

WHIRLWIND. An exceedingly rapid 
and impetuous wind, that rises in a whirl¬ 
ing direction, and continues in the same 
way for some time. 

WHISPERING GALLERIES. Places 
which, like the gallery in St. Paul’s Ca¬ 
thedral London, by their peculiar construc¬ 
tion enable any one who whispers on the 
wall on the one side, to be heard by a per¬ 
son standing on the opposite side. 

WHITE. A colour supposed by Newton 
to be a composition of all the other colours. 

WHITE LEAD. The rust of lead. 

WHITING. A fish of the cod tribe. 

WHITSUNDAY A festival in the 
Christian church, that falls on the fiftieth 
day after Easter. 

WHITTLE. A woollen shawl. 

WICKLIFF1TES. The followers of 
lohn Wickliffe, who first opposed the see 
if Rome, and prepared the way for the 
Reformation in England. 

WIGEON. A bird of the duck tribe. 



WILL. The solemn act by which a 
man declares his will as to the disposal of 
aia estate after his death. If by word of 
mouth, it is a nuncupative will; but if by 
a written deed, it is a testament. 

WIND. The current or stream ol the 
air, togetner with the vapours that the air 
carries along it, which are supposed to be 


vV IN 36i 

rarefied and put into motion by the fores 
of heat. 

WILD MAN. A species of the mankey 
in the East Indies 



WILD TURKEY. The original stock of 
the tame turkey, peculiar to North Amet 
ica. Flocks of this noble bird are stil 
found in the woods of the western country 



WINDBOUND. An epithet for a shi; 
that cannot leave the port on account of 
unfavourable winds. 

WINDLASS. A kind of crane by whicl 
great weights are raised, as guns, stones, 
&c. into a vessel. 

WINDWARD. Towards the wind j as 
a windward tide, a tide that runs against 
the wind. 

WINE. The fermented juice of the 
grape, which is found to contain an acid 
alcohol, tartar, extract, aroma, and colour¬ 
ing matter. 




















W R1 


164 WOL 

WINGS. The right and left divisions 
of an army. 

WINGS (in Fortification). The large 
projecting sides of hornwork. 

WINNOWING. Separating corn from 
the chair by the help of the wind. 

WINDMILL. A mill that is put in 
motion by means of the wind acting on 
the sails, as in ta-j subjoined figure. 


WOOD ENGRAVER. An ar.ist who cut* 
figures and letters in wood, to serve the 
purpose of engraving cn copper This art 
has been carried to very great perfection, 
and in many respects will be found to 
effect the purpose quite as well as the 
sister art of copperplate engraving. 

WOODCOCK. A wild fowl, and a bird 
of passage, which is esteemed for its flesh, 




WINTER. That season of the year 
when, in the northern hemisphere, the 
run is in the tropic of Capricorn, or in 
his greatest declination from the equator. 

WIRE. A piece of metal drawn out to 
the size of a thread, or even smaller, ac- 
tording to the size of the hole which it is 
made to pass through. One single grain 
of gold admits of being drawn out into a 
wire 98 yards long. 

WITNESS (in Law) One sworn to give 
evidence in a cause 

WOAD. A plant growing in France 
and on the coast of the Baltic, from which 
a blue dye of the same name is extracted. 
It is cultivated in the United States. 

WOLF. A fierce animal of the dog tribe, 
found in almost all cold, and temperate 
climates. When pressed by hunger they 
become very bold and will attack men and 


WOODPECKER. A bird, so called 
because it pecks holes in the bark of 
trees. 

WOOL. The covering of sheep, which 
is an important article of commerce in 
this country. Much attention, therefore, is 
paid to the breed, and also to the feeding 
of sheep, to render their wool as perfect 
as possible. 

WOOLPACK. Literally, a pack of 
wool j a name for the seat of the Lord 
Chancellor in the House of Lords in Eng¬ 
land. 

WOOLSTAPLER. One who deals in 
wool, and collects it for the manufacturer. 

WORD. An articulate sound that repre¬ 
sents some idea to the mind; in Militaty 
Affairs, a watchword, or peculiar word 
that serves as a token or mark for all sen¬ 
tinels to detect spies or other persons who 
may wish to intrude into a camp. 

WORM. A long winding pewter pipe, 
placed in a tub of water to cool and 
thicken the vapours in tile distillation of 
liquors 

WORM (in Gunnery). The instrument 
used for drawing the charge out of a gun. 

WRECK. The ruins of a ship at see 
that has been dashed to pieces. 

WREN A small Staging bird 


large animals They sometimes assemble 
together upon the mountains, and encir¬ 
cling the deer will rush upon them and drive 
them over the precipices, where they are 
killed and become the prey of the wolves. 


WRIT (in Law). A precept issuing ou 
of some court of law, commanding some 
thing to be done touching some suit. 









XAN 


XYS 


365 


X begins no word truly English, 
but is chiefly used in words of Greek 
origin, and hence it is frequently ap¬ 
plied to terms of a scientific character. 
—In arithmetical science, as a numeral, 
it stands for 10; when laid horizontally, 
X, for 1,000; and, on account of its corre¬ 
sponding with the Greek digraph Ch, 
it is used as a contraction for Christ. 

XANGTE. The name of the Supreme 
Being among the Chinese. 

XANTHIAN. An epithet pertaining 
t<> Xauthus,tlie ancient capital of Lydia, 
as the Xanthian marbles in the British 
Museum. 

XANTHIC. In chemistry, an epithet 
denoting an acid composed of sulphur, 
carbon, and oxygen. 

XANTHIDiUM. A name given to 
minute organic bodies found in chalk 
and flint, supposed to befossil Infusoria. 

XANTHINE. In chemistry, the 
yellow dyeing matter contained in 
madder. 

XANTHITE. A mineral of a light 
grey or yellow color. Its constituents 
are silica, alumina, lime, peroxide of 
iron, peroxide of manganese, and water: 
s PG? r - 3‘20. 

XANTHOGEN. In chemistry, the 
base of an acid, procured by the action 
and reaction of carburet of sulphur and 
potash .—Xanthide is a compound of 
xanthogen and a metal. 

XANTHOPHYLLE. The yellow 
coloring matter or sappy exudation in 
plants. 

XANTHOPICRINE. A bitter prin¬ 
ciple obtained from the bark of the 
xanthoxvlum. 

XANl'HORAHNINE. In chemis¬ 
try, an organic compound existing in 
the ripe berries of certain species of 

Rhamniis. 

XANTHORTITE. In mineralogy, a 
yellowish variety of allanite. 

XEBEC. A small three-masted vessel 
navigated in the Mediterranean. 



XEROPHAGY. The eating of dry 
meats, a sort of fast among the primi¬ 
tive Christians, 


XANTHOUS. In ethnology, a term 
applied to varieties of mankind with 
yellow, red, or brown hair. 

XANTHOXYLACEiE. In botany 
a native order of exogenous plants, 
consisting of trees or shrubs, of which 
xanthoxylum, or prickly-ash, is the 
type and genus. 

XENOTIME. An opaque crystal 
mineral: a phosphate of yttria. 

XERASIA. In pathology, a disease 
of the hair. 

XERODES. In pathology, some¬ 
thing of a drying nature; a dry tumor 

XIPHIAS. In ichthyology, the 
sword-fish.—In astronomy, a comet 
like a sword. 

XIPHOID. In anatomy, denoting a 
ligament or cartilage connected with 
the sternum, resembling a sword. 

XIPHOSURA. In malacology, a 
family of Crustaceans with sword- 
sliaped tails. 

XYLIDINE. In chemistry, an arti¬ 
ficial organic base or alkaloid, consist¬ 
ing of hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon. 

XYLO-. A prefix to numerous words 
connected with mechanical science and 
the arts, of which wood is the chief 
material. 

XYLOBALSAMUM. The wood of 
the balsam tree; a balsam obtained by 
decoction of the leaves of the Amyru 
Gileadensis. 

XYLOGRAPHY. The art of en- 
graving on wood; wood-engraving. 

XYLOCHLORE. An olive-green 
crystalline mineral, closely resembling 
apophyllite. 

XYLOIDINE. In chemical science, 
a term applied to paper after it has 
been immersed in strong nitric acid, 
and washed in distilled water; the 
paper then assumes the toughness of 
parchment, and is so combustible as to 
serve for tinder. 

XYLOLE. In chemistry, a hydro¬ 
carbon found among the oils separated 
from crude wood-spirit by the addition 
of water. 

XYLOTILE. In mineralogy, an 
opaque green mineral, consisting ot 
silver, iron, and magnesia. 

XYLORETINE. In chemistry, a 
crystallizable compound found on the 
remains of pine trees. 

XYLOPYROGRAPHY. The art or 
practice of engraving on charred wood. 

X YPHIRRHYNCHUS. A family of 
fishes, of which the sword-fish is the 
type. 

XYSTER. In surgery, _ an mstriu 
ment for scraping and shaving bone*, 







866 


YAP 


ZEB 


T. 


Y, the twenty-fifth letter of the 
English alphabet, is taken from the 
Greek v. At the beginning of words, 
it is called an articulation or consonant. 
In the middle and at the end of words, 
y is precisely the same as i. It is 
sounded as i long, when accented, as 
in defy , rely; and as i short, when un¬ 
accented, as in vanity. At the begin¬ 
ning of words, y answers to the German 
and Dutch j. 

YAPON. In botany, the name of a 
South Sea Tea, the Cassine, the pro¬ 
duce of the Ilex cassine , which is ap¬ 
plied medicinally, and used as a tea. 
It is the produce of the southern states 
of South America. 

YARRAWARA. In botany, a tree 
of New South Wales, one of the largest 
of the Eucalypti, which produces ex¬ 
cellent timber. 

YEAR. In chronolgy and natural 
philosophy, an important division of 
time, embracing the four seasons, and 
determined by the revolution of the 
earth in its orbit.—The civil year is the 
year of the calendar, i.e., 12 months, or 
365 days in common years, and 366 in 
leap years, beginning with the 1st of 
January.—The sidereal year is the space 
of time the sun takes in passing from 
any fixed star till his return to it again; 
the length of this is 365 days 6 hours 
9' 11".—A lunar year is the space of 
twelve lunar months.—The Julian year 
consists of 365J days. Julius Caesar or¬ 
dered that the civil year should consist 
of 365 days for three successive years, 
and the fourth of 366 days. 

YEAST. A substance generated dur¬ 
ing the vinous fermentation of vegeta¬ 
ble juices and decoctions, rising to the 
surface in the form of froth. 

YELLOW. The lightest and warm¬ 
est of the prismatic colors, situated in 
the solar spectrum between red and 
blue. 


) YENITE. An opaque mineral of a 
! black color, with a shade of brown or 
! green, consisting of silica, lime, pro- 
I toxide of iron, protoxide of manganese 
alumina, and water: sp.gr.3 99. 

YERBA. The native name for mate' 
or Paraguayan tea. 

YEZIDEES. A small nation border¬ 
ing on the Euphrates, whose religion is 
said to be a mixture of the worship of 
the devil, with some of the doctrines of 
the Magi, Mohammedans, and Chris¬ 
tians. 

Y-LEYEL. In surveying, an instru¬ 
ment for measuring altitude and dis- 

tclDC6 

YONI. The Hindu name for the 
female power in nature, represented 
by an oval. 

YTTRIUM. A peculiar metal, dis¬ 
covered in the state of an oxide in 
Sweden; when heated to redness in the 
air, it takes fire, burns with splendor, 
and is converted into yttria. 

YTTROCERITE. A mineral which 
occurs crystallized and massive, and 
whose constituents are fluoric acid, 
yttria. oxide of cerium, and lime: sp. 
gr. 3’44. 

YTTROCOLUMBITE. The name 
of a mineral, of which there are three 
species—the yellow, brown, and black. 

YTTROTANTALITE. A mineral 
containing yttria and oxide of colum- 
bium. 

YU. In mineralogy,nephrite or jade. 

YUG. In Indian mythology , one of 
the ages into which the Hindoos divide 
the duration or existence of the world. 

YULAN. A beautiful flowering tree 
of China; the magnolia yulan. 

YULE. A name given in many parts 
of England, and generally in Scotland, 
to the festival of Christmas; whence 
yule-log , a large log of wood placed on 
the fire during the Christmas merry 
meetings. 


z. 


ZAFFRE. In chemistry, the re¬ 
siduum or impure oxide of cobalt, after 
sulphur, arsenic, and other volatile 
matters have been expelled by calcin¬ 
ation. 

ZAMITE. In geology,a fossil zamina, 
which is a kind of palm. 

ZAMTITE. A hydrous carbonate 
of nickel of an emerald-green color. 

ZAPHARA. In the arts, a mineral 
used by potters to make a sky color. 

ZARATHAN. In pathology, a hard 
tumor of the breast, resembling a cancer. 


ZARNICH. A genus of fossils that 
burns with a whitish flame. 

ZEA. A genus of important grasses, 
Indian corn or maize, extensively culti¬ 
vated in warm countries as an article 
of food. 

ZEBRA. A wild animal of Africa, 
somewhat resembling an ass, but larger, 
and beautifully sti’iped. 

ZEBRA-WOOD. The wood of a tree 
of Brazil and Rio Janeiro, of an orange 
and dark-brown color, variously mixed. 









ZEB 


ZYM 


367 


ZEBU. The Indian bull or cow, re¬ 
markable for its long pendulous ears, 
and a fatty excrescence or hump on its 
shoulders. 

ZECHSTEIN. In mineralogy, a mag¬ 
nesian limestone lying under the red 
sandstoue. 

ZEND. The ancient Persian tongue 
—the language in which the Avesta is 
written. 

ZEND-AVESTA. The sacred book 
or scriptures of the ancient Persian 
religion; properly the Avesta or sacred 
text, and the Zend, or translation into a 
more intelligible language. 

ZENITH. In natural philosophy and 
ouranology, that point in the visible 
celestial hemisphere which is vertical 
to the spectator; the point directly 
overhead, and opposite to the nadir.-— 
Zenith distance is the distance of a star 
or planet from the zenith, measured on 
the vertical circle passing through the 
zenith.— Zenith sector is an astronomical 
instrument for measuring, with great 
accuracy, the distances from the zenith 
of stars which pass near that point. 

ZEOLITE. In mineralogy, a family 
of minerals, consisting of silica, alu¬ 
mina, lime, and water; natrolite. 

ZERO. In meteorology, the point at 
which the graduation of the ther¬ 
mometer commences.—The zero of 
Reaumur’s and of the Centigrade ther¬ 
mometers is the freezing-point of water; 
that of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, 32° 
below the freezing-point. 

ZETETICS. A part of algebra which 
consists in the direct search after un¬ 
known quantities. 

ZEUXITE. A greenish-brown min¬ 
eral, consisting of silica, alumina, pro¬ 
toxide of iron, lime, and water: sp. gr. 
3 0; H = 4-25. 

ZIGZAG. An ornament in Gothic 
architecture; another name for the 
chevron. 

ZIGZAGS. In fortification, trenches 
or paths with several indented wind¬ 
ings, so cut that the besieger can not 
be enfiladed in his approaches. 

ZIMOME. In chemistry, that part 
of the gluten of wheat which is insolu¬ 
ble in alcohol. 

ZINC. A metal of a bluish-white 
color, brittle when cold, but malleable 
when heated; much used in the manu¬ 
facture of brass and other alloys. It is 
found in solid masses, sometimes in 
six-sided prisms, having the ends termi¬ 
nated in pentagons. 

ZINCOGRAPHY. The art of draw¬ 
ing upon, and printing from, plates of 
zinc. 

ZINGIBERACE2E. A nat. order of 
aromatic endogenous plants, of which 
zingiber is the type. 

ZINKENI'L'E. A crystallized min¬ 
eral containing antimony, sulphur, lead, 
and copper; sp. gr. 5 - 30j H=3—3 - 5. 


ZIRCONIA. In mineralogy, a rare 
earth extracted from zircon and hya¬ 
cinth.— Zirconium is the metallic base 
of zirconia. 

ZOANTHORIA. In botany and 
zoology, a class of zoophytes; animal 
flowers. 

ZOANTHROPY. In pathology, a 
species of monomania, in which the 
patient believes himself transformed 
into one of the lower animals. 

ZOARCHIDJE. A family of the 
acanthopterygious fishes, of which 
zoarchus is the type and genus. 

ZODIAC. In astronomy, an imagi¬ 
nary zone or belt in the heavens, ex¬ 
tending aboui. 8° or 9° on each side of 
the ecliptic. It is divided into twelve 
equal parts, called signs.— Zodiacal light 
is a faint nebulous brightness which 
accompanies the sun immediately be¬ 
fore sunrise or after sunset. 

ZOIATRI A. In pathology, the treat¬ 
ment of the diseases of the lower ani¬ 
mals. 

ZOISITE. A grey crystalline min¬ 
eral, consisting of silica, alumina, lime, 
and protoxide of iron: sp. gr. 3-32; 
H = 625. 

ZONE. In geology, a division of the 
earth’s surface by means of parallel 
lines. The zones are five in number, 
viz., the torrid zone, two temperate zones, 
and two frigid zones. 

ZONNAR. A belt or girdle, which 
the Christians and Jews in the Levant 
are obliged to wear, to distinguish 
them from the Mohammedans. 

ZOO-. In natural history, a prefix to 
compound words relating to animals or 
animal life. 

ZOOCHEMICAL. Pertaining to the 
chemistry of animal organization. 

ZOOCHOMY. That science which 
pertains to animal chemistry. 

ZOOGEMY. The doctrine of animal 
formation. 

ZOOGRAPHY. In natural history, 
a description of animals. 

ZOOLITE. In geology, the fossil re¬ 
mains of a petrified animal. 

ZOONOMY. In natural history, a 
treatise on the laws of animal life; the 
structure and functions of animals. 

ZOOPATHOLOGY. A treatise on 
the diseases of animals. 

ZOOSPORE. In zoology, a moving 
spore, provided with cilia or vibratile 
organs. 

ZURLITE. The name of a recently- 
discovered Vesuvian mineral. 

ZYGOMA. In anatomy, a bone of 
the upper jaw; the process of the cheek 
bone. 

ZYMIC. In chemistry, an epithet 
denoting an acid procured from a fer¬ 
mented substance, as leaven. 

ZYMOSIS. In med., a morbid action, 
as of the blood, supposed to be caused 
by fermentation. 






ZOOLOGY 


ZEBRA An African animal oi the 
hirse tribe, about the size of a mule Ft 
is beautiful, swift, and wild. 



ZOOLOGY. That branch of natural his¬ 
tory which treats of animals. That which 
treats of quadrupeds is also called by the 
general name of zoologj , to distinguish it 
from ornithology, which treats of birds; 
ichthyology, which treats of fishes; ento- 
mology, which treats of insects ; helmin¬ 
thology, which treats of worms; erptology, 
which treats of creeping things. 

General zoology comprehends the whole 
animal kingdom, as this class of natural 
objects is styled by Linnaeus. It is divided 
into six classes; these classes are subdivided 
into orders, and the orders into genera, and 
the genera into species. 

The first class, Mammalia, comprehends 
seven orders, namely, the primates, bruta, 
ferae, glires, pecora, belluinae, and cete. 
Under the Primates are four genera, name¬ 
ly, homo, man; simia, the ape, baboon, 
and monkey; lemur, the lemur: vesper- 
tilio, the bat. Of the Bruta there are the 
following genera, namely, bradypus, the 
sloth; myrmecophaga, the ant-eater; dasy- 
pus, the armadillo; rhinoceros, the rhino¬ 
ceros ; sokotyro ; eleplas, the elephant; 
trichechus, the morse and walrus, and the 
manis. The Ferae consist of ten genera, 
namely, phoca, the seal; canis, the dog, 
the wolf, the fox, and the hyena; felis, 
the lion, tiger, leopard, tiger-cat, the lynx, 
and the cat; viverra, the weasel, the shank, 
the civet, the genet, and the fitchet; mus- 
tela, the otter, the marten, the ferret, the 
polecat, the ermine, and the stoat; ursus, 
the bear, the badger, the racoon, and the 
glutton; didelphis, the opossum, the mar- 
mose, the phalanger, and the kanguroo, 
talpa, the mole;- sorex, the shrew; erina- 
eeus, the hedgehog. The Glires consist of 
histrix, the porcupine; cavia, the cavy; 
castor, the beaver; mus, the rat, musk-rat, 
and the mouse; arctomys, the marmot; 
aiurus. the squirrel myoxus,the dormouse; 


dipus, the jerboa; lepus the hare and tfe* 
rabbit; and the hyrax. The Pecora co* 
sist of camelus, the camel and the llama* 
moschus, the musk; cervus, the stag, the 
deer, the moose or elk; Camelopardalis, 
the camelopard or giraffe; antilupus, the 
antelope; capra, the goat; ovis, the sheep: 
and bos, the ox. The Belluinae consist of 
equus, the horse, the ass, and the mule: 
hippopotamus, the river-horse; tapir, the 
tapir; and sus, the hog. The Cetse consist 
of monodon, the monodon; balaena, the 
whalo; physeter, the cachelot; delphinus, 
the porpoise, the dolphin, and the grampus. 

The second class, Aves, is divided into 
six orders, namely accipitres, picae, aaseres, 
grallae, gallinae, and passeres. The Accipi¬ 
tres consist of four genera, namely, vultur, 
the vulture and the condur; falco, the eagle, 
the kite, the buzzard, the falcon, and the 
hawk; strix, the owl; lanius, the shrike, 
the butcher-bird, and the woodchat. The 
Picas consist of the following genera, 
namely, ramphastos, the toucan; momotus, 
the motmot; psittacus, the parrot, the ma¬ 
caw, the parroquet, the cockatoo, and the 
lory; buceros, the hornbill; crotophaga, 
theani; glaucopis, the wattle-bird; corvus, 
the crow, the rook, the raven, the jackdaw, 
and the jay; coracoas, the roller; oriolus, 
the oriole; gracula, the grackle; paradisea, 
the bird of paradise; buceo, the barbel; 
trogon, the curucui; cuculus, the cuckoo; 
yurex, the wryneck; picus, the woodpecker; 
sitta, the nuthatch; todus, the toddy; alcedo, 
the kingfisher; galbula, the jacama; me- 
rops, the bee-eater; upupa, the hoopoe; 
certhia, the creeper; Irochilus, the hum¬ 
ming-bird; buphaga; and scythrops. The 
Anseres consist of anus, the swan, the 
goose, the duck, theshoveler, and the teal, 
mergus the merganser, the goosander, the 
dunn-diver, and the smew; alca, the auk 
or razorbill; apterodytes, the penguin; pro- 
cellaria, the petrel, diomedea, the alba¬ 
tross or man-of-war bird, pelicanus, the 
pelican, the cormorant, the shag, the crane, 
the gennet, and the booby; plolus, the 
darter; phaeton, the tropic bird; colymbus, 
the guillemot, the diver, and the grebe; 
larus, the gull, and. he tarrock or kitti wake; 
sterna, the tern; rynchops, the skimmer 
The Grallae consist of the phoenicopteros 
the flamingo; platalea, the spoonbill; j* 
lamedea, the screamer; mycteria, the j&- 
bira; cancroma, the boatbill; scopus, Me 
umbre; ardea, the heron, the crane, the 
stork, and the bittern; tantalus, the ibis; 
corrira, the courier; scolopax, the curlew, 
the whintril, the snipe, the woodcock, the 
godwit, and the red-shank; tringa, the 
sandpiper, the phalarop, and the purr* 




^OOLOGY. 


oharadrins, the plover and the dotterel; 
recurvirostra, the avocetj htematopus, the 
eea-pie or pied oyster, and the catcher; 
glarcola, the pratincole ; fulica, the galli. 
nule, the moorhen, and the coot; vaginalis, 
the sheath-bill; parra, the jacama; rallus, 
the rail, the crake or land-rail, the brook- 
ouzel or water-rail, and the soree; psophia, 
the trumpeter. The Gallinae consist of the 
olis, the bustard; struthio, the ostrich; and 
the cassowary or emeu; didus, the dodo ; 
pavo, the peacock; meleagris, the turkey; 
penelope, the guam and the yacow; crux, 
the curassow; phasianus, the pheasant; 
numidia, the pintado or guinea-hen; te 
trao, the grouse, the moorcock, the par¬ 
tridge, the quail, and the tinamon. The 
Passeres consist of columba, the pigeon, 
the ring-dove, the turtle-dove, &c.;alauda, 
the lark ; sturnus, the stare or starling ; 
and the crake or water-ouzel; turdus, the 
thrush, the fieldfare, the blackbird, and the 
ring-ouzel; ampelis, the chatterer; colius, 
the coly; loxia, the grossbeak; the crossbill, 
and the hawfinch; emberiza, the bunting; 
tanagra, the tanager; fringilla, the finch, 
the chaffinch, the siskin, the redpole, the 
linnet, the twite, and the sparrow; pliyto- 
toma, the phytotoma; muscicapa, the fly¬ 
catcher; motacilla, the wagtail or warbler, 
the nightingale, the hedge-sparrow, the 
wren, the white-throat, the wheat-ear, and 
the red-start; pipra, the minnakin; parus, 
the titmouse; hirundo, the swallow and 
the swift; caprimulgus, the goatsucker. 

Amphibia, the third class, is divided into 
two orders, namely, reptilia, reptiles; and 
serpentes, serpents. The Reptilia consist 
of the following genera, namely, testudo, 
the tortoise and the turtle; rana, the toad, 
the frog, and the natterjack; draco, the 
flying dragon; lacerta, the crocodile, the 
alligator, the lizard, the guana, the newt, 
the salamander, the chameleon, and the 
eft; syren, the syren. The Serpentes con¬ 
sist of crotelus, the rattle-snake; boa, the 
boa constrictor; coluber, the viper and 
the asp; anguis, the snake and the blind- 
worm; achrocordus, the warled snake; 
the amphisbaena; and cascilia. 

Pisces, the fourth class, is divided into 
six orders, namely, apodal, jugular, thora¬ 
cic, abdominal, branchiostegous,chondrop- 
►erigious. The Apodal order contains the 
following genera, namely, mursena, the 
eel; anarhieas, the wolf-fish ; xiphias, the 
■word-fish; aminodytes, thelaunce; gym- 
rvotus, ophidium; stromateus; stylephorus, 
itc. The jugular order contains the fol- 
owing genera, namely, callionymus, the 
dragonet; trachinus, the sting-bull or wea¬ 
rer; gadus, the cod-fisb, bib, whiting, coai- 


380 

fish, hake, burbot, and rojkling; biennhu, 
the blenny, &x. The Thoracic order con 
tains the following genera; echineis, the 
sucking-fish; gobius, the goby; coitus, the 
bull-head, father-lasher, and miller’s- 
thumb; zeus, the John-doree; pleuronectes, 
the flounder, plaice, dab, sole, smeardab, 
pearl, and turbot; sparus, the gilt-head and 
the pudding-fish; labrus, the wrasse, gold- 
finny, the camber, and the cook; perca, the 
perch, basse, luffe, black-fish,and squirrel- 
fish; seomber, the mackerel, thunny,scad, 
and yellow-tail; trigla, the gurnard, piper, 
tub-fisli, &c. The Abdominal order con 
tains the following genera, namely, cobi- 
tis, the loche and the mud fish; salmo, the 
salmon, trout, salmon-trout, bull-trout, 
charr, smelt, gurniad, and lavaret; fistula- 
ria, the tobacco-pipe-fish; esox, the pike 
and gar-fish; mugel, the mullet; excocoe- 
tus, the flying-fish, clupea, the herring, 
pilchard, sprat, shad, and anchovy; cypri 
nus,the carp, barbel, gudgeon,tench, gold 
fish, dace, roach, bleak, bream, minnow 
graining, <fcc. The Branchiostegous orde 
contains the following genera: tetrodon 
the sun-fish ; syngnathus, the pipe-fish 
and needle-fish; lophius, the fishing-frog, 
and angler or frog-fish, <fcc. The Chon- 
dropterigious order contains the following 
genera, namely, accipenser, the sturgeon, 
chinnEra, the sea-monster; squalus, the 
shark, dog-fish, tope, sea-fox, and angel¬ 
fish; piistis, the saw-fish; raia, the ray, 
skate, thornback; petromyzon, the lam¬ 
prey and the pride; gastrobranchus, the 
hag or hag-fish. 

Insecta, the fifth class, is divided intc 
seven orders, namely, coleoptera, hemip- 
tera, lepidoptera, neuroptera, hymenop- 
tera, diptera, and aptera. The order Co¬ 
leoptera contains the following genera, 
namely, scarabams, the beetle; dermestes 
the leather-eater; ptinus, the deathwatch 
forficula, the earwig ; lampyris, the fire¬ 
fly; hydropbilus, the water-clock, &c. The 
order Hemiptera contains blatta, the cock¬ 
roach; gryllus, the locust, grasshopper, and 
cricket; fulgora, the lantern-fly; notonecta ( 
the boat-fly; nepa, the water-scorpion; ci- 
mex, the bug ; aphis, the plant-louse; coc¬ 
cus, the cochineal, &c. The order Lepi 
doptera contains papilio, the butterfly ; 
sphinx, the hawk-moth; phalsna, the 
inoth. The order Neuroptera contains li- 
bellula, the dragon-fly; ephemera, the day 
fly; myrmeleon, the lion-ant, &c. The 
order Hymenoptern contains cynips, the 
gall-fly; teuthredo, the saw-fly; sirex, the 
tailed wasp; ichneumon, the ichneumon , 
chrysis, the golden fly , vespa, the wasp; 
apis, the bee: formica the ant or emmet, 



870 ZOOLO (si. 


fee. The order Diptera contains ostrus, 
the gad-fly and breeze •, tipula, the crane- 
fly ; inusca, the fly ; culex, the gnat; bom- 
bylius, the humblebee, &.c. The order 
Aptera contains podura, the spring-tail; 
termes, the white ant •, pediculus, the 
louse and crab-louse; acarus, the tick, har- 
Test-bug, and itch-mite; aranea, the spi¬ 
der ; scorpio, the scorpion ; cancer, the 
crab, lobster, prawn, shrimp, and squill ; 
pulex, the flea, &c. 

The sixth class, Vermes, isdi.vided into 
five orders, namely, intestina, mollusca, 
testaeea, zoophytes, and infusoria. The 
order Intestina contains the following ge¬ 
nera, namely, fasciola, the gourd worm or 
fluke; taenia, the tape-worm; godius, the 
hair-worm; lumbricus, the earth-worm, the 
dew-worm, and the lug; hirsudo, the leech; 
and sipunculus, the tube-worm, &c. The 
order Mollusca contains laplisia, the sea- 
hare; doris, the sea-lemon; actinia, the 
Bea-daisy, sea-marigold, and sea-carnation; 
sepia, the cuttle-fish; asterias, the star-fish 
and sea-star; echinus, the sea-urchin, &c. 
The order Testaeea contains lepas, the 
acorn-shell, area, the ark; conus, the cone; 
turbo, the wreath; helix, the snail ; halio- 
tis, the sea ear; dentalium, the tooth-shell; 
ostrea, the oyster; cardium, the cockle ; 
mytilus, the mussel; argonauta, the sailor; 
buccinum, the whelk, &.c. The order Zoo¬ 
phytes contains spongia, the-sponge; isis, 
the coral; hydra, the polype; tubipora; the 
tubipore, &c. The order Infusoria con¬ 
tains the genera voticella, monos volvox, 
gonium, &c. 

CUVIER’S ARRANGEMENT. 
DIVISION I. VERTEBRATED ANIMALS, or 
those having a vertebra! column or back bone. 
DIVISION II. MOLLUSCA, animals of soft tex¬ 
ture. 

DIVISION III. ARTICULATED, or jointed ani¬ 
mals. 

DIVISION IV. ZOOPIIITES, animal plants, or 
radiated animals. 

DIVISION I. VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. 

Pourc'asses.- Class 1. Mammalia, animals which 

give suck Order I, Bimana, or two-handed; man 
only. Order II, Ctnadriimana, or four-handed; mon¬ 
keys of all kinds. Order 111, Carnassiers, or flesh¬ 
eating. Subdivision 1, Cheiroptear; winged-hands; 
as the bat. Subdivision II, Insectivora; living on in¬ 
sects; as the hedge hog, shrew-mouse, and mole. 
Subdivision III. Carnivora; carnivorous. A . Planti¬ 
grade; which walk on the soles of the feet; as the 
bear, raccoon, badger, and glutton. B. Digitigrade; 
"Which walk on the toes; as (a) weasels. (6) The 
slog kind; domestic-dog, wolf, fox. (c) Civet-cat. 
(d) Hyena, (e) The cat kind; lion, tiger, leopard, 
panther, lynx, common cat. C. Some of the amphi¬ 
bious; as seals and walrusses. D. Marsupial or 
grouched animals; as kanganos and opossums. Or¬ 
der IV, Rongeurs, rodentia, or gnawers; as castors, 
beavers, sate, mice, marmots, squirrels, porcupines, 
Bares, rabbits, guinea-pigs. Order V, Edentes, 
tdsotata, or toothless: at the sloth, armadillo, pan¬ 
golin, ormithorynchus. Order VI, Pachydermata,or 
thick skinned; as the elephant, hippopotamus, pig, 
Alaoeeros, horse, ass, tsbra. quagga. Order VII, 
Ruminant; as the deer, antelope, goat, sheep, cow, 
Buffalo, Order VIII, Cetacea, the whale tribe.- 


Class II , Birds. Order I, Birds of prey. Sabdiol 
sion I, Diurnal: as the vulture, eagle, falcon, hawk. 
Subdivision II, Nocturnal: as the owl. Order II, 
Passereax, or the sparrow tribe: as the magpie, swal¬ 
low, thrush, sparrow, crow, wren. Order III, Grim- 
peurs, orclimbers: as the woedpecker, cuckoo, toucan, 
parrot. Order IV, Gallinacee: the gallinaceoui or 
poultry tribe: as the peacock, turkey, pheasant, barn¬ 
door fowl, partridge, pigeon. Order V, Echassiers 
the stilted or waders: as the ostrich, cus< wiry, plo¬ 
ver, crane, heron, stork. Order VI, Palmipedes, or 
web-footea: as the pelican, duck, swan, and gooes. 

- Class III, Reptiles: Order I, Cheloniena, or 

tortoises. Order II, Sauriens, the lizard tribe: as ths 
crocodile, lizard, gecko andchanunelion. Orderlll, 
Ophidiena, the serpent tribe: including the boa con¬ 
strictor, and such serpents as are not venomous, as 
well as the venomous serpents. Order IV, Batrici- 
ens, the frog tribe: including frogs, toads, salaman¬ 
ders, the proteus, and syren.—Class IV. Fishes. 
Series I, Chondropterygiens, or the cartilaginous: as 
the lamprey, shark,skate, thomback, sturgeon. Se¬ 
ries II, Asseux, the bony, whose divisions are prin¬ 
cipally taken from the gills, jaws, or fins, and are, 
Order I, the Plectognathes: os the sun-fish, trunk-fish. 
Order II, the Lophobrunches: as the pipe-fish, and pe- 
gasus. Order III, the Malacopterygiens: as the sal¬ 
mon, herring, sein-fish, pike, carp, loche, silurus: 
cod, turbot, sole, remora, eel. Order IV, the Acan- 
thoptervgiens: as the perch, mackerel, dolphin. 

DIVISION II, MOLLUSCA. Six Classes,prind 
pally constituted from the organs, and mode of pro¬ 
gression.- Class I, the Cep/ialopodes; as the cuttle¬ 
fish and nautilus.- Class II, the Pteropod.es ; as 

the clio, cleodore, and hyalea. Class 111, the Gaster- 

opodes; as the slug, Bnail, and limpet.- Class IV, 

the Acephales, (without heads); as the oyster ana 
muscle.— Class V, the Brachiopodes; as the lingula, 

and terebratiila.-Class VI, the Cinrhopodes ; as 

the barnacle. 

DIVISION III, ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 

Four classes.- Class I, Annelides, or worms. 

Order I, the Tubicoles, forming a calcareous tube 
around them: as the scopula, sabella, and terebella. 
Order II. the Dorsibrauches, the limbs diffused over 
the body; ns the nereide and aphrodite. Order III, 
the Abrancbe8, (without limbs); as the earth-worm 
and leech.- Class II, the Crustaceous. Five or¬ 

ders, formed from the number, or position of their 
organs of motion.- Order I, the Dccapodes: as the 
crab, lobster, and prawn. Order II, the Stomapodos: 
as the squill. Order III, the Amphipodes: as ths 
eammarus. Order IV, the Isopdcs: as the wood¬ 
louse. Order V, the Branchiop ides; as the mono- 

cullus.- Class III, the Ararhnides, or spider tribe. 

Two orders, formed from respiration being effected 
by pulmonary cells: or by trachea:, or openings in ths 
skin. Order I, the Polrnonaires; as the spider, taran¬ 
tula and scorpion. Order II, the Tracneenues: as 

the phalangium, and mite.- Class IV, Insects. 

Twelve orders, derived principally from the number 
of their feet and wings. Order 1, the Myriapodes, 
have numerous feet: as the iulus, centipes. Order II, 
tie Hysatioures, having appendages to their tails: as 
the lepisma, or wood-fish, and podura. Order III, 
the Parasites: as the louse. Order IV, the succurs: 
as the flea. Ol der V, the Coieopteres, having cased 
wings: as the carabus, beetle, lady-bird, glow-worm. 
Order VI, the Orthopteres, having straight wings, 
s.s the earwig, locust, grasshopper, and mole cricket. 
Order VII, the liemipteres, or half-winged: us tha 
bug, the water scorpion, lantern-fly, aphis, and 
cochineal. Order VIII, the Neuropteres, having 
net work wings: as the dragon-fly, and ephemera. 
Order IX, the Hymenoptere3, having membranous 
wings- as the ichneumon, ant, sphex, wasp, and be«. 
Order X, the Lepidcpteres, having scaly wings : as 
the butterfly, and moth. Order XI, the Rhipipteres 
having fan-like wings: as the xenos, and stylops 
Order XII, the Dipteres, having two wings: as ths 
gnat, and house-fly. 

DIVISION IV. ZOOPHITES. Four classes 

- Class I, the Echynodcrmes; spinedskin; as the 

star-fish, and echinus.- Class II, the Intestinaux, 

or intestinal animals: as the tirnia, ascaris, and hyd» 

tid.- Class III, the Acalephes, or sea-nettle m 

the sea-anemony, and meausa.— Class IV, tits 
Polypes, or many-tooled: as ths hydra, cornuim*, 

and sponge.- Class V, ths Jn/usotres, fcruwi » 

animal and vegetable infusions: as the wheal ssfrrsd, 
sad proteus. 




GEOGRAPHICAL VOCABULARY. 


871 


Weather-tide. The tide which sets against the lee-side of a ship, impelling 
her to windward. 

Weigh. To raise or lift so that it hangs in the air, as an anchor. 

Well. An inclosure in the middle of a ship’s hold, around the pumps, from 
the bottom to the lower deck, to preserve them from injury. 

Wheel. A circular frame having handles on the periphery, and an axle on 
which are wound the tiller-ropes, connecting with the rudder. 

Wheel-house. A small house on deck, which'contains the steering-wheel. 

Wheel-rope. A rope which connects the steering-wheel and the rudder. 

Windbound. Prevented from sailing by a contrary wind. 

Windlass. The machine in a merchant vessel used in weighing anchor. 

Windward. The point from which the wind blows. 

Yacht (pron. Yot.) A sea-going vessel, used for pleasure-trips, racing, <fcc. 

Yard. A long, slender piece of timber, nearly cylindrical, suspended upon 
the mast, by which a sail is extended. 

Yard-ann. Either half of a ship’s yard, from the center or mast to the end. 

Yaw. A movement of a vessel by which she temporarily alters her course. 


GEOGRAPHICAL VOCABULARY. 

Geography. A description of the surface of the earth. [and animals. 

Natural, or Physical Geography, treats of land, water, atmosphere, plants 
Political Geography, treats of the divisions of the earth made by man. 
Mathematical, or Astronomical Geography, treats of the form, size, motion, 
and imaginary lines of the earth. 

Empire. A country governed by an emperor. 

Kingdom. A country governed by a king or queen. 

Republic. A country governed by men chosen by the people. 

State. A division of a country with a form of government peculiar to itself. 
County. The largest division of a state. 

Town. A division of a county. 

City. A town invested with increased rights and privileges. 

Capital. The seat of government. 

President. The chief magistrate of a republic. 

Governor. The chief officer of a State. 

Mayor. The chief officer of a city. 

Metropolis. The largest and chief city in a country. 

Seaport. A harbor large enough for large vessels. 

Cardinal Points. Fixed or chief points—north, east, south, and west. 

Map. A drawing of the whole or a part of the eartii’s surface. 

Artificial Globe. A ball representing the surface of the earth. 

Mariner’s Compass. A box with a needle which always points north. 
Earth. A planet; a very large opaque body. 

Axis. An imaginary line through the earth from north to south. 

Poles. The ends of the earth’s axis. 

Meridian Circles. Circles round the earth passing through the poles. 
Meridian. Half of a meridian circle. 

Longitude. Distance east or west from any given meridian. 

Hemispheie. Half a globe or sphere. 

Degree. The 365th part of a circle. 

Minute. Xn geography the 60th part of a degree, or one geographical mile. 
Equator. A circle dividing the earth equally between the poles. 

Latitude, Distances from the equator. 

Zone. Belt or girdle. 

Frigid. Frozen, or very cold. 

Torrid. Violently hot. 

Temperate. Between two extremes. 

Arctic. Northern. 

Antarctic. Southern. 



m 


GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS. 


Cancer. One of the twelve signs of the zodiac. 

Capricorn. One of the twelve signs of the zodiac. 

Zodiac. A broad circle in the heavens, containing the twelve signs. 
Parallels. Lines running in the same direction, and at all points equally 
Continent. The largest division of land on the earth. [distant. 

Island. Land surrounded by water. 

Peninsula. Land almost surrounded by water. 

Isthmus. A strip of laud joining a peninsula to the main land. 

Cape. A point of land projecting into the water. 

Promontory. A high point of land or cape projecting into the sea. 
Mountain. ' A large mass of earth and rock elevated above the surrounding 
Chain. Mountains connected together. [country. 

Volcano. A burning mountain. 

Crater. Opening in the top of a volcano. 

Hill. An elevation less than a mountain. 

Valley. Land between hills or mountains. 

Plain. Flat, level country. 

Desert. A barren tract of land. 

Shore, or Coast. Land bordering on the sea. 

Ocean. The largest body of water on the earth. 

Sea. A branch of the ocean partly inclosed by land. 

Gulf, or Bay. A portion of a large body of water extending into the land. 
Strait. A narrow body of water connecting two larger bodies of water. 
Sound. A strait which can be sounded by lead and line. 

Channel. Similar to a strait. 

Lake. A large body of fresh water, almost or wholly surrounded by land. 
Kiver. A stream of water flowing through the country in an open channel. 
Source. The place where the river begins to flow. 

Mouth. The place where a river discharges its waters into some other 
large body of water. 

Branch. A river flowing into a larger river. 

Frith. A narrow arm of the sea info which a river empties. 

Archipelago. A sea interspersed with numerous isles. 


GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS. 

Angle. An opening between two lines that meet in a point. 

Right Angle. A straight line perpendicular to another. 

Obtuse Angle. An angle wider than a right angle. 

Acute Angle. An angle less than a right angle. 

Triangle. A figure with three sides and three angles. 

Equilateral Triangle. An angle having all sides equal. 

Isosceles Triangle. An angle having two of its sides equal. 

Scalene Triangle. An angle having all its sides unequal. 
Right-angled Triangle. A triangle having one right angle. 
Obtuse-angled Triangle. A triangle having one obtuse angle. 
Acute-angled Triangle. A triangle having all its angles acute. 
(Quadrangle, or (Quadrilateral, is a four-sided figure, and may be ? 
Parallelogram, having its opposite sides parallel. 

Square, having all its sides equal and all right angles. 

Rectangle, having a right angle. 

Rhombus, or Lozenge, having all its sides equal and no right anglef 
Rhomboid, a parallelogram with no right angles. 

Trapezium, having unequal sides. 

Trapezoid, haying only two sides parallel. 

Polygon, a plain figure having more than four sides. 

Pentagon, haying five sides. Octagon, having eight sides. 

Hexagon, having six sides. Nonagon, having nine sides. 

Heptagon, having seven sides, Decagon, having ten sides. 



DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS. 


378 


DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS. 

A. By; for. 

Accellerando. Accelerating the movement. 

Accompaniment. A part added to a principal one byVay of enhancing the 
effect of the composition. 

Adagio. A very slow degree of movement. 

Adagissimo. Extremely slow. 

Ad libitum. At will, or discretion. This expression implies that the time 
of some particular passage is left to the pleasure of the performer; 
or that he is at liberty to introduce whatever embellishments his 
fancy may suggest. 

Affettuoso. Affectionate; tender. 

Agitato, or Con agitazione. With agitation; anxiously. 

Al, All’, or Alla. To the; sometimes, in the style of. 

Allegremente. With quickness. 

Allegretto. Somewhat cheerful, but not so quick as Allegro. 

Allegretto scherzando. Moderately playful and vivacious. 

Allegrezza. Joy; as, Con allegrezza, joyfully, animatedly. 

Allegrissimo. Extremely quick and lively. 

Allegro. Quick; lively. A term implying a rapid and vivacious move¬ 
ment, but which is frequently modified by the addition of other 
words; as, Allegro agitato, quick, with anxiety and agitation, <tc. 

Al segno, or Al seg, signifies that the performer must return to a similar 
character in the course of the movement, and play from that place 
to the word fine, or the mark '7*'* over a double bar. 

Andante, implies a movement somewhat slow and sedate. This term is 
often modified, both as to time and style, by the addition of other 
words. 

Andantino. Somewhat slower than Andante. 

Aniniato, Con anima, or Aniinoso. With animation ; in a spirited manner- 

A piacerc, or A piacimento. At the pleasure of the performer. 

Appoggiatura. A note of embellishment, generally written in a small 
character. 

Appoggiato. Dwelt; leaned upon. 

Aria. An air, or song. 

Arioso. In the style of an air. 

Arpeggiando. i Passages formed of the notes of chords which are taken 

Arpeggiato. >in rapid succession, in imitation of the harp, are said to be 

Arpeggio. ) in arpeggio. 

Assai. Very; extremely. This adverb is always joined to some other 
word, of which it extends the signification; as, Adagio assai, very 
•low; Allegro assai, very quick. 

A tempo, or A tern. In a regular time. 

A tempo giusto. In strict and equal time. 

Attacca, or Attacea subito. A direction that the performer must directly 
commence the following movement. 

Ballad. A short and familiar song. 

Barcarolle. Airs sung by the Venetian gondoliers or boatmen. 

Beat. One of the principal graces in music. 

Ben. Well; as, Ben marcato, well marked. This expression indicates 
that the passage must be executed in a clear, distinct, and strongly 
accented manner. 

Bis. Twice. A term which indicates that a certain passage, distinguished 
b y a curve drawn over or under it, must be performed twice. 

Brillante. An expression indicating a showy and sparkling style of per¬ 
formance. 

Brio, or Brioso. With brilliancy and spirit. 

Brise. Sprinkled; broken into arpeggios. 


374 


DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS. 


Cadence. A close in melody or harmony; an ornamental and extempora¬ 
neous passage introduced at the close of a song or piece of music. 
Cadence parfaite. A perfect cadence. 

Cadence vompue. An interrupted cadence. 

Cadenza. A cadence, *or close, at the termination of a song or other move¬ 
ment, introducing some fanciful and extemporaneous embellishment. 
Calando. Gradually diminishing in tone and quickness. 

Calore. With much warmth and animation. 

Canone. A canon or catch for several voices or instruments. 

Canon* A species of interrupted imitation. 

Cantabile. In a graceful and singing style. 

Cantante. A part to he executed by the voice. 

Capella, Alla. In the church style. 

Capo. The head, or beginning. 

Capriccio. A fanciful and irregular species of composition. 

Catch. A vocal piece in several parts, of a humorous character. 

Cavatina. An air of one movement or part only, occasionally preceded by 
a recitative. 

Chant. A song or melody ; the vocal part. 

Che. Than; as, Poco piu che andante, rather slower than Andante. 
Chromatic. Proceeding by semitones, or formed by means of semitones. 
Coda. A few bars added at the close of a composition, beyond its natural 
termination. 

Colla parte. A direction that the accompanist must follow the principal 
part in regard to time. 

Con. With; as, Con espressione, with expression; Jon brio, with bril¬ 
liancy and spirit. 

Concento. ' Concord; agreement. A selection of pieces is sometimes so 
called. 

Concerto. A composition intended to display the powers of some particular 
instrument, with orchestral accompaniments. 

Con dolcezza. With sweetness. 

Con dolore. Mournfully, with pathos. 

Con gravita. With gravity. 

Con grazia. With grace. 

Con gusto, or Gustoso. With taste. 

Con impeto. With impetuosity. 

Con moto. In an agitated style; with spirit. 

Con spirito. With quickness and spirit. 

Crescendo, or Cres. With a gradually increasing quantity of tone. 

Da. By. 

Da capo, or D. C. From the beginning. An expression which is often 
written at the end of a movement to indicate that the performer 
must return to and finish with the first strain. 

Dal. By; as, Dal segno, from the sign,— a mark of repetition. 
Decrescendo. Gradually decreasing in quantity of tone. 

Delicatezza. Delicacy; as, Con delicatezza, with delicacy of expression. 
Delicato. Delicately. 

Diatonic. Naturally; that is, according to the degrees of tjie major or 
minor scale, or by tones and semitones only. 

Diluendo. A gradual dying away of the tone till it arrives at extinction. 
Diminuendo, or Dim, implies that the quantity of tone must be gradually 
diminished. 

Di molto. An expression which serves to augment the signification of the 
word to which it is added. 

Divertimento. A short, light composition, written in a familiar ana 
pleasing style. 

Dolce, or Dol., implies a soft and sweet style. 

Dolcezza, or Con dolcezza. With sweetness and softness. 

Dolcemente. In a sweet and graceful style. 

Doloroso. In a soft and pathetic style. 


DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS. 


m 


E, or Ed. The Italian conjunction and; as, Flanto e violino, flute and 
violin; Nobilimente ed animato, with grandeur and spirit. 
Elegamente, or Elegante. With elegance. 

Eleganza. With elegance; gracefully. 

Energico, Con energia, or Energicauiente. With energy. 

Espressivo, or Con espressioue. With expression. 

Estravagauza. Extravagant and wild, as to composition and performance. 
Facilita. A facilitation ; an easier adaptation. 

Fantaissie. ? A species of composition in which the author gives free 
Fantasia. > scope to his ideas, without regard to those systematic forma 
which regulate other compositions. 

Finale. The last piece of anj r act of an opera, or of a concert; or the last 
movement of a symphony or sonata, in the German style. 

Fine. The end. 

Forte, or For, or simply /. Loud. 

Fortissimo, or ff. Very loud. 

Forzando, or Forz, or fz, implies that the note is to be marked with pecu¬ 
liar emphasis or force. 

Fuoco, Con. With intense animation. 

Furioso, or Con Furia. With fire. 

Gaiement. In a cheerful and lively style. 

Gallopade. A galop ; a quick German dance-tune. 

Galop, or Galoppe. A quick species of dance, generally in 2-4 time. 

Giusto. In just and exact time. 

Graces. Occasional embellishments, sometimes indicated by the composer, 
sometimes spontaneously introduced by the performer. The most 
important of these are the Appoggiatura , the Turn, and the Shake. 
Rrandioso. In a grand and elevated style. 

Bran gusto. In an elevated, grand style. 

Bravamente. Dignified and solemn. 

Brave. The slowest degree of movement; also, a deep, low pitch, in the 
scale of sounds. 

Gravita. Gravity; as, Con gravita, with gravity. 

Grnppetto. A group of notes; a turn. 

Gruppo. A turn, or grace. 

Gusto, Gustoso, or Con gusto. With taste; elegantly. 

II. The. 

Imitazione. An imitation. 

Impetuoso. With impetuosity ; impetuously. 

Impromptu. An extemporaneous production. 

Improvisare. To compose or sing extemporaneously. 

In. In; as, In tempo, in time. 

Innocente, or Innocentemente. In an artless and simple style. 

Interlude. An intermediate strain or movement. 

Intrada, or Introduzione. A short introductory movement. 

Istesso. The same; as, Istesso tempo, the same time. 

Larghetto indicates a time slow and measured in its movement, but less 
so than Largo. 

Larghissimo. Extremely slow. 

Largo. A very slow and solemn degree of movement. 

Legato. In a smooth and connected manner. 

Legatissimo. Exceedingly smooth and connected. 

Legerement. With lightness and gayety. 

Leggiardo. Light; gentle. 

Leggieramente. Lightly; gently. 








876 


DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS. 


Leggiero, or Con leggierezza. With lightness and facility of execution. 

Leggierissimo. With the utmost lightness and facility. 

Lentaiido. With increasing slowness. 

Lenteuiente, or Lento. In slow time. 

Liaison. Smoothness of connection; also, a bind or tie. 

Loco. This word implies that a passage is to be played just as it is written 
in regard to pitch. It generally occurs after 8va alta , or 8va bassa. 

Ma. But; as. Allegro ma non troppo, quick, but not too much so. 

Maestoso. With majestic and dignified expression. 

Main. The hand; as, Main droite, Main gauche, or M. D., M. G., the right 
or left hand iu piano music. 

Marcato. In a marked and emphatic style. 

Marcia. A march. 

Marziale. In a martial style. 

Melange. A composition founded on several favorite airs; a medley. 

Meme. The same; as, Meme movement, in the same tune. 

Mesto. Mournfully; sadly; pathetically. 

Mestoso. Sadly; pensively. 

Metronome. An ingenious instrument for indicating the exact time of a 
musical piece by means of a pendulum, which may be shortened or 
lengthened at pleasure. 

Mezzo. In a middling degree or manner; as, Mezzo forte, rather loud; 
Mezzo piano, rather soft. 

Mezzo carattere implies a moderate degree of expression and execution. 

Moderate. With a moderate degree of quickness. 

Molto. Very; extremely; as, Molto allegro, very quick; Molto adagio, 
extremely slow. 

Morceau. A piece, or musical composition of any kind. 

Mordente. A beat, or transient shake. 

Morendo. Gradually subsiding in regard to tone and time; dying away. 

Mosso. Movement; as, Piu mosso, with more movement; quicker. 

Hoto, or Con moto. With agitation. 

Moviinento. Time; movement. 

Nobile, or Nobilemente. With nobleness; grandeur. 

Notturno. A composition, vocal or instrumental, suitable for evening 
recreation, from its elegance and lightness of character. 

O. Or ; as, Flauto o violino, flute or violin. 

Obligato, or Obligati. A part or parts of a composition, indispensable to 
its just performance, and which, therefore, can not properly be 
omitted. 

Ottava, or 8va. An octave. This word is generally joined with Alta, or 
Bassa. The first signifies that the passage to which it is applied 
must be played an octave higher than it is written; the second, that 
it must be played an octave lower. 

Passionate. In an impassioned manner. 

Patetico. Pathetically. 

Pathetique. Pathetic. 

Pastorale. A soft and rural movement. 

Pedale. A pedal or stationary bass. In piano music this term implies 
that the performer must press down the pedal which takes off the 
dampers. 

Perdendo, Perdendose, or Perden. Either of these terms implies a gradual 
diminution, both in quantity of tone and speed of movement. 

Peu. A little. 

Phrase. A short musical sentence containing an incomplete idea. 

Piacere. Will; pleasure; as, A piacere, at the performer’s pleasure iu 
regard to time. 

Plano, or p. Soft. Pianissimo, or pp. Extremely soft, 


DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS. 


377 


rtu. An adverb of augmentation; as, Piu presto, quicker; Piu piano, 
Plantivo. Expressively; plaintively. [softer. 

Plus. More; as, Plus anime, with greater animation. 

Poco. A little; rather; somewhat; as, Poco presto, rather quick; Poco 
piano, somewhat soft. 

Poco a poco. By degrees; gradually; as, Poco a poco crescendo, louder 
and louder by degrees; Poco a poco diminuendo, softer and softer 
by degrees. 

Poi. Then; as, Piano poi forte, soft, then loud. 

Polacca, ) A slow, Polish dance, in 3-4 time, of a peculiar rhythmical 
Polonaise, > construction, as the melodical members usually terminate on 
Polonoise. 3 the third crotchet of the bar. 

Pomposo. In a grand and pompous manner. 

Portamento. The manner of sustaining and conducting the voice; a glid> 
_ ing from one note to another. 

Possibile. Possible; as, Piu forte possibile, as loud as possible. 

Potpourri. A fantasia on favorite airs. 

Precipitato. In a hurried manner. 

Precisione. With precision ; exactitude. 

Preludio. A prelude or introduction. 

Premiere. First; as, Premiere fois, first time. 

Prestissimo. The most rapid degree of movement. 

Presto. V ery quick. 

Primo. First; as, Violino primo, first violin; Tempo primo, in the first 
or original time. 

Quasi. In the manner or style of; as, Quasi allegretto, like an Allegretto. 
Quieto. With calmness or repose; quietly. 

Raddolcendo, or Itaddolcente. With augmented softness. 

Rallentando implies a gradual diminution in the speed of the movement, 
and a corresponding decrease in the quantity of tone. 

Rapido. Rapidly. 

Refrain. A burden, or tag-end to a song. [emphasis. 

Rin for/an do, Rinforzato, or Rinf., or Rf. With additional tone and 
Romance. A short, lyric tale. [words. 

Bomanza. Set to music •- or a simple and elegant melody suitable to such 
Rondeau, or Rondo. A composition of several strains or members, at the 
end of each of which the first part or subject is repeated. 

Ritenente, Ritenuto. A keeping back; a decrease in the speed of the 
movement. 

\ 

Scherzando, Scherzante, Scherzoso, or Scherz. In a light, playful, and 
sportive manner. 

Segno. A sign; as, AI segno, return to the sign; Dal segno, repeat from 
the sign. 

Segue, or Seguito. Now follows; or, as follows; as, Segue il coro, the 
chorus follows; Segue la finale, the finale now follows. It is also 
used in the sense of in similar or like manner, to show that a subse¬ 
quent passage is to be played like that which precedes it. 

Semplice, or Semplicemente. With simplicity; artlessly. 

Sempre. Always; as, Sempre staccato, always staccato or detached; 
Sempre forte, always loud; Sempre piu forte, continually increasing 
in force. 

Serioso. In a serious style. 

Serpeggiando. Gently and silently creeping onward; quietly advancing. 
Sforzato, Sforzando, or Sf. implies that a particular note is to be played 
with emphasis. 

Siciliani. A movement of a slow, soothing, pastoral character, in 6-8 time^ 
resembling a dance peculiar to the peasantry of Sicily. 

£infenia. A symphony or orchestral composition in many'parte. 


378 


DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS. 


Slentando. A gradual diminution in the time or speed of the movement. 
Smorzando. A gradual diminution as to tone. 

Soa 7 e. In a soft, sweet, and delicate style. 

Sosgetto. The subject or theme. 

Soli, plural of Solo, implies that two or more principal parts play or sing 
together. Such parts, of course, are never doubled. 

Solo, or Sola. Alone. 

Solo. A composition, or even a passage, for a single voice or instrument. 
Sonata, or Sosiate. A composition consisting of several movements, gen¬ 
erally for a single principal instrument, with or without accompani- 
Sostenuto, or Sost. Sustained ; continuous in regard to tone. [ments. 
Spirito, or Con Spirito. With spirit. 

Spiritoso. With great spirit. [from one another. 

Staccato, implies that the notes are to be played distinct, and detached 
Stesso. The same. 

Subito. Quickly; as, Yolti subito, turn quickly. 

Suite. A series; a collection ; as, line suite de pieces, a series of lessons. 
Syncopate. In a constrained and syncopated style. 

Syncopation. The connecting the last note of one bar to the first note of 
the next, so as to form but one note of a duration equal to both. 
This displaces the accent, and produces a peculiar effect. 

Tacet, implies that, during a movement, or part of a movement, some par¬ 
ticular instrument is to be silent; as, Flauto tacet, the flute is not t« 
Tanto, or Ton. Not so much; not too much. [play. 

Tardo. Slowly; in a dragging manner. 

Tema. A subject or theme. 

Tempestoso. In a tempestuous manner. 

Tempo comodo. In a convenient degree of movement. 

Tendrement. Affectionately; tenderly. 

Teneramente, Tenero, or Con teuerezza. Tenderly. 

Tenuto, or Ten, implies that a note, or notes, must be sustained or kept 
Theme. A subject. [down the full time. 

Timoroso. With timidity and awe. 

Tranquiilo, Tranquillamente, or Con tranquilleza. Tranquilly; composedly. 
Tremendo. With a tremendous expression ; horribly. 

Tremando, Tremolate, or Tremolo, implies the reiteration of a note or 
chord with great rapidity, so as to produce a tremulous kind of motion. 
Trillando. A succession of shakes on different notes. 

Trille, or Trillo. A shake. 

Trio. A piece for three voices or instruments. This term also denotes a 
second movement to a waltz, march, minuet, &c., which always leads 
back to a repetition of the first or principal movement. 

Triplet. A group of three notes, arising from the division of a note into 
three equal parts of the next inferior duration. 

Tutta forza. With the utmost vehemence; as loud as possible. 

Tutti. A term used to point out those passages where all the voices or 
instruments, or both, are to be introduced. 

Tin. A; as, Un poco, a little. 

Yeloce, or Con velocita. In rapid time. 

Yelocissimo. With extreme rapidity. 

Yibrante. A peculiar manner of touching the keys of the piano. 

Yigoroso, or Yigorosainente. Boldly; vigorously. 

Yistamente, or Yite. With quickness. 

Vivace, Vivamente, or Con vivatica. With briskness and animation. 
Yivacissimo. With extreme vivacity. Yivatica. Vivacity. 

Vivo, or Con vivezza. Animated; lively. Yoce. The voice. 

Yolvante. In a light and rapid manner. [playing, &c. 

Yolta. Time of playing a movement; as, Prim volta, the first time of 
Volti subito. Turn over quickly. 


DERIVATION OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 


m 


CHRISTIAN NAMES OF MEN AND WOMEN, 

WITH THEIR DERIVATION AND SIGNIFICATION. 

NAMES OF MEN. 


Aar'on (Heb.) Very high; lofty. 
Ab'diel (Heb.) The servant of God. 
A'bel (Heb.) Breath ; vanity. 
Abi'athar (Heb.) Father of plenty. 
Abi'el (Heb.) Father of strength. 
Abi'jali (Heb.) Jehovah is a father. 
Ab'ner (Heb.) Father of light. 
A'brahanifHeblFatherof a multitude 
A'brarn (Heb.) Father of elevation. 
Ab'salom (Heb.) Father of peace. 
Ad'am (Heb.) Man ; earth-man. 

A'din (Heb.) Tender; delicate; soft. 
Adol'phus (Sax.) Successful helper. 
Adoni'ram (Heb.) Lord of height. 
Al'an (Slav.) A hound; harmony. 
Al'aric (Sax.) All-rich; all-powerful. 
Al'bcrt (Sax.) All-bright; illustrious. 
Alexan'der (Gr.) A helper of men. 
Al'fred(Sax.)Allpeace; protectingall 
AlTan 1 (Slav.) The same as Alan. 
Al'len > See Alan. 

Alon'zo (Ger.)The same as Alphonso. 
Al'pheus (Heb.) Exchange. 

Alphon'so (Ger.) All ready; willing. 
Al'vah (Heb.) Iniquity. 

Al'van (Heb.) Unrighteous. 

Al'vin, Al'win (Sax.) Conquering all. 
Amari'ah (Heb.) Jehovah promised. 
Am'asa (Heb.) A burden. 

Ambrose (Gr.) Immortal; divine. 
Am'nii (Heb.) My people. 

A'mos (Heb.) Strong; courageous. 
An'drew (Gr.) Manly; courageous. 
Androni'cus(Gr.) A conqueror of men. 
An'selm (Ger.) An heroic defender. 
An'tkony (Lat.) ^Praiseworthy. 
Archela'us (Gr.^Ruler of the people. 
Archibald (Ger.) Boldness. 

A'riel (Heb.) Lion of God"^valiant. 
Ar'nold (Sax.) Strong as an eagle. 
Ar'temas (Gr.) Gift of Artemis or Mi- 
Ar'thur (Brit.) High; noble, [nerva. 
A'sa (Heb.) Healer; physician. 
As'ahel (Heb.) Made of God. 

A'saph (Heb.) A collector. 

Asli'bcl (Heb.) Fire of Bel. 

Ash'er (Heb.) Happy; fortunate. 
Asli'ur (Heb.) Black ; blackness. 
Augus'tus (Lat.) Exalted; majestic. 
Augus'tine ? (Lat.) Belonging to Au- 
Aus'tin 5 gustus. 

Bald'win (Sax.) Bold; courageous. 
Barachi'asfHeb.lJehovali has blessed 
Bar'nabas ? (Heb.) Son of prophecy, 
naby > or exhortation. 


Barthol'omew (Heb.) A warlike son. 
Basil (Gr.) KiDgly; royal. 

Ben'edict (Lat.) Blessed. 

Ben'jamin (Heb.) Son of the right. 
Beno'ni (Heb.) Son of my sorrow. 
Beri'ah (Heb.) In calamity. 

Ber'nard (Sax.) A brave man. 
Berlram (Ger.) Bright raven. 
Bethu'el (Heb.) Man of God. 
Boniface (Lat.) A benefactor 
Bri'an (Celt.) Strong. 

Cadwallader (Brit.) Valiant in war. 
Cae'sar (Lat.) Hairy; or, blue-eyed. 
Caleb (Heb.) A dog. 

Cal'vin (Lat.) Bald. 

Ce'cil (Lat.) Dim-sighted. 

Charles (Sax.) Manly; noble-spirited. 
Chris'topher (Gr.) Bearing Christ. 
Clar'ence (Lat.) Illustrious. 

Clem'ent (Lat.) Mild-tempered. 
Con'rad (Sax.) Bold in counsel. 
Con'stantine (Lat.) Resolute; firm. 
Cornelius (Lat.) Signification uncer- 
Cuth'bert (Sax.) Renowned. [tain. 
Cy'rus (Pers.) The sun. 

Daniel (Heb.) A judge from God. 
Dari'us (Pers.) Preserver. 

Da'vid (Heb.) Beloved. 

Deme'trius (Gr.) Belonging to Ceres. 
Denis 1 (Gr.) Belonging to Dionysos 
Den'nis > or Bacchus, god of wine. 
Dex'tcr (Lat.) The right hand. 
Dionys'ius (Gr.) The same as Denis. 
Don'ald (Celt.) Proud chief. 

Dun'can (Celt.) Brown chief. 

Eb'en (Heb.) A stone. 

Ebene'zer (Heb.) The stone of help. 
Ed'gar (Sax.) Successful warrior. 
Ed'inund (Sax.) Successful protector. 
Ed'ward (Sax.) Guardian of property. 
Ed'win (Sax.) Successful in war. 
Eg'berfc (Sax.) Bright eye. 

El'bert (Sax.) All-bright; illustrioua 
El'dred (Sax.) Terrible. 

Elea'zer (Heb.) Whom God helps. 
Eli (Heb.) A foster son. 

Eli'ab (Heb.) God is his father. 

Eli'as (Heb.) Jehovah is my God. 
Eli'hu (Heb.) God the Lord. 

Eli'jah (Heb.) Strength of the Lord. 
Eli'sha (Heb.) God my salvation. 
Eli'zur (Heb.) God is my rock. 
Elnathan (Heb.) God gave. 
Emman'uel (Heb.) God with us. 
Ene'as (Gr.) Praised; commended. 




380 


Derivation of Christian names. 


E'noch (Heb.) Initiated; instructed. 
E'nos (Heb.) Man. 

E'phrainl (Heb.) Very fruitful. 
Erasmus (Hr.) Worthy to be loved. 
Eras'tus (Gr.) Lovely; amiable. 
Er'nest (Ger.) Earnest. 

E'sau (Heb.) Covered with hair. 
E'tlian (Heb.) Firmness; strength. 
Eugene'(Gr.) Well-born; noble. 
Euse'bius (Gr.) Religious; godly. 
Eus'tace (Gr.) Standing firm. 

Ev'an (Brit.) Gracious gift of God. 
Ev'erard (Ger.) Fierce as a wild boar. 
Eze'kiel (Heb.) Strength of God. 
Ez'ra (Heb.) Help. 

Fe'lix (Lat.) Happy; prosperous. 
Fer'dinand (Ger.) Brave; valiant. 
Fernan'do (Sp.) Same as Ferdinand. 
Fran'cis (Fr.) Free. 

Frank (Fr.) Contraction of Francis. 
Fred'erick (Ger.) Peaceful ruler. 
Ga'briel (Heb.) Man of God. 
Gama'Uel (Heb.) Recompense of God. 
Geoffrey (Sax.) Good protector. 
George (Gr.) A husbandman. 

Ger'ald (Ger.) Strong with the spear. 
Gid'eon (Heb.) A destroyer. 

Gilbert (Sax.) Bright as gold. 

Giles (Gr.) A little goat. 

God'dard (Ger.) Pious; virtuous. 
God'frey (Sax.) Good protector. 
God'win (Sax.) Good in war. 

Greg'ory (Ger.) Watchful. 

Griffith (Brit.) Having great faith. 
Gusta'vus (Sw.) A warrior; hero. 
Guy (Fr.) A leader. 

Hau'nibal (Punic.) A gracious lord, 
lle'inan (Heb.) Faithful. 

Hen'ry (Ger.) Rich lord. 

Her'bert (Ger.) Glory of the army. 
Iler'cules (Gr.) Lordly fame. 

Her'man (Ger.) A warrior. 

Mezeki'ali (Heb.) Strength of God. 
’Hil'ary (Lat.) Cheerful; merry. 

Hi' ram (Heb.) Most noble. 

Hor'ace (Lat.) Signification uncertain 
Hora'tio (Lat.) Significat’n uncertain 
Hose'a (Heb.) Salvation. 

How'ell (Brit.) Sound; whole. 
Hu'bert (Sax.) Bright; handsome. 
Hugh (Dutch./High; lofty. 
Humpli'rey (Sax.) Protector of home. 
Ich'abod (Heb.) Glory has departed. 
Igna'tius (Gr.) Ardent; fiery. 
Inunan'uel (Heb.) God with us. 
In'gram (Ger.) A stalwart youth. 
I'ra (Heb.) Watchful. 

I'saac (Heb.) Laughter. 

Isa'iah (Heb.) Salvation of the Lord. 
Is'rael (Heb.) A soldier of God. 
Ith'iel (Heb.) God is with me. 


Ja'bez (Heb.) He will cause pain 
Ja'cob (Heb.) He will supplant. 
James (Heb.) He will supplant. 
Ja'red (Heb.) Descent. 

Ja'son (Gr.) A healer. 

Jedidi'ah (Heb) Beloved of the Lord. 
Jeffrey (Sax.) At peace with God. 
Jeremi'ah (Heb.) Exalted of the Lord. 
Jerome' (Gr.) Having a holy name. 
Jes'se (Heb.) Wealth. 

Jo'ab (Heb.) Jehovah is his father 
Job (Heb.) Afflicted; persecuted. 
Jo'el (Heb.) The Lord is God. 

John (Heb.) Gracious gift of God. 
.Jo'nah (Heb.) A dove. 

Jon'athan (Heb.) Gift of Jehovah. 
Jo'seph (Heb.) He shall add. 

Josh'ua (Heb.) Lord of salvation. 
Jo'tham (Heb.) The Lord is upright. 
Ju'dah (Heb.) Praised. 

Ju'lian (Lat.) Belonging to Julius. 
Ju'Jius (Gr.) Soft-haired. 

Jus'tin (Lat.) Just. 

Kcn'elm (Sax.) Defender of kindred. 
Ken'netli (Gael.) Leader; commander 
La'biin (Heb.) White. 

Lam'bert (Sax.) A keeper of lambs. 
Lan'celot (Ital.) A little angel. 
Law'rence (Lat.) Crowned with laurel 
Lem'uel (Heb.) Created by God. 
Leon'ard (Sax.) Brave as a lion. 
Le'opold (Ger.) Bold as a lion. 

Le'vi (Heb.) Adhesion. 

Lew'is (Fr.) Defender of the people. 
Li'nus (Gr.) Flaxen-haired. 

Li'onel (Lat.) A little lion. 

Loam'mi (Heb.) Not ray people. 
Loren'zo (Ital.) Crowned with laurel. 
Lot (Heb.) A veil; covering. 

Lu'bin (Sax.) Beloved friend. 

Lu'cius (Lat.) Born at break of day. 
Luke (Lat.) A contract’ll of Lucanus. 
Lu'ther (Ger.) Illustrious warrior. 
Jjycur'gus (Gr.) Wolf-driver. 

Mal'achi (Heb.) Message of the Lord. 
Manas'seh (Heb.) Forgetfulness. 
Marcel'lus (Lat.) Dimin. of Marcus. 
Mar'cius (Lat.) 'The same as Marcus. 
Mar'cus, Mark (Lat.) A hammer. 
Mar'maduke (Sax.) A mighty noble. 
Mar'tin (Lat.) Martial; warlike. 
Mat'tliew (Heb.) Gift of Jehovah. 
Mattlii'as (Heb.) Gift of the Lord. 
Mau'rice (Lat.) Sprung of a Moor. 
Mer'editli (Celt.) Sea-protector. 
Mi'cali (Heb.) Who is like the Lord? 
Mi'cliael (Heb.) Who is like God? 
Miles (Lat.) A soldier. 

Mor'gan (Brit.) Born on the sea. 
Mo'ses (Egypt.) Drawn out of water 
Na'hum (Heb.) Consolation. 




DERIVATION OE CHRISTIAN NAMES. 


891 


Na'than (Heb.) A gift; given. 
Nathaniel (Heb.) The gift of God. 
Neal (Lat.) Dark; swarthy. 
Nehemi'ali (Heb.) Comfort of God. 
Niclbolas (Gr.) Victory of the people. 
No'ah (Heb.) Rest; comfort. 

No'el (Heb.) Born on Christmas day. 
Nor'in an (Ger.) Native of Normandy. 
Obadi'ali (Heb.) Servant of the Lord. 
O'bed (Heb.) Serving God. 

Octa'vius (Lat.) The eighth-born. 

01' iver (Lat.) An olive-tree. 

Ores'tes (Gr.) A mountaineer. 
Orlan'do (Ital.) Counsel for the land. 
Os' car (Celt.) Bounding warrior. 
Os'muml (Ger.) Protection of God. 
Os'wald (Ger.) Power of God. 

Ow'en (Celt.) Young warrior. 

Ozi'as (Heb.) Strength of the Lord. 
Pat'rick (Lat.) Nohle; a patrician. 
Paul (Lat.) Small; little. 

Peleg (Heb.) Division. 

Per'egrine (Lat.) A stranger. 

Pe'ter (Gr.) A rock. 

Pliilaibder (Gr.) A lover of men. 
Phileinon (Gr.) Loving; friendly. 
Phil'ip (Gr.) A lover of horses. 
Phin'eas (Heb.) Mouth of brass. 
Pol'ycarp (Gr.) Much fruit. 

Ptobemy (Gr.) Mighty in war. 
(juin'tin (Lat.) The fifth. 

Ralph (Sax.) Helpful in counsel. 
Raph'ael (Heb.) The healing of God. 
Ray'mond (Ger.) Strong protector. 
Reginald (Sax.) Strong"ruler. 
Reu'ben (Heb.) Behold, a son. 

Reu'el (Heb.) Friend of God. 
Reyibold (Sax.) Strong ruler. 
Riclbard (Sax.) Rich-hearted. 

Rob'ert. (Ger.) Bright in fame. 
Roderick (Ger.) Rich in fame. 
Ro'dolph (Sax.) Aiding in counsel. 
Rog'er (Ger.) Famous with the spear. 

Rowland } (Ger - ) Farae of the land - 
Ru'dolph (Sax.) Famous hero. 

Ru'fus (Lat.) Reddish; red-haired. 


Ru'pert (Sax.) Bright in fame. 
Saubson (Heb.) Splendid sun. 
Sain'uel (Heb.) Heard of God. 

Saul (Heb.) Asked for. 

Se'ba (Heb.) Eminent. 
$ebas'tian(Gr.) Venerable; reverend. 
Seth (Heb.) Appointed. 

Si'las (Lat.) A contract’n of Silvanus. 
Silvaiius (Lat.) Living in a wood. 
Silves'ter (Lat.) Living in the woods. 
Sinbeon ((Heb.) Hearing with ac- 
Si'inon y ceptance. 

Sobonioii (Heb.) Peaceable. 

Ste'plien (Gr.) A crown or garland. 
Sylva'nus (Lat.) A lover of the woods. 
Sylves'ter (Lat.) Living in the woods. 
Thad'deus (Syr.) The wise. 

Tlie'obald (Sax.) Bold for the people. 
The'odore (Gr.) The gift of God. 
Theoplbilus (Gr.) A lover of God. 
The'ron (Gr.) A hunter. 

Thonbas (Heb.) A twin. 

Tim'othy (Gr.) One who honors God. 
Tobi'as (Heb.) Pleasing to Jehovah. 
Tris'tram(Lat.) Grave; pensive; sad. 
Plys'ses (Gr.) A hater. 

Ur'ban (Lat.) Courteous; polished. 
Urbah (Heb.) Light of the Lord. 
IJ'rian (Dan.) A husbandman. 

IPriel (Heb.) Light of God. 
Vabeiitine (Lat.) Strong; powerful. 
Vic'tor (Lat.) A conqueror. 

Vin'cent (Lat.) Conquering. 

Vivian (Lat.) Lively; living. 

Wal'ter (Ger.) Ruling the host. 
Wil'liam (Ger.) Resolute helmet. 
Win'fred (Sax.) Win peace. 

Zab'diel (Heb.) Gift of God. 
Zacche'us (Heb.) Innocent; pure. 
Zacharbah f (Heb.) Remembered of 
Zach'ary y the Lord. 

Zeb'edee 11 } (Heb.) Gift of the Lord. 

Zedekbah (Heb.) Justice of the Lord. 
Zelo'tes (Gr.) A zealot. 

Ze'nas (Gr.) Gift of Jupiter. 
Zephanbali (Heb.) Hid of the Lord. 


NAMES OF WOMEN. 


Abigail (Heb.) My father’s joy. 

A'da (Sax.) Happiness; rich gift. 
Ad'allne ) (Ger.) Of noble birth; a 
Ad'eline y princess. 

Ad'ela (Ger.) The same as Adaline. 
Ad'elaid? (Ger.) Same as Adaline. 
Ade'lia (Ger.) The same as Adaline. 
Ag'atha (Gr.) Good; kind. 

Ag'nes (Gr.) Chaste; pure. 

Alberia (Ger.) Feminine of Albert. 
Alethe'a (Gr.) Truth. 


Al'ice (Ger.) Noble birth; a princessu 
Alinbra (Ar.) Lofty; noble. 

Althe'a (Gr.) A healer. 

Am'abel (Lat.) Lovely; amiable. 
Amaibda (Lat.) Worthy to be loved. 
Ameiia (Ger.) Busy; energetic. 
Ainy (Lat.) Bejoved. 

Angeli'na (Gr.) Angelic; lovely. 


Ann 
An'na 1 
Anne ! 


(Heb.) Grace;- 
Hannah. 


-the same as 




m 


DERIVATION OF CHRISTIAN NAMES* 


Annette' (Heb.) French form of Anne. 
Antoinette' (Gr.) Dimin. of Antonia. 
Anto'nia (Lat.) Inestimable. 
Arabella (Lat.) A fair altar. 
Angus'ta (Lat.) Fern, of Augustus. 
Aure'lia (Lat.) Fern, of Aurelius. 
Auro'ra (Lat.) Morning; brightness. 
Azn'ba (Heb.) Deserted. 

Bar'bara (Gr.) Foreign; strange. 
Be'atrice (Lat.) Making happy. 
Ber'tha (Sax.) Bright; beautiful. 
Blanche (Teut.) White; fair. 
Bridg'et (Celt.) Strength. 

Camilla (Lat.) Attendant at sacrifice 
Car'oline (Ger.) Fern, of Carolus. 

Cath'arine ? /r<T , , x>_ 

Cath'erino 3 ^ Dure. 

Cecil'ia (Lat.) Feminine of Cecil. 
Ce'lia (Lat.) Feminine of Coelius. 
Celes'tine (Lat.) Heavenly. 

Char'lotte (Fr.) Feminine of Charles. 
Chlo'e (Gr.) A green herb; blooming. 
Clar'a (Lat.) Bright; illustrious. 
Claris'sa (Lat.) A variation of Clara. 

Sn }» Mild; gentle. 

Con'stance (Lat.) Constant; firm. 
Co'ra (Gr.) Maiden; daughter. 
Corde'lia (Lat.) 'Warm-hearted. 
Corin'na (Gr.) Maiden. 

Corne'lia (Lat.) Fern, of Cornelius. 
Cyn'thia (Gr.) Belonging to Cynthus. 
Deb'orah (Heb.) A bee. 

De'lia (Gr.) Belonging to Delos. 
Dian'a (Lat.) Goddess. 

Dian'tlsa (Gr.) Flower of Jove; a pink 
Di'nah (Heb.) Judged. 

Do'ra (Gr.) A gift. 

Dor'cas (Gr.) A gazelle. 

DoFqthy a \ Tbe S ift of God. 
Drusil'la (Gr.) Dewy eyes. 

E'dith (Sax.) Happiness. 

Ed'na (Heb.) Pleasure. 

El'eanor (Sax.) All-fruitful. 

Eli'za (Heb.) Contr’n of Elizabeth. 
Eliz'abeth (Heb.) Worshiper of God. 
El'la (Gr.) Contraction of Eleanor. 
El'len (Gr.) Diminutive of Eleanor. 
El'sie (Sax.) Diminutive of Alice. 
Em'eline ? (Ger.) Energetic; indus- 
Em'meline 3 trious. 

Em'ily (Lat.) The same as Emeline. 
Ern'ma (Ger.) The same as Emeline. 
Ernes'tine(Ger.) Fern. dim. of Ernest. 
Es'ther (Pers.) A star; good fortune. 

Ethelin'da 3 N°ble. 

Eudo'ra (Gr.) Good gift. 

Euge'nia (Gr.) Well-born; noble. 
Eu'nice (Gr.) Happy victory. 


Euphe'mia (Gr.) Of good report. 

E'va, Eve (Heb.) Life. 
Evan'geIine(Gr.) Bringing glad neW& 

Ev'eliiie } Diminutive of Eva. 

Fan'ny(Ger.) Diminutive of Frances. 
Felic'ia (Lat.) Happy; happiness. 
Fide'lia (Lat.) Faithful. 

Flo'ra (Lat.) The goddess of flowers. 
Flor'ence(Lat.)Blooming; flourishing 
Fran'ces (Ger.) Feminine of Francis. 
Georgian'a (Gr.) Fern, of George. 
Ger'trude (Ger.) All truth. 

Grace (Lat.) Grace; favor. 

Han'nah (Heb.) The same as Anna. 
Har'riet (Ger.) Fern. dim. of Henry. 
Hel'en (Gr.) Light; alluring. 
Henriet'ta (Ger.) Fern. dim. of Henry. 
Heph'zibah (Heb.) My delight in her. 
Hes'ter (Pers.) A star; good fortune. 
Hono'ra (Lat.) Honorable. 

Hul'dali (Heb.) A weasel. 

I'da (Sax.) Happy; happiness. 

I'nez (Gr.) Chaste; pure. 

Ire'ne (Gr.) Peace; peaceful. 

IsalfePla } (Sp.) Worshiper of God. 

Jane (Fr.) Feminine of John. 

Janet' (Fr.) Diminutive of Jane. 
Jeannette' (Fr.) Diminutive of Jane. 
Jemi'ma (Heb.) A dove. 

Jcru'sha (Heb.) Possessed; married. 

Joan'na \ (Dat.) Feminine of John. 

Jo'sephine (Fr.) Feminine of Joseph. 
Ju'dith (Heb.) Praised. 

Ju'lia (Lat.) Feminine of Julius. 
Julian'a (Lat.) Feminine of Julian. 
Ju'liet (_Fr.) Diminutive of Julia. 
Kath'arine ? (Gr.) Pure; — the same 
Katn'erine 3 as Catharine. 

Eetu'rah (Heb.) Incense. 

Kozi'ah (Heb.) Cassia. 

Laibra (Lat.) A laurel, or bay-tree. 
J.avm'ia (Lat.) Of Latium. 

Leono'ra (Gr.) The same as Eleanor, 
Leti'tia (Lat.) Happiness. 

Lil'ian, Lil'ly (Lat.) Lily. 

*o»(Gr.) Good; desirable. 

Louise* 1 (Dr.) Feminine of Louis. 

Lu'cia (Lat.) Feminine of Lucius. 
Lucm'da (Lat.) Shining; brilliant. 
Lucre'tia (Lat.) Gain. 

Lu'cy (Lat.) Feminine of Lucius. 
ia (Gr.) A native of Lydia, Asia. 
e i.(Dat.) Contraction of Amabel. 
Mad elme (Fr.) Same as Magdalene. 
Mag dalene (Heb.) Belong to Magdala 
Mar'cia (Lat.) Feminine of Marcius. 
Mar'garet (Gr.) A pearl, 











t 


ANCIENT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 383 


Mari'a (Lat.) A form of Mary. 
Marianne'(Fr.)From Mary and Anne. 
Mar'ion (Fr.) A familiar form of Mary. 
Mar'tlia(Heb.)Sorrowful; melancholy 
Ma'ry (Heb.) Bitter; star of the sea. 
Matil'da (G-er.) A heroine. 

Maud (Ger.) Contraction of Matilda. 

' l < Heb > Benefited of God. 

Mel'icent (Lat.) A sweet singer. 
Melis'sa (Gr.) A bee. 

Miran'da (Lat.) Admirable. 

Mir'iam (Heb.) The same as Mary. 
My'ra (Gr.) She who weeps or laments 
Nan'cy(Eng.) A familiar form of Anne 
No'ra (Ital.) Contraction of Honora. 
Octa'via (Lat.) Feminine of Octavius. 

Olivia f (Lat)An olive *« 

Olym'pia (Gr.) Heavenly. 

Pauline* } (Lat ) Fem - of Paulinua - 
Penel'ope (Gr.) A weaver. 

Per'sis (Gr.) A Persian woman. 

PhlcTe } (Gr ) Pure; radiant - 
Pliilip'pa (Gr.) Feminine of Philip. 

PhjTlis ^ (Gr ‘ ) A green bough - 
Pol'ly(Eng.)Variation of Molly, from 
Priscil'la(Lat.)Somewhat old. [Mary 
Pru'dence (Lat.) Foresight; prudence 
Ra'ehel (Heb.) A ewe. 
Rebec'ca(Heb.)Of enchanting beauty. 
Rho'da (Gr.) A rose. 

Ro'sa (Lat.) A rose. 

Ros'abel 
Rosabel' 


l'la \ (Lat ) 


A fair rose. 


Ros'alie (Fr.) Little blooming rose. 
Ros'alind (Lat.) Beautiful as a roe. 
Ros'aniond (Ger.) Rosy lips. 
Roxan'na (Pers.) Dawn oi day. 

Ruth (Heb.) Beauty. 

Sabi'na (Lat.) A Sabine woman. 
Salome' (Heb.) Peaceful. 

Sal'va (Lat.) Safe. 

Sa'rah } (Hebd A princess. 

Seli'na (Gr.) Parsley. 

Sere'na (Lat.) Feminine of Serenus. 

li by l'la } ^ GrA A prophetess. 

Sophi'a (Gr.) Wisdom. 

Sophro'nia (Gr.) Of a sound mind. 
Stel'la (Lat.) A star. 

s“l?n"na(< Heb ) A “>y- 

Tab'itha (Syr.) A gazelle. 

Theodo'ra (Gr.) The gift of God. 
Theodo'sia (Gr.) The gift of God. 
There'sa (Gr.) Carrying ears of corn, 
Tryphe'na (Gr.) Delicate; luxurious, 
Trypho'sa (Gr.) Luxurious; dainty. 
Ul'rica (Ger.) Rich, 
lira'ilia (Gr.) Heavenly. 

Ur'sula (Lat.) A she-bear. 

Yale'ria (Lat.) Feminine of Valerius 
Yicto'ria (Lat.) Victory. 

Yi'da (Erse.) Feminine of David. 

Yi'olet } A Violet. 

Yirgin'ia (Lat.) Virgin; pure. 

Viv'ian (Lat.) Lively. 

Wilhelnii'na (Sax.) Fem. of William. 
Win'ifred (Sax.) A lover of peace. 
Zeno'bia (Gr.) Life from Jupiter. 


ANCIENT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES, 

WITH THEIR CORRESPONDING MODERN NAMES. 


ANCIENT. COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. MODERN. 

Scandinavia (skan-de-na've-ah)..Sweden and Norway. 

Chersonesus Cimbrica (ker-so-ne'sus sim'bre-kali) Jutland, part of Denmark. 

Sarmatia (sar-ma'she-ah).Poland, part of Russia. 

Britannia (bre-tan'ne-ah), or Albion (al'be-un).Great Britain. 

Caledonia (kal-e-do'ne-ah).Scotland. 

Hibernia (hi-ber'ne-ah).Ireland. 

Germania (ger-ma'ne-ah).Germany, north of the Danube. 

Gallia (gal'le-ali), or Gaul (gawl).France and the Netherlands. 

Helvetia (hel-ve'she-ah).Switzerland. 

Hispania (his-pa'ne-ah)...Spain. 

Lusitania (lu-se-ta'ne-ah)... Portugal. 

Rluetia (re'she-ah).Tyrol, &c. 

Yindelicia (vin-de-lish'e-ah).Part of Bavaria. 

Noricum (nor'e-kum).Part of Bavaria and of Austria. 

Ulyricnm (il-lir'e-kum).,.Part of Austria 


t 




















3 8 4 


ANCIENT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 


ancient. COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. modern. 

Pannonia (pan-nd'ne-ah).Part of Austria and of Hungary. 

Dacia (da'she-ah).Part of Hungary and of Turkey. 

JHoesia (me'ze-ab), Thrace (thras), Macedonia (mas-e-do'ue-ab), and 

Epirus (epl'rus).Part of Turkey. 

Grecia (gre'she-ah), Greece (gres).Greece and part of Turkey. 

Peloponnesus (pel-o-pon-ne'sus).Tbe Morea. 

COUNTRIES OF ASIA. 

Asia Minor (a'she-ah nai'nor).Natolia, Caramania, <fcc. 

Syria (sir'e-ah), Phoenicia (fe-nish'e-ah), Judea (ju-de'ah).. .Part of Turkey. 

Armenia (ar-me'ne-ah), Mesopotamia (mes-o-po-ta'nie-ah)-Part of Turkey. 

Assyria (as-sir'e-ah), Babylonia (bab-e-lo'ne-ah)...Part of Turkey. 

Colchis (kol'kis) Iberia (i-be're-ah), and Albania (al-ba'ne-ab), Georgia, Min- 
grelia, and part of Circassia. 

Arabia (a-ra'be-ah).Arabia. 

Persia (per'se-ah), Media (me'de-ah), Parthia (par'the-ah).Persia. 

Bactria (bak'tre-ah).Afghanistan. 

Scythia (sitk'e-ak).Siberia and Tartary. 

COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. 


-Egypt (e'gipt).Egypt. 

Libya (lib'yeh).Barca. 

Africa (af're-kah).Tripoli, Tunis. 

Numidia(nu-mid'e-ah) Tunis, Algiers. 


Mauritania(maw-re-ta'ne-ah) Algiers, 
Morocco, &c. [yssiuia, &c. 

Ethiopia (e-the-o'pe-ah), Nubia, Ab- 
Gietulia (je-tu'le-ak)-Biledulgerid. 


SEAS, GULFS, STRAITS, AND LAKES. 

Adriatic (a-dre-at'ik) Sea.Gulf of Venice. 

Egaeau (e-ge'an) Sea.Archipelago. 

Aquitanian (ak-we-ta'ne-an) Ocean.Bay of Biscay. 

Arabian (a-ra'be-an) Gulf.Red Sea. 

Argolic (ar-gol'ik) Gulf.Gulf of Napoli. 

Asphaltites (as-fal-ti'tez) Lake.Dead Sea. 

Atlantic (at-lan'tik) Ocean.Atlantic. 

Benacus (be-na'kus) Lake.Garda. 

Bosphorus (bos'fo-rus) (Cimmerian—sim-me're-an).Strait of Caffa. 

Bosphorus (bos'fo-rus) (Thracian—tbra'sban).Strait of Constantinople. 

Brigantinus (brig-an-ti'nus) Lake.Constance. 

Caspian (kas'pe-an) Sea. Caspian. 

Codanian (ko-da'ne-an) Gulf..Baltic Sea. 

Corinth (kor'inth), Gulf of..Gulf of Lepanto. 

Eux'ine (yuks'in) Sea.Black Sea. 

Galilee (gal'i-le), Sea of.Tabaria. 

Gallic (gal'lik) Strait.Strait of Dover. 

Gallic (gal'lik) Gulf.Gulf of Lyons. 

Gangetic (gan-jet'ik) Gulf.Bay of Bengal. 

Gennesareth (jen-nes'a-reth) Lake of..Tabaria. 

Hellespont (hel'les-pont).Dardanelles. 

Hercules (her'ku-lez), Strait of..Strait of Gibraltar. 

Hibernian (bi-ber'ne-an) Strait.Irish Sea. 

Ionian (I-6'ne-an) Sea.Part of Gulf of Venice. 

Larins (la're-us) Lake.Como. 

Ligustic (le-gus'tik) Gulf..Gulf of Genoa. 

Leman (le'man) Lake.. ..;.Geneva. 

Mediterranean (med-i-ter-ra'ne-an).Mediterranean. 

Palus Moeotis (pa'lus me-o'tis).Sea of Azof. 

Propontis (pro-pon'tis).Marmora. 

Saronic (sa-ron'ik gulf).Gulf of Engia. 

Sicilian (se-sil'yan) Strait.Strait of Messina. 

Syrtis (sir'tis) Major.Gulf of Sidra. 

Thermaic (ther-ma'ik) Gulf.Gulf of Contessa. 

Tiberias (ti-be're-as), Sea of. Tabaria. 

Terbknus (ver-ba/iiua) Lake.*.Maggiore, 





















































ANCIENT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 


m 


ISLANDS. 


ANCIENT. MODERN. 

jEgina (e-ji'nab).Eugia. 

jEolian (e-6'le-an) lsPds,Lipari Isl’ds. 

Aiuorgos (a-rnor'gos).Am or go. 

Anaphe (an a-fe).Namphio 

Amlros (an'dros).Audio. 

Aradus (ar'a-jdus).Larek. 

Baleares (bal-e-a'rez), Majorca, Mi¬ 
norca, and Ivica. 

Calymna (ka-lim'nah).Calmina. 

Capraria (ka-pra're-ah).Gomera. 

Capreae (ka'pre-e).Capri. 

Carpathus (kar'pa-thns) . .Scarpanto. 
Cephaienia (sef-a-le'ue-ali), Cefalonia. 

Ceos (se'os).Zia. 

Chios (ki'os).Scio. 

Cimolus (si-mo'lus).Argeutiera. 

Corcyra (kor-si'rab).Corfu. 

Corsica (kor'se-kah).Corsica. 

Cos (kos).Stanchio. 

Crete (kret).Candia. 

Crepsa (krep'sah).Clierso. 

Cyprus (sl'prus).Cyprus. 

Cyth'nus (sitk'nus).Thermia. 

Cythera (si-the'rah).Cerigo. 

I)eios (de'los).Delos. 

Ebusus (eb'u-sus).Ivica. 

Euboea (u-be'ah).Negropont. 

Fortunate(for'tu-nate)Isles, Canaries. 
Hesperides(hes-per'e-dez). .Bissagos. 

Hibernia (hi-ber'ne-ah).Ireland. 

Icaria (i-ka're-ah).Nicaria. 

Ilva (il'vah) ...Elba. 

Imbros (im'bros).Imbro. 

Ios (l'os)... ..Nio. 

Ithaca (ith'a-kab).Theaki. 


ANCIENT. MODERN. 

Lesnnos (lem'nos).Stalimene. 

Lesbos (les'bos).Metelin. 

Leucadia (lu-ka/de-ah)_St. Maura. 

Lipare (lip'a-re).Lipari. 

Melite (mel'i-te).Malta 

Melite (mel'i-te).Meleda. 

Melos (me'los).Milo. 

Mona (mo'nah).Anglesea. 

Monabia (mo-na'be-ah).Man. 

Myconus (mic'o-nus).Myconi. . 

Nax'os (naks'os).Naxia. 

Nisyros (ni-si'ros).Nisiri. 

Olearos (o-P'a-ros).Antiparos. 

Paros (pa'ros).Paros. 

Patinos (pat'mos).Patino. 

Psyra (si'rah).Ipsara. 

Rhodes (rods).Rhodes. 

Sahunis (sal'a-rais).Colouri. 

Samothrace(samothra'se)Samothraki 

Samos (sa'mos).Samos. 

Sardinia (sar-din'e-ah).Sardinia. 

Scyros (si'ros).Syra. 

Seriphus (se-ri'fus).Serpho. 

Sicily (sis'e-le).Sicily. 

Siplmos (sif'nos).Sipbanta 

Stcechades (stek'a-dez).Hierea 

Strophades (strof'a-dez).Strivali. 

Syros (si'ros).Syra. 

Tenedos (ten'e-dos).Tenedos. 

Tenos (te'nos)....Tino, 

Thasos (tha'sos).Thaso. 

Thera (the'rah).San tor in, 

Thule (thu'le).Shetland Isles. 

Yectis (vek'tis).Isle of Wight. 

Zacynthus (za-sin'thus).Zaiite. 


RIVERS. 


SARMATIA. 


, iorysthencs (bo-ris'the-nez)Dnieper. 

ilypanis (hip'a-nis).Bog. 

Lilia (ra).Volga. 

Bubo (ru'bo) .Niemen. 


Tanais (tan'a-is). 

Tanintus (ta-run'tus) 
Tyras (ti'ras). 


.Don. 

. Dwina. 
Dniester, 


Albis (al'bis). 

Amisia (a-mizh'yah) 

Ister (is'tr). 

ftioenus (me'nus) 


GERMANY 


....Elbe. 

_Ems. 

Danube. 
. Mayne. 


Rhenus (r&'nus)... 
Yiadrus (vi'a-drus) 
Yisurgis (vi-sur'jis) 
Vistula (vis'tu-lah). 


..Rhine. 
... Oder. 
-Weser. 
Vistula. 


Arnr (A'rar). 

(iarunma (ga-rum'nah) 

Liger (li'jij. 

Mosa (mo'sah). 


GAEL. 


.. .Saone. 
Garonne. 
.. .Loire. 
. .Meuse. 


Mosel'la (mo-sel'lah)... 
Rhodanus (rod'a-nus) .. 

Scaldis (skal'dis). 

Sequana (sek'wah-nah). 


Anas (5/nas). 

Bcetis (be'tis). 

Durius (du're-us)., 


SPAIN. 


.Gnadiana. 

Guadalquiver. 

Duero, 


Iberus (i-be'rus).. 
Minins (min'e-us) 
Tagus (ta'gus).... 


. .Moselle. 
... Rhone. 
. .Scheldt. 
_Seine. 


. .Ebro. 
Minho. 
. Taftus* 





























































































ANCIENT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 




ANCIENT. 

Banubius (da-nu'be-us) 

Dravus (dra'vus). 

Hebrus (h&'brus). 

<Enus (b'nus). 

Addua(ad'du-ah). 

Anio (a'ne-o). 

Axnus (ar'nus). 

Athesis (ath'e-sis). 

Aufidus (avr'fe-dus)- 

Eridanus (e-rid'a-nus).. 
Medoacus (me-do'a-kus) 


ILLYEICUM, DACIA, <fcc 

MODERN. ANCIENT. 


.Danube. 
.. .Drave. 
.Marizza. 
.Inn. 


MODERN. 

Pyretus (py-re'tus).Prutli. 

Savus (sa/vus).Save. 

Tibiscus (ti-bis'kus).Theis. 


ITALY. 


.Adda. 

.Teverone. 

.Arno. 

_Adige. 

_Ofanto. 

.Po. 

...Brenta. 


Metaurus (me-taw'rus).Metro. 

Mincius (min'se-us).Mincio. 

Padus (pa'dus).Po. 

Rubicon (ru'be-kon).Fimnecino. 

Tiber (tl'ber).Tiber. 

Ticinus (ti-sl'nus).Ticino. 

Tulturnus (vul-tur'nus) ...Yolturno. 


GREECE. 


Aclielous (ak-e-lo'us), Aspro Potaino. 


Alpkeus (al-fe'us).Alfeo. 

Astrseus (as-tre'us).Vistriza. 

Axius (aks'e-us).Yardar. 

Eurotas (u-ro'tas).Basili. 


Evenus (e-ve'nus).Eiraii. 

Haliacmon (ba-le-ak'mon) ..Jenicoro. 

Peneus (pe-ne'us).Peneo. 

Strymon (stri'ruon).Strimon. 


ASIA. 


Araxes (a-raks'ez).Aras. 

Caicus (ka-I'kus).Germaisti. 

Calycadnus(kal-e-kad'nus)Kalikdoni. 
Caystrus) ka-is'trus).. .Minderscare. 

Cyrus (si'rus).Kur. 

Daix (da'iks), or Yaik (ya'ik).. .Ural. 
Etymander (et-e-man'der).. Hirmend. 
Eulaens(u-le'u8),orClai(u'la-I)Karasu. 

Euphrates (u-fra'tez)_Euphrates. 

Granicus (gra-nl'kus).Ousvola. 

Halys (ha/lis).Kizil-ermak. 

Herrnus (hur'mus).Sarabat. 


Hydaspes (bl-das'pSz).Behat. 

Jaxartes (jaks-ar'tez).-.Sir. 

Jordan (jor'dn).Jordan 

Lycus (li'kus).Tonsaln. 

Maeander (me-an'dr).Meinder. 

Orontes (o-ron'tez).Orontes. 

Oxus (oks'us)...Jib on. 

Phasis (fa/sis).Rione. 

Pyramus (pir'a-mus).Geihoun. 

Sangarius (san-ga're-ns).Sakaria. 

Tliermodon (tber-mo'dn) ...Termek. 
Tigris (ti'gris).Tigris. 


AFRICA. 

Bagradas (bag'ra-das).Mejerdah. Nile (ml).. 

Daradus (dar'a-dus).Senegal. Stachir (sta'chir) 

Niger (nl'jr).Nijer. 


....Nile. 

Gambia. 


CITIES AND TOWNS. 


GREAT BRITAIN 


Aquae (ft'kwe) Solis,or Cal'idae.. .Bath. 
Caniboricuni (kam-bor'e-kum), Cam- 
Cantabrigia(kan-ta-brij'e-ab), [bridge 
CastraAlata(kas'traala'ta)Edin burgh 
Eboracum (e-bor'a-kum, or 

eb-o-ra'kum).York. 


Durovernuni (-vor'num), Canterbury. 

Londinuni (lon-dr'num).London. 

Eondinium (lon-din'e-um).. .London. 
Luguyallum (lu-gu-val'lum), Carlisle. 

Oxonia (oks-6'ne-ab).Oxford. 

Thcodorumun(tkeod-o-ru'num) Wells 


SPAIN. 


Asturica (as-tu're-kah).Astorga. 

Barcino (bar'se-no).Barcelona. 

Bilbllis (bil'be-lis).Calatayud. 

Caesar (se'zr) Augusta.Saragossa. 

Calagurris (kal-a-gur'ris) .Calahorra. 

Calle (kal'le).Oporto. 

Calpe (kal'pe).Gibraltar. 

Carthago(kartha/go)NovaCarthagena 
Complutum (kom-plu'tum).. .Alcala. 
Coninibrica (ko-nim'bre-ka) Coimbra. 

Corduba (kor'du-bab).Cordova. 

Gades (ga'dez)... . .Cadiz. 


Ilispalis (liis'pa-lis).Seville. 

Uerda (I-ler'dah).Lerida. 

Italica (I-tal'e-kab).Santiponte. 

Malaca (mal'a-kah).Malaga. 

Munda (mun'dah).Monda. 

Numantia (nu-man'te-ah).Soria. 

Olisippo (o-le-sip'po)... .Lisbon. 

Pompelo (pom'pe-lo).Pampeluna. 

Saguntum (sa-gun'tum). .Morviedro. 

Segovia (se-go've-ah).Segovia. 

Tarraco (tar'ra-ko).Tarragona. 

Toletum (to-le'tum) .. Toledo. 















































































ANCIENT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 


88? 


ANCIENT. 

Aquae Sexti® (a'kwe seks'te-e).. Aix. 
Argentoratum (ar-jen-to-ra/tum), 

Strasburg. 

Avaricum (av-a-rl'kum).Bourges. 

Avenio (a-ve'ne-o).Avignon. 

Aventicum (av-en-tl'kum), Aveucbes. 

Augus'ta Tevero'rum.Treves. 

Bibracte (bi-brak'te).Autun. 

Burdigala (bur-dig'a-la).. .Bordeaux. 
Colo'ma Agrippi'na.Cologne. 


Agrlgentum (ag-re-jen'tum) Gir^enti. 
Alba Longa (al'bah lon'gah), Albano. 

Ancona (an-ko'nah).Ancona. 

Antiuni (an'te-um).Anzio. 

Appii (ap'pe-i) Fo'rum. .Fossa Nuova. 

Aquileia (ak-we-le'yeh)_Aquileia. 

Aquinum (a-kwl'num).Aquino. 

Ariminum (a-rim'e-num).Rimini. 

Arpinnm (ar-pi'num).Arpino. 

Augus'ta Taurino'rum.Turin. 

Baiae (ba'e-e).Baia. 

Beneventum (-e-ven'tuin),Benevento. 

Bononia (bo-no'ne-ah).Bologna. 

Brundusium (-du'ze-um).. .Brindisia. 

Caieta (ka-e-e'tah).Cajeta. 

Callipolis (kal-lip'o-lis).Gallipoli. 

Canusium (ka-nu'se-uin).Canosa. 

Capua (kap'u-ah).Capua. 

Caralis (kar'a-lis).Cagliari. 

Catana (kat'a-nah).Catania. 

Centum Cell® (sel'le), CivitaVeccbia. 

Clusium (klu'se-um).Cliiusi. 

Comum (ko'mum).Como. 

Cosentia (ko-sen'te-ali).Cosenza. 

Crotona (kro-to'nah).Crotona. 

Drcpanum (drep'a-num)-Trapani. 

Faventia (fa-ven'te-ab).Faenza. 

Florentia (flo-ren'te-ah)-Florence. 

Genua (jen'u-ah).Genoa. 

Iladria (ha'dre-ab).Adria. 

Byd run turn (bi-drun'tum) ..Otranto. 

Interanmn (in-ter-am'nab)-Terni. 

Leontini (le-on-tl'ni).Lentini. 

Lilyb®um (lil-e-bo'um).Marsala, 


GAIJL. 

MODERN. ANCIENT. MODERN. 

Forum Julii (fb'rmn jft'le-1).-Frejus. 

Geneva (je-ne'vali).Geneva. 

Limonum (ll-mo'num).Poictiers. 

Lugdunum (lug-dxVnurji).Lyons. 

Lutetia (lu-te'te-ali).Paris. 

Moguntiacum (ino-gun-tl'a-kum) Metz 

Narbo (nar'bo).Narbonne. 

Aemausus (ne-maw'sus).Nismes. 

Rotomagus (ro-tom'a-gus)_Rouen. 

Tolosa (to-lo'sab).Toulouse. 

ITALY. 

Mediolanum (me-de-o-la'num), Milan. 

Mu tin a (mu'te-nah).Modena. 

Mantua (man'tu-ah).Mantua. 

Neapolis (ne-ap'o-lis).Naples. 

Messaim (mes-sa'nah).Messina. 

Ostia (os'te-ah)...Ostia. 

Psestum (pes'tum).Pe8ti. 

Panormus (pa-nor'mus)_Palermo. 

Parma (par'mah).Parma. 

Parthenope (par-tben'o-pe) ..Naples. 

Patavium (pa-ta/ve-um).Padua. 

Perusia(pe-ru'se-ah).Perugia. 

Pis® (pl'se).Pisa. 

Placentia (pla-sen'te-ah).. .Piacenza. 

Preneste (pre-nes'te).Palestrina. 

Puteoli (pn-te'o-li).Pozzuolo. 

Ravenna (ra-ven'nab).Ravenna. 

Rhegiuin (re'je-um).Reggio. 

Salernum (sa-ler'num).Salerno. 

Scyllaceum (sil-la-se'um) ..Squillace. 

Sena (se'nah).Siena. 

Spoletium (spo-le'te-um)_Spoleto. 

Tarentum (ta-ren'tum).Tarento. 

Tergeste (ter-jes'te).Trieste. 

Vulnsr* TIttaIi 


Amphipolis (am-fip'o-lis)-Emboli. 

Apolionia (ap-ol-lo'ne-ah).Polina. 

Beraea (be-re'ab).Veria. 

Dium (dS'um).Standia. 

Byrracliiuiu (dir-rak'e-um), JDurazzo. 


Tibur (tl'br).Tivoli. 

Ticinum (ti-sl'num).Pavia. 

Tridentum (tri-den'tum).Trent. 

Tusculum (tus'kn-lum).Frascati. 

Yenafrum (ve-na'frum).Yenafro. 

Yenusia (ve-nu'se-ah).Yenosa. 

Yerceli® (ver-sel'le).Yercelli. 

Yerona (ve-ro'nab).....Verona. 

Yicbntia (vi-sen'te-ab).Vicenza. 

Yolsinium (vol-sin'e-um)_Bolsena. 


MACEDONIA. 


Edessa (e-des'sah).Edessa. 

Pella (pel'lah).Jenitza. 

Potidaea (pot-e-de'ah)_Cassandra. 

Stagira (sta-ji'rah).Stavros. 

Thessalonicalthes-a-lo-m'ka) Salonica 


GREECE. 


Actinm (ak'te-um).Agio. 

Anticyra (an-tis'e-rab), Aspro-Spitia. 

Argos (ar'gos).Argo. 

Athens (atb'enz).Athens. 

Auiis (aw'lis).Megalo-Vatbi. 


Cenchrea (sen'kre-ab).Kenkri. 

Clialchis (kal'sis).Negropont. 

Corone (ko-ro'ne).Coron. 

Corinth (kor'intb)..Corinth. 

Cylleue (sil-le'ne).Cbiarenz* 














































































388 


ANCIENT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 


GREECE. 


ANCIENT. MODERN. 

Delphi (del'fi).Castri. 

Eleusis (e-lu'sis).Lepsina. 

Epidaurus (ep-e-daw'rus) ...Pidaura. 
Laccda&r.ion(las-e-de'mon) Paleo-chori 

Larissa (la-ris'sah).Larissa. 

Leuctra (luk'trail).Livadosta. 

Methone (me-tho'ne).Modon. 

Megara (meg'a-rab).Megaro. 

Naupactus (uaw-pak'tus). ..Lepanto. 


ANCIENT. . MODERN. 

Nicopolis (ni-kop'o-lis).Prevesa. 

Messene (mes-se'ne).. .Macra-mathia. 

Nauplia (naw'ple-ah).Napoli. 

Patra? (pa/tre).Patras. 

Pharsaiia (far-sa'le-ah).Farsa. 

Pylos (pl'los).Navarino. 

Sicyon (sis'e-on).Basilico. 

Sparta (spar'tah).Paleo-chori. 

Thebes (thebs).Thiva. 


ASIA MINOR. 


Abydos (a-bl'dos).Nagara. 

Adramyttium (-mit'e-um).. Adramiti. 

Amasia (a-ma/se-ah).Amasia. 

Amisus (a-nn'sus).Sainsoun. 

Ancyra (an-sl'rah).Angora. 

Antioch (an'te-ok).Aksbebr. 

Apamea(-me'ah) Aphiom-Karahissar. 

Attalia (at-a-ll'ah).Satalia. 

Berisa (be-rl'sah).Tocat. 

Caesarea (sez-a-re'ak).Kaisarieh. 

Cerasus (ser'a-sus).Keresoun. 

Chalcedon (kal-se'dn)-Kadi-Keni. 

Chrysopolis (kri-sop'o-lis) ...Scutari. 
Clazomenre (kla-zom'e-ue) ...Yourla. 

Colosste (ko-los'se).Chonos. 

Constantia (-stan'te-ah).. .Constanza. 

Ephesus (ef'e-sus).Ajasolnc. 

Eupatoria(u-pa-t6Te-nh),Tckernikeb. 

STRIA, MESO 

Antioch (an'te-ok).Antioch. 

Apamela (ap-a-me'lah).Eamieh. 

Arbela (ar-be'lah).Erbil. 

Babylon (bab'e-lon).near Hellab. 

Bersea (be-re'ah).Aleppo. 

Berytus (ber'e-tns).Beyront. 

Ctesiphon (tes'e-fon).Modain. 

Ecbatana (ek-bat'a-nali).. .Hama dan. 

Edessa (e-des'sah).Onrfa. 

Emesa (e-me'sak)..Hems. 

Heliopolis (he-le-op'o-lis).Balbec. 


Halicarnassus (-kar-nas'sus),Bodrum. 

Iconium (I-ko'ne-um).Konieb. 

Laodicea (la-od-e-se'ab). .Eski-bissar. 

Mazaca (maz'a-kah).Kaisaiieh. 

Miletus (me-le'tus).Palatia. 

Nicoinedia(nik-o-me-dI'ab)Is-Niemid. 

Paphos (pa'fos).BafFa. 

Patara (pat'a-rah).Patera. 

Perga (per-gah).Kara-hissar. 

Perganios (per'ga-mos)_Pergamo. 

Philadelphia (-del'fe-ab),Alab-Sbebr. 

Salamis (sal'a-mis).Constanza. 

Sardis (sar'dis).Sart. 

Seleucia (se-lu'se-ab).Selefke. 

Tarsus (tar'sus).Tarso. 

Telmissus (tel-mis'sns).Macri. 

Thyatira (tbi-a-tl'rab).Akbissar. 

Trapezus (tra-pe'zus).Trebizond. 

’OTAMIA, &c. 

Epiphania (ep-e-fam'nh)_Eamieh. 

Bierapolis (bi-e-iap'o-lis), Bamboucb. 

Laodicea (la-od-e-se'ab).Latakia. 

Nisibis (nis'e-bis).Nisidin. 

Tad ns or (tad'mor).Palmyra. 

Samosata (sa-inos'a-tab)_Samisat. 

Sarepta (sa-rep'tnh).Sarfend. 

Seleucia (se-lu'se-ah).Bagdad. 

Sidon (sl'dn).Saida. 

Tripohs (trip'o-lis).Tripoli. 

Tyre (tlr).Sur. 


PALESTINE. 


Arimatliea (ar-e-ma-the'ab).. .Ramla, 

Azotus (a-zo'tus).Ezdoud. 

Bethlehem (betli'le-bem),Bethlehem. 

Bethsan (betb'sau)..Baisan. 

Emmaus (em'ma-us).Amoas. 

Gaza (ga'zah).Gaza. 

Hebron (he'bron).El Khail. 

Jericho (jer'e-ko).Jericho. 


Jerusalem (je-roo'sa-lem), Jerusalem. 

.lezreel (jez're-el).Ezdraelon. 

Nazareth (naz'a-retb).Nazareth. 

Ptolemais (tol-e-ma'is).A ere. 

Samaria (sa-ma're-ali).Sehaste. 

Scythopolis (si-tbop'o-lis)_Baisan. 

Sephoris (sef'o-ris).Sephouri. 

Sychar (sl'kar).Nablous. 


AFRICA. 


Abydos (a-hl'dos).Madfune. 

Arsinoe (ar-sin'o-e).Suez. 

Caesarea (sez-a-re'ah).Shersbell. 

Canopus (ka-nd'pus).Aboukir. 

Cirta (sir'tali).Constautina. 

Darnis (dar'nis).Berne. 


Heliopolis (he-le-op'o-lis). ..Matarea. 


Lycopolus (li-kop'o-lus).Suit. 

ffia (e'ah).Tripoli. 

Ptoiemais_ (tol-e-ma'is)_Tolometa. 

Syene (si-e'ne).Syene. 

Tingis (tin'jis).T angier. 

Utica (u'te-kah).Boo-Shatter. 

Zama (za/inak).Zamah. 




































































































































































































































































39 ° 


NEW YORK AND BROOKLYN BRIDGE. 


BRIEF HISTORY AND STATISTICS OP THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE 

— fr-—• 

William C. Kingsley has plans and estimates drawn, 1865. 
Henry C. Murphy introduces act of incorporation in Senate of 
New York, January 25, 1867. Act passed, April 16, 1867. 
Act transferring Bridge to the two cities passed, June 5, 1874. 
Company organized, May, 1867. 

John A. Roebling appointed engineer, May 23, 1867. 

John A. Roebling died, July 22, 1869. 

Washington A. Roebling appointed engineer, July 1869. 

Work commenced at the Brooklyn tower, January 3, 1870. 
Brooklyn caisson towed to its berth, May, 2,1870. 

First blocks laid on it, June 16,1870. 

Excavation under it commenced, July 10, 1870. 

Eire in the Brooklyn caisson, discovered, December 2,1870. 
Great fire in the Brooklyn caisson discovered,December 2,1870. 
Engineer Col. Roebling partially paralyzed, December 2, 1870. 
Caisson filled and finished, March 11, 1871. 

New York caisson towed to its berth, October, 1871. 

Filled and finished in May, 1872. 

Brooklyn tower completed, May, 1875. 

New York tower completed, July 1876. 

First wire rope stretched'over the river, August 14,1876. 

First crossing on the wire, August 25, 1876. 

Foot-bridge finished and crossed, February 9, 1877. 

First cable wire run over and regulated, May 29, 1877. 

Running and regulating cable wires commenced, June 11,1877. 
Last wire run over, October 5,1878. 

Strand broke loose, June 14,1878. 

Henry C. Murphy died, December 1,1882. 

Bridge opened, May 24, 1883. 

Cars commenced running, September 24,1883. 

Length of New York approach, 1562| feet. 

Length of Brooklyn approach, 971 feet. 

Size of anchorages at base, 129 x 119 feet. 

Size of anchorages at top, 117 x 114 feet. 

Hight of anchorages in front, 85 feet. 

Hight of anchorages in rear, 80 feet. 

Weight of anchorages, about 60,000 tons each. 

Weight of anchor plates, each 23 tons. 

Length of each land span, anchorage to tower, 930 feet. 

Size of Brooklyn caisson, 168 x 102 feet. 

Thickness of top of Brooklyn caisson, 15 feet. 

Depth of Brooklyn foundations below high-water mark, 441 ft. 



&EW YOKE AND BROOKLYN BRIDGE. 




39* 


Timber and iron in caisson, 5,253 cubic yards. 

Concrete filled into Brooklyn caisson, 5,609 cubic feet. 

Size of New York caisson, 172 x 102 feet. 

Thickness of top of New York caisson, 22 feet. 

De^th of New York foundations below high-water mark, 78 ft. 
"Weight of New York caisson, 7,000 tons. 

Concrete filled into New York caisson, 7,000 tons. 

Bolts and angle irons of New York caisson, 250 tons. 

Size of towers at high-water mark, 140 x 59 feet. 

Size of towers at top, 136 x 53 feet. 

Eight of roadway at towers, 119 feet, 
night of arches above roadway, 117 feet. 

Hight of towers above roadway, 159 feet. 

Total hight of towers above high-water, 271 feet 6 inches. 
Total hight of Brooklyn tower, base to summit, 316 feet. 

Total hight of New York tower, base to summit, 350 feet. 
Width of opening through towers, 33 feet 9 inches. 

Cubic yards of masonry in New York tower, 46,945. 

Cubic yards of masonry in Brooklyn tower, 38,214. 

Length of main span, tower to tower, 1595 feet 6 inches. 

Eight of main span above high-water mark, 135 feet 6 inches. 
Number of cables, 4. 

Diameter of cables, 15 feet 9 inches. 

Length of each cable, 3,578 feet 6 inches. 

Number of wires in each cable, 5,434. 

Number of wires in the four cables, 21,736. 

Total length of wire in each cable, unwrapped, 3,515 miles. 
Total length of wire in the four cables,unwrapped, 14,060 miles. 
Weight of wire, one pound to nearly 11 feet. 

Greatest length of cable wire run in one day, 88 3-5 miles. 
Length of wrapping wire on each cable, 243 miles 943 feet. 
Weight of 4 cables, wrapped, 3,5881 tons. 

Ultimato strength of each cable, 12,200 tons. 

Greatest load that can come on one cable, 3,000 tons. 

Number of suspenders from each cable, main span, 20S. 
Number of suspenders from each cable, land spans, 86. 
Strength of a single suspender, 70 tons. 

Greatest weight in a single suspender, 10 tons. 

Number of postbands, each land span, ono cablo, 35. 

Number of overfloor stays, 432. 

Total length of bridge, 5,989 feet. 

Full width of flooring, 85 feet. 

Grade of roadway, 3^ feet in 100. 

Natural elevation above high-water, Brooklyn terminus, 611 ft. 
Natural elevation above high-water, New York terminus,381 ft. 
Weight of the whole suspended structure, 6,740 tons. 
Maximum weight to be got in it, 1380 tons. 

Maximum weight of roadway and traffic in cables, 6,920 tons. 
Maximum weight of roadway and traffic on stays, 1190 tons. 






































































































































































































































KNOTS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM 


1. Simple overhand 

knot. 

2. Slipknot, seized. 

3. Single bowknot. 

4. Square knot, or 

ruf-knot. 

5. Square bowknot. 

6. weaver’s knot. 

7. German, or fig- 

ure-of-8 knot. 

8. Two half-hitches 
or artificer’s knot 

9. Double artificer’s 

knot. 

lO.Simple galley- 
knot. 

11. Capstan, or pro¬ 

longed knot. 

12. Bowline-knot. 

13. Rolling-hitch. 

14. Clove-hitch. 

15. Blackwall hitch. 

16. Timber-hitch. 

17. Bowline-bight. 

18. Running bowline 

lO.Catspaw. 

20. Doubled running 

knot. 

21. Double knot. 

22. Sixfold knot. 

23. Boat-knot. 

24. Lark’s head. 

25. Lark’s head. 

26. Simple boat-knot 

27. Loop-knot. 

28. Double Flemish 

knot. 

29. Running-knot, — 

checked. 

30. Crossed running 

knot. 

31 .Lashing-knot. 

32. Rosette. 

33. Chain-knot. 

34. Double chain- 

knot. 

35. Double running- 
knot,with check- 
knot. 

36. Double twist- 

knot. 

37. Builders’ knot. 

38. Double Flemish 

knot. 

39. English knot. 
40.Shortening knot. 

41. Shortening knot. 

42. Sheepshank. 

43. Dogshank. 

44. Mooring-knot. 

45. Mooring-knot. 

46. Mooring-knot. 

47. Pigtail worked 

on end of a rope. 

48. Shroud-knot. 

49. A knot used by 
sailors in making 
fast to a spar or a 
bucket before it is 



thrown overboard. It will not run. [This knot is also made by horsemen for a loop around 
n l., bre « k . ln »: the running end, after passing over the animal’s head and 
through the loop, -will not jam therein.] —50. A granny’s knot.—51. A weaver’s knot. 


The principle of tying all kinds of knots is, that no two parts which 
would move in the same direction, if the rope were to slip, should lie along¬ 
side of and touching each other. 
























































































































































RULES OF PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE. 

*-- 

CONDENSED RULES APPLICABLE TO REFERENCES ON 

OPPOSITE PAGE. 

-e- 

Trace each motion to its respective references on the next page, and yon 
master at a glance the intricacies of Parliamentary usages, comprising soma 
three hundred points of order:— 

Motion to adjourn.1 a * B a II x 

Motion to determine time to which to adjourn.2 a t A a II x 

Motion to amend.3 a t A a II x 

Motion to amend an amendment.3 a * A a II x 

Motion to amend the rules.3 a t A b II x 

Motion to appeal from Speaker’s decision in re indecorum. .1 a t A a II y 

Motion to appeal from Speaker’s decision generally.3 a * A a II y 

Call to order.1 a* A a III y 

Motion to close debate on question.1 a t A b II x 

Motion to commit.3 b t A a II x 

Motion to extend limits of debate on question.1 a t A a II x 

Leave to continue speaking after indecorum.1 a * A a II x 

Motion that., .do lie on the table.1 a * C a II x 

Motion to limit debate on question.1 a t A b II x 

Objection to consideration of question.1 a* A b III y 

Motion for the orders of the day.1 a * A a III y 

Motion to postpone to a definite time.4 a t A a II x 

Motion to postpone indefinitely.3 b * A a II x 

Motion for previous question.1 a * A b II x 

Questions touching priority of business.1 a t A a II x 

Questions of privilege.3 a t A a II x 

Reading papers.1 a* A a II x 

Motion to reconsider a debatable question.3 b * B a II z 

Motion to reconsider an undebatable question.1 a * B a II z 

Motion to refer a question.3 b t A a II x 

Motion that committee do now rise. 1 a * B a II x 

Question whether subject shall be discussed.1 a * A b III y 

Motion to make subject a special order.3 a t A b II x 

To substitute in the nature of an amendment.3 a t A a II x 

Motion to suspend the rules.1 a * B b II x 

Motion to take from the table.1 a * C a II x 

To take up question out of its proper order.1 a * A b II x 

Motion to withdraw a motion.1 a * A a II x 

Questions of precedence of questions.5 6 7 8 9 10 12 

Forms in which questions may be put.13 14 15 16 17 18 19 








































R ULES OF PARLIAMENT All Y PROG ED URE. 


1. Question undebatable: sometimes remarks tacitly allowed. 

2. Undebatable if another question is before the assembly. 

3. Debatable question. 

4. Limited debate only on propriety of postponement. 

a. Does not allow reference to main question. 

b. Opens the main question to debate. 

*. Can not be amended. 

t. May be amended. 

A. Can be reconsidered. 

B. Can not be reconsidered. 

C. An affirmative vote on this question can not be reconsidered. 

b. Requires two-third vote unless special rules have been enacted. 
a. Simple majority suffices to determine the qxiestion. 

11. Motion must be seconded. 

III. Does not require to be seconded. 

x. Not in order when another has the floor. 

y. Always in order though another may have the floor. 

z. May be moved and entered on the record when another has the floor, 
but the business then before the assembly may not be put aside. The mo¬ 
tion must be made by one who voted with the prevailing side, and on the 
same day the original vote was taken. 

5. Fixing the time to which an adjournment may be made; ranks first. 

6. To adjourn without limitation; second. 

7. Motion for the Orders of the Day; third. 

8. Motion that. - do lie on the table; fourth. 

9. Motion for the previous question; fifth. 

10. Motion to postpone definitely; sixth. 

12. Motion to commit; seventh. 

13. Motion to amend; eighth. 

14. Motion to postpone indefinitely; ninth. 

15. On motion to strike out words, “Shall the words stand part of the 
motion?” unless a majority sustains the words they are struck out. 

16. On motion for previous question the form to be observed is, Shall 
the main question be now put ? ” This, if earned, ends debate. 

17. On an appeal from the Chair’s decision, “Shall the decision be sus¬ 
tained as the ruling of the house ? ” The chair is generally sustained. 

18. On motion for Orders of the Day, “Will the house now proceed to the 
Orders of the Day ? ” This, if carried, supersedes intervening motions. 

19. When an objection is raised to considering question, “Shall the ques¬ 
tion be considered?” objection may be made by any member before de¬ 
bate has commenced, but not subsequently. 


OBJECTIONABLE WORDS AND TERMS,; 


AiiOW 9 for expect, imagine, doubt not; as , t{ 1 allow In© will suc¬ 
ceed.” “ I allow he will be in town to-morrow. 55 

Allow, for intend, design,purpose ; as, u i allow to go on Monday.” 
*' They allow to return next week.” 

A power, tor a large amount or quantity, a great number; as, 
1 He has a power (a great amount or quantity ) of money; a power 
Iffreat number ) of friends,” etc. 

After a bit, for soon or presently; as, “I will be there after a 
hit.” “ He will be along after a bit” 

Ary, for either; as, “ Take ary one of them.” £! Ary one of you 
taay go.” 

Above my bent. —“ That is altogether above my bent,” for, 
“ out of my power,” beyond my strength,” “ beyond m" capa¬ 
city.” 

All along of, as, “ That was all along of you,” for, “ that was 
all your fault.” 

Anyhow, when used too frequently, suggests that one is in 
the habit of talking “ anyhow.” No how is still more liable to 
objection. 

A ? ry, na’ry. — £i I haven’t a’ry one,” “ I have na’ry one.” Say 
“ I have neither,” “ I haven’t either,” £! I have none.” “ I haven’t 
got na’ry red.” Very low. Say ££ I have not one cent.” 

As how. — ££ He said as how you was to do it.” Say “ he said 
that you were to do it.” 

At loggerheads is uncouth. If roughness of expression is 
not desired, say “at variance,” or, “ on ill terms,” or speak of a 
disagreement, a misunderstanding, or a quarrel. 

Any, for at all; as, “ He was not injured any,” “ He cannot 
see any from the effects of the accident,” 



OBJECTIONABLE WORDS AND TERMS. 


Averse from, for averse to ; as “A miser is averse from noth¬ 
ing so much as from parting with his money.” 

Allot on, or ’lot OH, for rely on, count on, or upon ; as, “ I allrt 
on, or ’ lot on his ability and readiness to aid me.” 

Among, for with ; as, “ The deception passed among each of tho 
company.” “ The money was current among every one of th* 
banks.” 

Among, for between, where two only are referred to; as “Ho 
divided it among the two.” “John and George were the person* 
among whom the estate was equally divided.” 

A little ways, for a little way, a short distance ; as “ I will go «r 
little ways with you.” “ He is a little ways in advance of us.” 

Awful, for disagreeable, ugly, disgusting, etc.; as, “ This is awful 
( disagreeable ) medicine.” “ He has an awful {ug t countenance."’ 
“ His conduct was awful ( disgusting ).” 

Ain’t, for are not, am not; as, “Ain't (are you not) going to th» 
city ?” “ I ain't [am not).'' 

After, for for; as, “ He has no regard after his father’s con^ 
mands.” 

A good little bit, for a considerable time, a considerable distance , 
etc.; as, “ He has been gone a good little bit." “ He is a good littlf 
bit ahead, or in advance of you.” 

A long mile, for a little over, or a little more than a mile ; as, “ 1% 
is a long mile to the city.” 

AS good’s go, as good’s do it, etc., for may as well go, might 
as well do it, etc.; as* “ You’d as good's go [you may as well go) as stay, ,? 
“ You’d as good's do it {you might as well do it) as not.” 

Budge, for move off, stir ; as “You have no right here—yon 
must budge {move off)." “I will not budge {stir) an inch.” 

Between, or betwixt, for among or amongst , where more than 
two are referred to; as, “ Let this be divided between the three.” 

Bad box. —“He is in a bad box ” has a vulgar air. Say bad 
predicament, or unpleasant situation. 

Bamboozle gives the impression of disrespect from which 
deceive and mislead are free. 

Barking up the wrong tree is an expressive and comical 
back-woods phrase which is not found in cultivated circles. 

Bran new, or brand new is condemned by some writers. It 
seems unobjectionable as a colloquialism, but should UOt be 
too freely where dignity is to be regarded. 


400 XHACCURATE TERMS AXD EXPRESSION’S. 


Balance, for remainder ; as, “ I move to retain the first section 
of the bill, and to strike out the balance .” “ I spent a part of the 

evening with a friend, and the balance at home.” “ A part of the 
army were killed, and the balance taken prisoners.”’ 

Be, for are , or am ; as, “ Be (are) you going to church 1 1 be 

(am).” 

Be to be, for am to be, or must be; as, “I be to be there at the 
hour appointed.” 

Bad, for ill; as, “ The patient is very bad.” “ My friend is not 
so bad to-day as he was yesterday.” 

Bimeby, for by and by, or (which is, perhaps, in better use), 
presently , soon, in a short time ; as,“ 1 shall be there bimeby .” “ If 

you will come bimeby, I will return with you.” 

Back, for ago; as, “It was almost two years back” “It was 
a long time back , that I read the history of Cromwell.” 

Bravely, for well , or intimately ; as,“ I knew him bravely .” “ He 
knew me bravely before I came to the city.” 

By Jupiter, By Jove , By Jimini, and the like, are oaths by 
heathen gods. 

Bother, bother it, botheration, plague on it, plague take it, 
plague , show the disposition to say worse things ; only the will is 
not equal to the attempt. “ Avoid even the appearance of evil.” 
This should be enough on this point, without citing other illus¬ 
trations. 

Bain’t, for are not; as, “They bain’t at home.” 

By good right, for by right; as, “ He is entitled, by good rights 
to the whole amount.” 

| Better, for more; as, “It is better than a month since I saw 
him.” “ I have resided better than seven years in the city.” 

Calculate, for purpose , design , intend; as, “I calculate to go a 
journey.” “I calculate to return in the spring.” 

Calculation, for intention or design ; as, It is my calculation to 
visit him on my return.” 

Conceived, for expressed; as, “ His letter was conceived in the 
following words.” 

Cleverly, for quite well, or in good health; as, “How is your 
friend to-day 1 He is cleverly ; or he is getting along cleverly .” 

Cave in.—Low. Say give up, submit, or yield . 

Considerable Of, for a considerable ; as, “ He is considerable of 
a poet,” instead of “ He is a considerable poet.” 



OBJECTIONABLE WORDS AND TERMS. 401 

’Cute. —Say acute, keen, sharp, intelligent. The American use of 
this word corresponds nearly with the English idea of clever. 

Chance, for an appearance, prospect, or probability; as, “There 
is a chance ,” or, as many say, “a smart chance ,” or, “ a right smart 
chance of a shower.” 

Call to be. —“You have no call to he angry with me.” Say 
“ no occasion to be,” or, “ no reason for being.” • 

■ Chicken fixins is a frivolous expression for which trifles, 
small matters or little things may be advantageously substituted. 

Clever, as generally used in the United States, signifies good 
naturcd, kind, accommodating . In England it signifies smart, ready 
quick, apt. This is its proper meaning. 

Curry favor has an air of disrespect. 

Cut. —It is an ungracious act to “ cut” an acquaintance; but 
it is more ungracious to speak of it under that term. 

Clear out, for go away, be gone ; as, “ You have been here long 
enough ; so, dear out." 

Curious, for excellent; as, “ These are curious apples.” “ This 
is curious wheat.” 

Carry, for take or lead; as, “ Carry the horse to water.” 

Come of, for overcome ; as, “He will soon come of that habit.” 

Confide on, for confide in; as, “ You may confide on his honor.” 
“ They confide on what he says.” 

Cahoot, for partnership or company; as, “ They do business in 
sahoot {company)." A very common vulgarism in the West. 

Chunk, for piece ; as, “ He has a chunk of bread.” 

Comeatable, for approachable; as, “European monarchs are 
not easily comeatable.'" 

Crack’d up, for represented, recommended; as, “ I found him 
by no means what he was crack'd up (: represented ) to be.” “Ho 
was crack'd up (recommended) to me as a skillful teacher.” 

Chomp, corrupted from champ, to chew loudly, greedily; as, “ The 
horse chomps his bit.” “ They chomp their food.” 

Clip it, for to run with speed; as, “You can get there before 
the coach starts, if you clip it” “He was obliged to chp it, or he 
would have been too late.” 

Cut, for to run ; as, “ Cut on." “ Cut ahead.” 

Different than, for different from; as, “ This is very different 
than that.” 

Done, for did, as, “ He done the work,” 


402 INACCURATE TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS. 


Bicker is a colloquialism of wide currency for bargain or trade. 
It is not admitted in books nor favored in polite society. 

Dreadful fine is a contradiction. Say very fine. Dreadful , 
like awful, is often misapplied in this way to qualify words of the 
contrary significance. 

Bo don’t, done gone, together with you uns, are vulgarisms 
of the Southern plantation which it should be the first business of 
those addicted to them to disuse. 

Don’t ought, for ought not; as, “ You don’t ought to return evil 
for evil.” 

Don’t know as I shan’t, for do not know but I shall ; as, 
“ Shall you go to Boston to-day 1 I don't Tcnow as I shan't." 

Done come, for come; as, “ You may now go and dine, as 
your brother is done come." 

Differ With, for differ from; as, “ My plan dffers with yours.” 
“ The Latin language dffers with the Greek.” 

Derights, or torights, for presently or directly; as, “ He will 
be here dcrights." “ I will do it torights 

Dump, for unload; as, “ You may dump your cart in the'yard.” 

In Dickens we have a diminutive of divil (vulgarly pronounced 
div'l), the process of corruption being Devilkins, Divilkins, Dilkins, 
or Divkins , Dickins or Dickens. 

Disrememfoer, for forget, or do not remember; as, “ I know him, 
but I disremember his name.” 

Dragged out, for fatigued, exhausted; as, “I have been so 
much deprived of my rest, of late, that I am dragged out," or, as 
some qualify the phrase, by way of emphasis, “ fairly," or “ com¬ 
pletely dragged out." 

Done Up brown, for handsomely, ■ thoroughly, effectually, or 
adroitly done ; as, “ His defence of the prisoner was done up broivn." 
A very low phrase. So, in the other tenses of the verb; as, “ He 
will do it up brown." “ He did it up brown." 

Dreadful, for very, exceedingly, extremely ; as, “ He is dreadfut 
kind.” “ She is dreadful neat.” “ We are dreadful thirsty.” 

Dassent, to venture, for dares not, dare not; as, “ He dassent 
{dares not) approach the cage.” “We dassent {dare not ) disobey 
our instructions.” 

E’enamost, for almost; as, “ He is e'enamost through with the 
work.” “ He is e'enamost persuaded to be a Christian.” A gross 
corruption. 


OBJECTIONABLE WOKDS AND TEEMS. 


403 


Extras, for superfluities, should be allowed but limited use. 
It is generally frivolous. In some cases, as in hotel bills and 
house builders’ bills, the objection is much less to the word than 
to the items included under it. 

Fumentz, or fornenst, for opposite, or opposite to; as, “ He 
lives furncntz the college.” “ I stood directly fumentz him.” 

Fixed, for repaired; as, “ He fixed my watch.” 

To fix is to make fast, or permanent; to set immovably, etc.: hence, 
to fix a watch is to stop it, or prevent it from “ going which, it 
must be admitted, is a very unsatisfactory mode of repairing that 
article. 

Fix, to prepare, to arrange, to adjust, to settle ; as, To fix {prepare) 
the room ; to fix (arrange ) the furniture; to fix {adjust) the harness ; 
to fix {settle) the difficulty, though not thus defined in the English 
dictionaries, is, nevertheless, allowable, according to Webster and 
Worcester, both of whom give these several definitions of it, but 
as peculiar to the United States. 

Neither of these, however, signifies to mend, or repair what is 
broken or worn out, nor have I been able to find any authority for 
this use of the term fix. 

Fix, as a noun, for state, situation, condition ; as, “ He is in a bad 
fix.” “ They were in a worse fix than they ever were before.” 

For, for of; as, “ He was accused for transcending his orders.” 
“ There is no need/or his assistance.” 

.For good and all, for absolutely, entirely, forever; as, “ He has 
left the country for good and all.” A low colloquial phrase. 

Fotcll, for fetch, or bring; as, “ Will you fotch the water?” 
“ Fotch the trunk up stairs.” 

Firstly, for first; as, Firstly, let us call the roll.” “ He was 
willing to join the expedition-; but said he must firstly obtain the 
consent of his parents.” 

Fizzlo should be applied only to .nglorious failures, such as 
may be properly spoken of in ridicule. In other cases, say fail, 
come to nothing, or something that is not comtemptuous. 

Flare Up.—“ When the subject was mentioned he flared up.” 
Say “ flew into a passion,” “ was enraged,” ‘‘ became violently ex¬ 
cited,” or‘‘became very angry,” or “got mad.” Many would 
condemn the last. But it seems idiomatic, and is expressive. 

Full chisel .—“ He went full chisel ” is an absurd expression. 
Say ‘ as fast as he could,” or, “he ran his best.” 


404- INACCURATE TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS 


Foot. —“This pole is twelve foot long.” Say “ twelve feet 
long.” It is customary, however, to say “ a twelve foot pole,” “a 
five inch pipe,” etc 

Flunk. —“ He flunked out ” is *ow. “ lie sneaked out,” or 
“he backed out,” are better expressions to denote a mean or 
cowardly abandonment of an enterprise. If the act was not mean 
or cowardly, say “he gave up,” “he retired from the enterprise,” 
“ he abandoned the design,” etc. 

Gumption, for skill , capacity, energy; as, “He is a man of 
gumption .” “ Some have more gumption than others.” 

Gone up, gone up the spout, played out, are of the lowest order 
of slang. The last is gambler’s slang. There is never any occa¬ 
sion for the use of such expressions. 

Gump, for simpleton, blockhead; as, “ He is a great gump .” “ 1 

would not intrust the business to such a gump” 

Good Chunk of, for good sized ; as, “ You have a good chunk of 
a horse.” .“ He is a good chunk of a boy.” 

Grand, for good, excellent; as, “ He is a grand fellow.” “ This 
is grand news.” 

Gab, for loquacity, prate, idle talk; as, “ I will have no more of 
your gab” “ He was full of his gab the whole evening.” 

Grub, as a noun, for food, a meal or lunch ; as, “ Wait till I take 
a little grub” “ Have you had your grub this morning ?” 

Heap, as an adverb, for much, very much, far; as, “ I think a heap 
{much or very much) of him.” “ I like him a heap (far) better than 
I do his brother.” 

Hadn’t ought, for ought not; as, “ You hadn't ought to address 
one in so rude a manner.” 

His’n, for his or his oivn; as, “This house is mine; that is 
his'n.” 

Your'n, our'n, their'n, her'n, are similar contractions, and equally 
objectionable. 

Hain’t, hasn’t, for have not, has not; as, “ They hain't ( havf 
not) determined whether they will move into the country.” “ He 
hasn't (has not) been in the city these two weeks. 

Head over heels, for headlong, or heels over head; as, “ He 
tumbled head over heels into the water.” 

He’ll, for he will; as, “ If he'll visit his friend, he'll be tendered 
a conveyance; and he'll meet with a welcome as cordial as he'll 
receive during his journey.” 




OBJECTIONABLE WORDS AND TERMS. 


405 


Have got to go, etc., for must go, am obliged to go, am compelled 
to go, etc.; as, “I have got to go into the country.” “I have got to 
wait till I receive a letter.” “ I have got to obey the orders of my 
commander.” 

He’S, for he is ; as, “ He's an eloquent speaker.” “ He says he's 
seen what he's described, and he's generally believed.” 

The contractions, I'm, I'd, I'll, thou'rt, thou'dst, he's, he'll, he'd, 
she's, she'll, she’d, 'iis, we've, we'll, we'd, we're, you've, you'll, you'd, 
you're, they've, they'll, they'd, they're, who'll, hain't, shan't, and some 
others, are perhaps allowable in familiar conversation, and occa¬ 
sionally in poetry, but should be avoided in prose. 

Hoped, for helped; as, “Who hoped you to get it V' “He 
hoped me out of the difficulty.” 

Het, or heat, for heated ; as, “ The iron is liet." “ The water 
is heat." 

Hait, for whit, particle, any at all; as, “ They had an abundance, 
but would not give him a hait {any at all)." “ You have been so 
disobedient, you ought not to have one hait {whit or particle)." 

Half an eye. —“ I perceived with half an eye ” is objectiona¬ 
ble. With a glance expresses the sense intended by half an eye. 

Helter skelter, hurly burly, pell mell, topsy turvy, and similar 
expressions, are colloquialisms. They should not be used except 
in writings of a very light character. 

“ How’s yourself, this morning,” savors of the familiarity 
that breeds contempt. Say “ good morning.” “ How do you do V' 

Housen, for houses; “ as, “ He is the owner of several housen." 
“The enemy burned all the housen in the city.” 

Hunk, for piece; as, “ He has a hunk, or a large hunk of bread.” 
Interior of New England. 

Have went, has went, etc., for have gone, has gone, etc.; as 
tt Whither have they went ?" “ He has went in the steamboat.” 

Honorary, for honorable ; as, “ His conduct was very honorary" 
“ It was an honorary action.” 

In, for into, with verbs of action; as, “ He got in the coach.” 
“ He went in the house.” “ He broke it in pieces.” 

Incident, for liable ; as, “ Man is incident to numerous evils.” 

To “ Jew down.”—To speak of “ Jewing down ” in connec¬ 
tion with trying to get a seller to reduce the price of his goods, i3 
to speak very offensive. 


406 IHACCURATE TERMS AHB EXPRESSIONS. 


Illy, for ill; as, “ They seem to be illy disposed.” “ He be¬ 
haved very illy towards bis friend.” 

In, for for ; as, “ I have not seen him in six weeks.” 

Jam Tip, used adjectively; a low barbarous phrase, which it is 
difficult to define by an exact equivalent; but as nearly as can be 
gathered from observation, signifying good, very excellent; as, “His 
credit is jam up.” “ These apples are jam up.” 

Ju, for did you; as, “ Ju see the elephantl” “ Ju ever see the 
like ?” “ Ju know the man V* 

Jounce, for jolt, shake (both as a noun and a verb) ; as,'‘A 
hard trotting horse jounces the rider.” “The axle broke, and we 
all came down with a jounce.” 

Know’d, for knew; as, “I Mow'd him when he was a boy.’ 
“ I Mow'd when he arrived.” 

Knew, for Mown ; as, “ I have Mew him these twenty years ; 
and I must say, I have never Mew an honester man.” 

Koteh’d, for catched , or caught; as, “ They who set traps fof 
others, often get Jeotch'd themselves.” 

Kin, for can ; as, “ Kin you read the French ? I kin not.” 

Lit, for lighted, to set fire to ; as, “ He lit the candle.” “ The 
lamp w r as lit.” “ The city w T as lit with gas.” 

Lit, for lighted , or alighted; to descend , to fall on, to stoop from 
flight; as, “The traveller lit from his carriage,” “The arrow 
on the house.” “ The bird lit on the tree.” 

La, Law, and Lawk are vicious pronunciations of Lord. 
“ Lauk a mercy on me ” is “ Lord have mercy on me.” 

Like, for as, that, as though; as, “ He strikes like (as) I do.” 
“I feel like (that) I ought to forgive him.” “He looks like (as 
though) he could endure fatigue.” 

Lay, as a noun, for bargain, price, terms ; as, “I refused to pur¬ 
chase the articles at such a lay (bargain).” “ I sold the property 
at a good lay (price).” “ He bought his goods on the same lay 
(; terms ) that I did mine.” 

Leave me be, for let me be, leave me alone, let me alone ; as, “ He 
had a good situation, and I concluded to leave him be (let him be) ; 
*. e., permit him to stay, or remain where he was. “As I wish 
to sleep a little, you will please leave me be (leave me alone) ; i. e 
by myself, without company. “ If you are unacquainted with 
type, just leave it be ( let it alone) ; i. e. } do not touch it, do not med¬ 
dle with it.” 



OBJECTIONABLE WORDS AND TERMS. 407 

LOSS, for lose; as, “Where did you loss it 1” “You will loss 
more than you will gain by the enterprise.” 

Lot, contracted from allot, as a verb, for design, intend, purpose; 
as “ I ’lot to return in the autumn.” “ We 'lot to be there at the 
time appointed.” 

Lick, as a noun, for blow ; as, “ He gave me a lick in the face.” 
“ Give him another lick." 

Learnt, for learned; as, “George has learnt his lesson.” “ lie 
learnt to read the French language.” 

Let on, or let on to, for disclose, inform ; as, “ If you know 
the fact, yet you must not let on (disclose it)." “ Take this letter to 

your uncle, but do not let on to ( inform) him that I am in the city.’’ 

Lots is a local expression for a great many, a large quantity. It 
is not a good word for public use. 

Local phrases Of this class, of which every part of the 
country has a number characteristic to itself, are sometimes found 
used in constructions that are extremely ludicrous. Persons who 
are sick are sometimes declared to be “mighty poorly.” We 
have heard persons who had the ague spoken of as being “power¬ 
ful weak.” The backwoodsman whose family are all well, will 
communicate the fact to his neighbors by saying that “ the old 
woman and the young ones are all alive and kicking.” A shower 
with him is “a right smart sprinkle of rain ;” if there have been 
many showers, he will remark that “ we have had a heap of wet 
■weather in these parts, lately.” All such expressions are wrong. 

Mighty, as an adverb, for very, extremely, exceedingly ; as, “ The 
boat was mighty near sinking.” “ He is mighty fond of reading.” 
“ It was a mighty cold day.” 

* Marry is a corruption of the name of the Virgin Mary. 

Made out, for succeeded in; as, “I made out to find him,” in¬ 
stead of “ succeeded in finding him.” “ We made out to get to the 
shore,” instead of “ succeeded in reaching the shore.” 

Mought, for might; as, “It mought have ruined him.” “ He 
mought have done better.” “ He mought have been wealthy and 
respected, had he been sober and industrious.” 

Marble, for move off; as, “ If you do that again you must mar¬ 
ble," i. e., move quickly, be off immediately. 

Mayn’t, for may not; as, “ You mayn't have another opportu¬ 
nity.” “They mayn't be there when you arrive.” 

Mustn’t^ for must not ; as, “You mustn't expect to improve 


408 INACCURATE TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS. 


without study.” “You mustn't depend so much upon others as 
upon yourself.” 

Mad, for angry, vexed ; as, “ He was very mad at their conduct.” 
“ It is folly to get mad at every one who may chance to differ with 
us. 

Never let on, for never mentioned, never disclosed, or developed; 
us, “ He communicated the secret to me, but I never let on to any 
one i. e., “ I never mentioned, disclosed, or divulged it to any 
one.” “ He spoke to me several times, but I never let on that I 
heard him ;” i. e., “ I never seemed to hear him.” 

Nippent, fot impudent , impertinent ; as, “ He gave much offence 
by his nippent expressions.” “ He was so nippent that his employer 
dismissed him.” 

Never, for ever; as, “They might be destroyed were they 
never so numerous.” “ He disregards the counsel of his friend, 
though given never so kindly.” 

Nowheres, for nowwhere ; as, “It is nowheres to be found.” 
“ Such a passage is nowheres in the book.” 

Of consequence, as an adverb, for consequently, or necessarily ; 
as, “ Such a wicked course must, of consequence, result in liis ruin.” 

Ornary, for ordinary; as, “ He is a very ornary fellow.” “I 
never listened to a more ornary address.” 

Othergness, for other guise, very different from., or superior to; 
as, “ He will tell an othergness story when he returns.” “ This is 
an othergness lot of wheat than the other.” 

Over, for of; as, “He is an overseer over the public works.’’ 
“ His brother is overseer over the poor.” 

otherlike, or otherlike than, for different , or different from 
what; as, “ It is quite otherlike £<different) in your friend’s case.” 
“It resulted otherlike than {different from what) I expected.” 

Odd’s boddikins either refers to the nails under the name of 
bodkins, or to God’s body. 

Ort, and ortn’t, for ought and ought not; as, “We ort to im¬ 
prove our time.” “ We ortn't to waste it in idleness.” 

Odd splutter her nails signifies God's blood and the nails 
which fastened Him to the cross. 

Of a majority, for majority, or a majority of; as, “ He is elected 
by five hundred of a majority." 

Once in a while, for sometimes , occasionally; as, “He will once 
m a while get drunk.” “ We go to the city once in a while." 


OBJECTIONABLE WORDS AND TERMS. 


409 


Ouch, for oh, used interjectionally , on receiving a sudden fright 
or injury; as, “ Ouch ! the boat is sinking!” 11 Ouch l that wasp 
stung me in the eye !” 

Preventative, for preventive ; as, “ Industry and frugality are 
the surest preventative against poverty.” 

Pucker, for passion , excitement, pertubation ; as, “ You need not 
get into such a pucker about it.” “ He was in a great pucker when 
he heard of his defeat.” 

Pair of stairs, for flight, or set of stairs ; as, “ There were two 
pair of stairs.” “ We ascended the first pair of stairs” 

Pull wool over one’s eyes, implies contempt. Say deceive, 
mislead, delude, make false representations or pretences. 

“ To throw dust in one’s eyes ” is of the same import. Both 
expressions are sometimes applied with considerable force to char¬ 
acterize various kinds of trickery. 

Plunder, for baggage or luggage; as, “ Stranger, is that your 
plunder ?” “ How much plunder have you 1” 

Peel, for fire-shovel; as, “ The peel is red-hot.” 

Peek, for peep ; as, “ It is ill manners to peek over a person who 
is writing.” “ What are you peeking at 

A precious mess, a pretty kettle of fish , mean nothing. Unless 
there is something better to be said, say nothing. 

Pesky, for mischievous, troublesome, vexatious; as, “He is a pesky 
boy.” “ They are & pesky set of fellows.” 

Powerful, as an adverb, for very , extremely ; as, “ It is a power¬ 
ful cold day.” “ My friend is failing powerful fast.” 

Pretty. —This word is often abused by being placed before 
other adjectives in the fancy that it qualifies them. It does not, 
but is frequently made to appear in a ridiculous combination. 
“This basket is pretty large,” “I am pretty tired,” “he is pretty 
awkward,” are instances. Rather conveys the sense that is in¬ 
tended in such cases. Some who misuse pretty make matters 
worse by pronouncing it “ pooty,” or “ poorty.” 

Pack, for carry; as, “ Pack the wood home.” “He packed the 
fruit to the house.” 

Quite, used adjectively, for considerable or large; as, “ They paid 
him quite an amount of money.” “ He has raised quite a quantity 
of wheat.” 

Right, for very, quite; as, “ These peaches are right good.” 
“Your friends are right well.” 


410 


INACCURATE TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS. 


Rugged, for healthy, hardy, robust ; as, “ He is a rugged boy.'* 
“ One should be rugged to endure fatigue.” 

Reckon, for suppose, imagine ; as, “I reckon we shall have rain 
to-morrow.” “You will not leave to-day, I reckon. I reckon I 
shall.” 

Raise, for rise, to increase in value, as, “ Tobacco and cotton will 
raise." “The stock is every day raising .” 

So in the expressions, The bread will not raise ; The river raises; 
The intransitive verb rise should be used, but, The yeast raises the 
bread, The rain raises the river, etc., are correct, because here the 
verb has an object. 

Rising, for more than, tipivards of; as, “It is rising two years 
since I saw him.” “ He was in the city rising a month.” 

Rumpus, for riot, quarrel, confusion, noise, disturbance ; as, 
“ Peaceable and quiet people always strive to avoid a rumpus .” 

Smart chance, for strong prospect, or probability ; as, “ We have 
a smart chance of succeeding.” “ There is a smart chance of a frost 
to-night.” 

Sight, for number, quantity, amount ; as, “What a sight ( number) 
of people.” ‘‘What a sight ( quantity ) of peaches.” “What a sight 
(amount ) of money.” 

School, for shoal ; as, “ We discovered a large school of herring.” 
“ Schools of fish were passing us constantly.” 

Social, for society ; as, “ The work may be found in the Boston 
Social Library.” 

Scrouge, as a verb, for crowd; as, “ Do not scrouge me.” “ You 
scrouge me so that I cannot write.” 

Set, as a noun, for railing, scolding, rebuke ; as, “I will give him 
a good set" “ He came in great rage, and I never before heard 
such a set as he gave them.” 

Sot, for sat; as, “ He sot all night in his chair.” “ He sot be¬ 
side me at the table.” 

Spake, for spoke ; as, “ He spake three hours in the open air.” 
“I spake to him yesterday.” Obsolete, except in Scripture. 

Says I, for said I; as,“Who comes there! says 1. A friend, says 
he." “ Good morning, says you. I am happy to see you, says I. 
Thank you, says he." 

Sich, for such ; as, “ Sich a man, in sich a dress, on sich a horse, 
at sich a time, under sich circumstances, would cut sich a figure, as 
we are not accustomed to witness,” 


OBJECTIONABLE WORDS AND TERMS. 411 

Scrape. —“ To get into a scrape.” The expression is expres¬ 
sive, but is condemned as frivolous. 

Splurge, Splutter. —“ He made a great splurge,” “he made 
a great splutter,” convey the idea that no respect is intended. 

Stave off.—-“ He staved off the case a week longer.” Say 
“he delayed it,” “ put it off,” or “ had it delayed,” or “put off.” 

Swap is not an elegant word. It will be well to confine it to 
trades in horses and jack-knives. Say exchange, barter , or trade. 

Slope, for abscond; as, “ When did he slope ?" 

See or see’d, for saw ; as, “We see him last week.” “ I see'd 
him yesterday.” 

Slice, for fire-shovel ; as, “Take up the coals with the slice .” 

Spec, for speculation or profit; as, “ They made a good spec on 
their flour.” “ He seldom purchases an article, unless he can 
make a spec on it.” 

Smacked, for ground ; as, “ Can I have a little corn smacked at 
your mill 1” 

Sauce, for impudence ; as, “They would have no more of hi3 
sauce." “Give me none of your sauce." 

Side-Hill, for hillside; as, “ He lives on the side-hill.' 1 ' “The 
dogs chased the fox along the side-hill." 

Skute, to run , to dart off suddenly. See Marble. 

Some, for somewhat ; as, “My friend is some better.” “Their 
prospects are some brighter.” 

Spunk, for courage , spirit, activity ; as, “ He is a man of spunk." 
“ It requires some spunk to face an enemy.” 

’Sdeath and ’Sblood are contractions of His death and Ills 
blood, or of God’s death and Gods blood. The latter phrase is some¬ 
times disguised as Odsplut, and in this form it occurs in Mother 
Goose’s melodies. 

Tote or to Pvt, as a verb for carry, convey , remove ; as, “ Tote the 
water home.” “ Tote the wood to the house.” “ Tote the trunk 
up stairs.” 

Tote, as a noun , or more commonly, the whole tote, for the 
whole lot , or the ivhole quantity ; as, “ You may have the whole tote for 
five dollars.” “ I would not give a sixpence for the tote." 

So kit is sometimes used in the same sense ; as, “ Take the whole 
kit." 

Them’s ? um t —Say (t those are the ones,” or. sometimes, “that 

is so.” 


412 INACCURATE TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS. 


Thought a pity Of him, for felt pity for him , or pitied him ; 
as, “ He appeared so much distressed at his loss, that I thought a 
pity of him." “ Indeed, I often think a pity of those blind people.’* 

Take on. —“ She takes on about it dreadfully.” Say “ she 
grieves about it very much,” or “ to excess,” or “ excessively,” 
but not “ tremendously.” 

There’s the books. —Say “ there are the books.” 

5 Tain’t, for it is not, has not; as, “ ’ Tam't (it is not) his book.” 

Tain't {it has not ) been a week since I saw him.” A gross bar¬ 
barism. 

To, for at; as, “ He lives to the west end of the street.” “You 
may see him to his own house.” 

To, for of; as, “ He passed me, but I never took any notice to 
him.” “ Did you take notice to the eclipse V’ 

Till, for to; as, “He has gone till Boston.” “The cars run 
every day from New York till Philadelphia.” 

Tell apart, for distinguish; as, “ Their resemblance was so 
striking, that I could not tell them apart f instead of “ could not dis¬ 
tinguish them," or “ could not distinguish the one from the other.” 

Tough, for hard, rigorous, difficult ; as, “ They had a tough (hard) 
bargain.” “ We have had a tough (rigorous) winter.” “ They have 
a tough (difficult) job on hand.” 

Tight match, for difficulty or with difficulty; as, “ They suc¬ 
ceeded in reaching the shore, but they had a tight match to do it,” 
instead of, “ They had difficulty to do it,” or, “ They did P with 
difficulty." 

Tushes, for tusks ; as, “ The animal had large tushes." 

’Tisn’t, for it is not; as, “ 'Tisn't any more than I paid for it.” 
“I think Hisn't as much.” 

Ugly, for bad, morose, ill-tempered; as, “ She is beautiful, but I 
am sorry to say, she is very ugly" “ He is a very fine looking 
man, but so ugly, that he is continually in a quarrel with some¬ 
body.” 

Universal, for the adjective universalist; as, “ He is a universal 
preacher.” 

Unbeknown, for unknown; as, “Your friend is in the city, 
but he arrived unbeknown to me.” “ They lived for several years 
in the same neighborhood, wholly unbeknown to each other.” 

Used to could, used to was.— “ I used to could do it.’’ 
Say “ I could once do it,” or “ I used to be able to it.” “I used 


OBJECTIONABLE WORDS AND TERMS. 


413 


to was a great checker player.” “ Say “ I was once,” or “ I used 
to be a fine checker player.” 

Up one hill and down another (a kind of adverbial 

phrase); as, “ He travelled up one hill and down another" instead of 
saying “ He travelled up and down hill," or which is perhaps more 
elegant, as well as sufficiently definite, “ He travelled over a hilly 
road or “a very hilly road" 

Vow (in familiar style), for declare, assert, asseverate ; as, “ I 
vow ( declare ) he shall leave my premises.” “ He vows ( asser'ts ) pos¬ 
itively that he did not do i-t.” “ They continued to vow ( asseverate 1 

their innocence of the crime.” 

Will, for slmll; as, “ Will I help you to a piece of the fowl?* 
“ I hope I will see you again.” 

Shall, also, is sometimes improperly used for will; thus revers¬ 
ing the respective uses of the two terms, as in the expression of 
the foreigner who had fallen overboard: “I will drown, and 
nobody shall help me !” 

Wee bit, used substantively, for small piece, small quantity , etc.; 
as, “He has a wee bit {small piece) of bread.” “They have only a 
wee bit {small quantity ) of flour.” 

Wee bit, used adjectively, for small, or very small ; as, “ They 
crossed the river in a wee bit of a boat.” “ He purchased a wee bit 
of a pony.” 

What, as a conjunction, for that; as, “ I do not know but what 
I shall leave town to-morrow.” “ There are none so rich but what 
they may become poor.” 

Which, used interrogatively for what; as, when the person 
addressed does not distinctly hear, or fully comprehend the 
speaker, he says, “ Which ?" 

This pronoun should never be employed interrogatively, except 
to inquire concerning one or two or more, as, Which man ? meaning 
which one man of the ttvo or more men, alluded to, is intended. 
Hence, when a speaker has uttered but one thing, or alluded to but 
one person or thing, to say “ Which ?" i. e., to ask which one it was, is 
absurd. 

Worst kind, for very much, exceedingly ; as, “We want a school¬ 
teacher in our district, the tvorst kind" 

Wery, for very ; weal, for veal; wenison, for venison; etc.; 
as “ I am wery fond of weal and wenison" “ He is neither wery 
wicious nor wery wirtuous , but he is wery wain." 


414 IXACCURATE TERMS AND EXPRESSION^ 


A sailor belonging to Massachusetts narrates the perils and inci- 
dents of his late voyage in this wise : “ We left Martha’s Winyard 
in the steamship Wermonth , and proceeded on our woyagc towards 
the Cape de Werd Islands. Owing to some willainous neglect of our 
safety waive ; and while our wessel was moving over the tvast ocean 
■with wery great welocity , our boiler burst with a noise like a wolley 
of artillery, or the ivoice of an earthquake, sending up a ivolume of 
smoke and flame like the wapors of a ivolcano, and threatening to 
send every wicthn on board to the wortex of destruction.” 

At auction, for by auction ; as, “ The property will be sold at 
public auction, if not disposed of at private sale.” 

Authority, for authorities ; as, “A contract wag entered into 
with the authority of the college. 

| After night, for evening ; as, “ A meeting will be held in the 
court house, after night ." “ Being otherwise engaged through the 

day, he reads after night." 

Any manner of means, for any means ; as, “He will en¬ 
deavor to carry his point by any manner of means" 

Admired, for was pleased; as, “ I admired to hear her sing.” 

Applicant, for student ; as, “ To become learned, one must be 
a close applicant .” An applicant is a petitioner ; a student , a scholar 
or learner" 

Betterments, for improvements ; as, “ He refused to relinquish 
his title to the land, till he had received pay for his betterments." 

Bother, for pother, bustle, perplexity, confusion ; as, “ There was 
so much bother that I could not proceed with the business.” 

Alone, for single, or only ; as, “ The whole busines was accom¬ 
plished by the alone (single ) efforts of one man.” 

Cutter, for sleigh; as, “ They rode in a cutter" “ He took a 
cutter- ride.” 

Chock, or Chuck, for quite ; as, The Ditcher is chock full.” 
or “ chuck full.” 

Chunky, for chubby {short and thick) ; as, “ He is a chunky boy.” 
u The man is rather chunky." 

Chirk, for lively, checrfid; as, “My friend was very sad yester¬ 
day, but to day he is quite chirk." New England. 

Brash, for brittle ; as, “ The timber is brash." 

Crank, for pert, saucy ; as, “ He was so crank that he was little 
respected,” NewJEogland, 



OBJECTIONABLE WORDS AND TERMS. 


415 


Dabster, for adept; as, “ I had supposed him unskilled in the 
business, but found him a dabster at it.” 

Desk, for pulpit; as, “ We attended the Presbyterian church, 
and sat in a pew near the desk" 

Either, for each or both; as, “ A fort was built on either side of 
the river.” 

Polk, or folks, for people, persons , individuals; as, “An un¬ 
usual number of folks assembled on the occasion.” Nearly obso¬ 
lete, except in Scripture. 

Hearken, for listen; as, “ Hearken to what I say.” “If you 
wish to hear, you must hearken attentively.” Obsolete, except in 
Scripture. 

Guess, for know ; as, I guess I have done wrong.” 

Jeopardize, for jeopard; as, “ He declared his willingness to 
jeopardize his life for his country.” 

Is being built, are being made, etc., for is building, are 
making , etc. ; as, “ The house is being built “ Arrangements are 
being made for their departure.” 

Lift, for to take up, collect , receive; as, “They are about to lift 
a contribution.” Penn. 

Jurisprudence, for law ; as, “ He is studying jurisprudence ,” 
meaning the common law. 

Keeping-room, for parlor ; as, “ He spent the whole evening 
in the keeping-room .” 

Methinks, for 1 think, or it seems to me; as, “ Methinks he 
might have succeeded, had he made a proper effort.” 

Mind, for remember, recollect; as, “Do you mind how many 
chapters there are in Job 1” “ I mind the day of the month he 

left.” 

Motion, for move; as, “ I motion that the bill lie on the table.” 

Miss, for Misses, in addressing two young or unmarried ladies; 
as, “ The company of the two Miss Smiths is requested,” etc. 

Heeds, for need; as, “ Vice needs only to be seen to be hated.” 
“ He needs not expect wealth without industry.” 

HotifLed; as, “The public are hereby notified," for “Noticed 
hereby given to the public.” 

Overhaul, for overtake, i. e., to gain upon in a chase; as, “He 
was so far in advance, that I could not overhaul him.” 

Observation, for observance ; as, “ The observation of the Sab¬ 
bath is a duty ipcumbent upon all people,” 


416 


INACCURATE TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS. 


Overflown, for overflowed; as, “ The river has overflown its 
banks.” 

Poorly, used as an adjective, for feeble, indisposed, somewhat ill; 
as, “He is very poorly” “ My friend is too poorly to pursue his 
journey.” 

Put out, for offended, or affronted ; as, “ I was much put out at 
his conduct.” 

Peradventure, for perhaps, perchance, it may be ; as, “ Per ad¬ 
venture, he may never return.” 

Proven, for proved; as, “ His guilt was clearly proven." 

Plead, for pleaded; as, “ He plead the case of the prisoner.” 
“ They plead the Statute of Limitations.” 

Polt, for blow; as, “ He received a polt on the head.” “ Givo 
him another polt." 

Raised, for reared , or (according to many respectable writers), 
brought up; as, “ He has raised a large family.” 

Roiled, for disturbed, ruffled, offended; as, “ The news roiled him 
considerably.” 

Stricken, for struck; as, “ His name was stricken from the 
list.” 

Smart, for able ; as, “ Story was a smart judge.” “ Bonaparte 
was a smart general.” 

Spell, for awhile, time; as, “ He desired to rest a spell [awhile)." 
“ They resided in the city a long spell ( time ).” 

Temper, for passion ; as, “ He exhibited a violent temper on the 
occasion.” 

Then, as an adjective; as, “He was a friend to the then admin¬ 
istration. 

To let, for to be let; as in the very common phrase, “This 
house to let." 

Tarry, for stay, or remain ; as, “ Please tarry here until I re¬ 
turn.” Obsolete, except in poetry and allusions to Scriptural sub¬ 
jects. 

Turnpike, for turnpike road ; as, “ He travelled on the National 
Turnpike ,” or, more commonly, “ pike." 

Without, for unless; as, “I will not go without you do.” 
“ Without you study, you cannot improve.” 

Yon, for yonder , that; as, “ Yon ship.” “ Yon moon.” “ Yon 
tree. - ” 

Yank, for jerk, twitch; as, “ He yanked it off,” 


OBJECTIONABLE WORDS AND TERMS. 


417 


Zooks, Adzooks. — God's hooks, that is, the hooks which wero 
supposed to have been used for the same purpose. 

Zounds ! an interjection of frequent occurrence in English 
novels, is a curtailment and corruption of His wounds, or God's 
wounds , that is, the wounds received by Christ on the cross. 

Neck-handkerchief. —Say neck-kercliief. A neck-kerchief is 
a kerchief for the neck, as a hand-kerchief is a kerchief for the 
hand. A neck-liandkerchief does not exist. 

Luck. — “ He met with luck." Say also what kind of luck. 
There are good luck and bad luck. But the adjective lucky, and 
the adverb luckily , refer to the good kind only. 

Cannot. —When inability is expressed can and not are joined 
as above. In this case the adverb not qualifies can , and does not 
qualify any other word. Sometimes not follows can without qual¬ 
ifying it, but passes its force to some succeeding word, and some 
other meaning than that of inability is given. Then it is not 
joined to can. “ John can not only swim ; he can also row, and 
knows how to manage a sail.” 

Confusion of rights. —“ The Americans said they had no 
right to pay the taxes.” “ That they were under no obligation,” 
or “ ought not to be obliged to pay the taxes,” was meant. So, 
the aggrieved person in a carriage, who was stopped by a pro¬ 
cession, and said “ the street cars have as much right to be stopped 
as the carriages,” meant that they ought to be as liable to bo 
stopped, or that “ the carriages have as much right to go on as 
the street cars.” 

Were accustomed to be made. —There are a variety of 
errors of similar form to this and frequent in occurrence. In a 
report of a sermon by an eminent divine, we have, “ The repre¬ 
sentations that were accustomed to be made.” He should have 
said “ representations that were ordinarily made,” or that “ it was 
the custom to make.” 

Was attempted to be. —A newspaper paragraph had, “ the 
government was attempted to be attacked,” for “ an attempt was 
made to attack and government.” Carlyle commits the same 
error, saying “ weights and measures were attempted to be 
changed.” 

Bills are requested. —“ Bills are requested to be paid quar¬ 
terly.” It is hard enough to make the persons who owe the bills 
pay them when they are requested to. Say “ it is requested that 


418 INACCURATE TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS. 


bills be paid quarterly,” or better, ‘‘payment of bills is requested, 
or expected, quarterly.” 

3^ot requested to, for requested not to. Requests have been 
sometimes made in a left-handed manner, as follows : “ Passengers 
are not requested to stand on the gangway.” Say “ passengers 
are requested not to stand,” etc. 

Means is either singular or plural, according to the sense of 
the sentence. “ By this means they bear witness to each other,”— 
provided a single matter of testimony is referred to. To employ 
mean for the singular is incorrect. 

One Of the family. —“Wanted, two apprentices, who will 
be treated as one of the family.” Say “ will be treated as mem¬ 
bers of the family.” 

All ages and both, sexes. —Do not say “ persons of all ages 
and sexes participated in the proceedings,” but, “ persons of all 
ages and both sexes participated in the proceedings.” There are 
but two sexes. 

Tooth-ache, etc. — Say tooth-ache, white-toothed, calvcs-foot 
jelly , and not—imagining that the words must be plural in form— 
teeth-ache, white-teethed, calves-feet jelly. 

Mr. Pecksniff and wife. — A person travelling with his wife 
in registering at the hotels should write, “ Mr. Pecksniff and 
wife,” not “ Mr. Pecksniff and lady,” as is too often written. The 
wife has a right to her true title and dignity in all places and on 
all occasions. One may travel with a lady who is not his wife. 
One who travels with his wife and respects her as he should, 
should leave no room for doubts. 

Gentleman friend, lady friend.—Instead of “ my gentle¬ 
man friend,” say “ my friend Mr. Handy.” Instead of “my lady 
friend,” say “ my friend Miss Smith, or Mrs. Crooks.” 

Old Gentleman, old lady.—The terms old man , old woman , 
though there is nothing essentially wrong in them, have come to 
be considered vulgar and disrespectful. Almost universal usage 
is against employing them, and favors old gentleman, old lady. These 
are therefore the correct terms. 

Such expressions as, “I do not like too much sugar,” “ I 
do not want to walk too far,” are indefinite. They mean, “ I do 
not like more sugar than I like,” “ I do not .want to walk further 
than I like.” 

Brilliant, magnificent, splendid, are too often used in 


OBJECTIONABLE WORDS AND TERMS. 


419 


connection with objects which have none of those qualities. That 
is brilliant which glitters and sparkles in the light. That is splendid 
which shines, whether by its own or reflected light. That i3 
magnificent which makes a grand appearance. It may be splendid 
and brilliant too. What does not sparkle cannot be brilliant , ex¬ 
cept figuratively; -what does not shine cannot be splendid; what 
does not impose by grandeur cannot be magnificent. There are 
numerous words which may be employed with exact application 
in the cases in which these words are improperly used. Pretty, 
handsome, beautiful , elegant, will answer for most purposes. When 
such words—the proper ones—are used, they leave the stronger 
words with their full force to characterize objects which having 
extraordinary qualities, require more than ordinary words of des¬ 
cription. 

Charming, enchanting, fascinating, and many other 
words are similarly misused. That is charming which charms; 
that is enchanting which enchants; that is fascinating which fascin¬ 
ates. Each of the terms indicates the possession or exercise by 
the object spoken of, of qualities which deprive one of control of 
himself. 

AMERICANISMS. 

At auction.— We sell at auction in America; they sell by 
auction in England. 

Eoatable waters. —Waters on which boats pass, and ships do 
not. 

Boating. —Conveying in boats. 

Bank-bill.— Bank-bill in England is a post-note, and does not 
pass into the general currency. In America, bank-bill is a bank-note , 
of whatever character or denomination. 

Brush, in America; small limbs of trees , in England. 

Book-store, in America; book-seller's shop, in England. 

Chore (small jobs of domestic work), in America; char , in 
England. 

Cheques or checks, in America; draughts, in England. 

Clever, in America, means moral excellence ; in England, intellec¬ 
tual adroitness. 

Caucus —A word said to have been coined in one of our east* 
ern cities, from a room occupied by caulkers , assembled for con¬ 
sultation. 


490 INACCURATE TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS. 


Clothier, in America, one who dresses cloth; in England am 
who manufactures cloth. 

Coal. —We burn coal; the English burn coals. 

Clergyman, in America, is applied to ministers of all relig¬ 
ious denominations ; in England it is confined to ministers of the 
established church. 

Driver, in America; coachman, in England. 

Freshet, in America ; rise of river, in England. 

Fall, in America; autumn, in England. Autumn is used in 
America also. 

For sale, in America; on sale, in England. 

Forks of the road, in America; division of the road, in Eng¬ 
land. 

i 

Girdle trees. —To make a circular incision like a belt, through 
the bark, in order to kill them ; never used in the same sense in 
England; indeed, they have no occasion for it. 

Groceries (articles of merchandise), in America; grocery, in 
England. 

Grocery, meaning a building, in America ; grocery-shop , in Eng¬ 
land. 

Get the floor (as in Congress), in America ; take possession of 
the floor (as in Parliament), in England. 

Help, in America; servants, in England. 

Hub (part of a wheel), in America ; nave, in England. 

Hudson river, putting the name first, in America; rive* 
Thames, putting the name last, in England. 

Have arrived, in America; are arrived, in England. 

Insurance, in America ; assurance, in England. 

Locate, in America ; to place, in England. 

Location, in America ; situation, in England. 

Lot, in America ; field or close, in England. 

Merchant, in America, is applied to any respectable dealer; in 
England, it means a commercial man. 

Notify of, in America; notify to, in England. 

' Portage, in America ; carrying place, in England. 

Raise wheat, in America; grow wheat, in England. 

Rapids, in America, applied to rivers; not so in England. 

Sleigh, in America; sledge, in England; and they apply it to 
what we call sled. 

SCOW, in America ; lighter, in England. We also use lighter. 


OBJECTIONABLE WORDS AND TERMS. 4S1 

Stage, in America, is applied to the vehicle; in England, it de¬ 
notes a certain space gone over ; as, “ To ride one stage." 

Subscriber, in America ; undersigned , in England. In Amer¬ 
ica, however, we observe to some extent, a distinction between 
petitions and mere subscription papers , using undersigned in the for¬ 
mer, and subscriber in the latter. 

Steamboat, in America; steamer, in England. We also use 
steamer. 

i Store, in America, the place where goods are sold ; in England, 
the place where goods are stored . 

Shop, in America, the building in which mechanics work, and 
is called a mechanics' shop ; in England, it is the place where goods 
are sold. 

To deed land, in America; to convey land , in England. 

To let or to rent, in America ; to be let or to be rented , in Eng 
land. 

Wharves, in America ; tvhur/s, in England. 


FALSE PRONUNCIATION CORRECTED. 


PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation is just when every letter has its proper sound, and every 
syllable has its proper accent or quality.— Dr. Johnson. 

The difficulties of pronunciation arise from the nature of Ian* 
guage; the imperfections of alphabets, and the ignorance, care¬ 
lessness or affectation of the generality of speakers. 

These difficulties are so numerous that it would be impossible 
to notice them all, even in the most cursory manner, in so small a 
work. 

We shall, however, give a few general principles which will be 
found to embrace almost all that is useful in practice. 

1. The analogies of the language, the authority of lexicogra¬ 
phers, and above all, the custom of the most correct and elegant 
speakers, are the guides to which we must refer in all cases of 
difficulty. Nor can these difficulties, in every case, be resolved by 
such references ; for we shall often find analogy opposed to anal¬ 
ogy, authority to authority, and custom divided, even among the 
most elegant speakers. 

2. Iq cases in which custom or authority is divided, we should 
give the preference to the pronunciation which is most in accord¬ 
ance with analogy. The word Rome, for instance, should be pro¬ 
nounced rome rather than room ; and this is beginning to be the 
case, though the latter pronunciation was once thought “irrevo-' 
cably fixed in the language.” 

3. The three great and prevailing errors in pronunciation are 
vulgarity, pedantry, and affectation. Against each of these 
faults we should be constantly on our guard; but most of all 
against affectation ; for it is by far the most odious. 

4. The following excellent observations from Dr. Johnson de¬ 
serve particular attention:— 

“For pronunciation, the best general rule is to consider 

422 



FALSE PRONUNCIATION CORRECTED. 


423 


those of the most elegant speakers who deviate least from the 
written words. Of English, as of all living tongues, there is a 
double pronunciation, one cursory and colloquial, the other regu¬ 
lar and solemn. The cursory pronunciation is always vague and 
uncertain, being made different in different mouths by negligence, 
unskillfulness, and affectation. The solemn pronunciation, though 
by no means immutable and permanent, is always less remote 
from the orthography, and less liable to capricious innovation.” 


5. Every word of two or more syllables has in pronunciation a 
certain accent, that is, a peculiar stress or force laid upon a par¬ 
ticular syllable. 

If the accent in any word is misplaced, the pronunciation is 
injured or destroyed. Compare, for instance, the different pro¬ 
nunciations of refuse and refuse; desert and desert; minute and 
minute . 


a. Some words, in addition to the principal, have a secondary, 
or weaker accent; as in 

Ad'verti"se, Ab'sente"e, Com'plaisan't, 

Ar'tizan', Ben' efac tor, Con versa' tion. 


6. The general tendency of our language is to accent the root, 
and not the termination of a word. Hence the natural position of 
the accent in English words is in the first syllable. As a general 
rule, therefore, English or Saxon words should have the accent 
on the first syllable. 

This general rule is exemplified not only by the usual position 
of the accent in English or Saxon words, particularly in dissylla¬ 
bles and trisyllables, but also by the tendency which we ob¬ 
serve in our language to bring words of foreign origin under the 
English or radical accent. 


a. The words memoir , bouquet and reservoir , for instance, have 
been brought under the English accent, and complaisant , balcony, 
revenue , cravat, saline, and many others, are on the way. Hence 
also the popular pronunciation of the word police (namely po-lis ); 
and the colloquial, but now recognized pronunciation of boatswain, 
(bo' sn), cockswain (cock sn), cupboard (cupburd), etc. Many foreign 
words, however, particularly Frenc have struggled successfully 
against the English tendency; as 


Antique 

Brazil 

Bombazin 

Caprice 


Critique 

Fascine 

Fatigue 

Grimace 


Palanquin 

Profile 

Quarantine 

Machine 


Ravine 

Recitative 

Repartee 

Routine 


M PRINCIPLES OP COEBBCT PRONUNCIATION. 


Capuchin Invalid Marine Tambourine 

Chagrin Pelisse Magazine Tontine 

Chemise Police Mandarin Unique 

b. With regard to words of Greek or Latin origin, it may be laid 
lown as a general rule, that when they are adopted whole or 
without change the accent or quantity of the original word is 
isually preserved; as in 

Anath'ema Dilem'ma Diplo'ma Hori'zon 

Acumen Bitumen Deco'rum Spectator 

c. In many such words, however, the English tendency has pre¬ 
vailed ; as in 

Or'ator Senator Aud'itor Pleth'ora 


7. This tendency is, however, counteracted to a certain extent 
by another natural tendency in the language. In words used as 
verbs, the tendency of the accent is to the termination, and not to 
the root. Hence, in verbs of two syllables, the accent is generally 
on the last, and in verbs of three syllables, on the last, or last but 
one. 

a. Hence the unsettled position of the accent in such words as 


Confiscate Contemplate Enervate 

Compensate Demonstrate Extirpate 


Some authorities, following the general tendency, place the 
ccent on the first syllable, as com pensale ; while others hold that, 
verbs, it is better to accent the second syllable, as compen sate. 
8. The radical accent is also counteracted by the tendency in 
^ompound or derivative words to follow the accent of their prima¬ 
ries ; as in 


Admi' rer from admi re 
Abet'tor “ abet' 

Profess'or “ profess' 
Assail'able “ assail' 

a. In many cases, however, t 
the accent has prevailed ; as in 


Begin'ning from begin' 
Commen' cement “ commence 

Committal “ commit' 

Coquetry “ coquette 

:ie radical or general tendency of 


Ad'mirable from admi’re Advertisement from advertise 

Com'payable “ compa re Chas'tisement “ chasti'se 

Lam entable “ lament Dis putant “ dispu'te 

b. In several words the contest is, as yet, undecided ; as in 

Ac ceptable or accept'able Dis'putable or dispu'table 

Com mendable or commend'able Con fessor or confess'or 



FALSE PROtfTOCIATIOH CORRECTED 


425 


9. The tendency in compound or derivative words to preserve 
the accent of their primaries, is crossed by another natural ten¬ 
dency, namely, the disposition in compound or derivative words to 
shorten the long sounds or syllables of their primaries ; as in the 
following words:— 

Depravity from deprave Maintenance from maintain 


Severity 

U 

severe 

Shepherd 

il 

shepherd 

Divinity 

a 

divine 

Splenetic 

ft 

spltfm 

Consolatory 

u 

console 

Gosling 

a 

goose 

Granary 

u 

grain 

Throttle 

a 

throat 

Villainy 

u 

villam 

Pronunciation 

a 

pronounce 

Desperate 

iC 

despair 

Southerly 

u 

south 


10. Accent, from its very nature, must affect not only the syl¬ 
lable under it, but also the syllable next it; for in proportion as 
the one is dwelt upon, the other is passed quickly over. This is 
exemplified by the usual pronunciation of the unaccented syllable 
in the following words :— 


Cabbage 

F ur'nace 

Cli'mate 

Cap'tatn 

Courage 

Menace 

Curate 

Fountain 

Image 

Palace 

Prelate 

Villain 

Village 

Solace 

Private 

Britain 

For' eign 

Fa'vor 

Fa'moiiS 

Car'rtage 

Forfeit 

Fervor 

Pious 

Marriage 

Surfeit 

Humor 

Pompous 

Parliament 

Sovereign 

• Labor 

Monstrous 

William 


In the preceding words the unaccented syllable is pronounced 
quickly and indistinctly; and in the case of a diphthong, one of 
the vowels is omitted altogether in the pronunciation. Compare, 
for example, the different sounds of the termination age in the 
words cabbage and eng a ge, pres' age and presage. Compare, also, 
the different pronunciations of the accented and unaccented sylla¬ 
bles in the following words :— 


Contain' 

Allay' 

Dem't' 

Perce/ve 


Cap'tam 
Sun'd ay 
For' feit 
For' eign 


Retafn' 

Ally' 

Conceit' 

Survey' 


Foun’tam 
Sal' ly 
Sur' feit 
Sur'vey 


11. Hence it is that such combinations as ea, ia, te, eo, to, eons, 


ious, following an accented syllable, are, in pronunciation, usually 
drawn into one sound or syllable, though composed of more than 
one vowel; as in 


4£6 PRINCIPLES OP CORRECT PRONUNCIATION. 


Ocean (o' shan) 

Logician (lo-jisJi an) 

Social ( so shal) 

Partial (par shal 

Conscience (con shense) 
Patient (pa'sheni) 


Surgeon (sur'jun) 
Luncheon (luri shun) 
Pension (pen shun 
Mention (men shun) 
Gorgeous ( gor jus ) 
Gracious (grd shus) 


a. And when c, s, or t precedes any of these combination, it has, 
by the quickness of the enunciation, and the consequent blending 
of its sound with the vowel, the force of sh, as in the examples just 
given. 

h. Hence the terminations rial, sial, and tial, are pronounced like 
shal; as in commerce/, controversy, and mar tial. 

c. The terminations ceous, cious, and tious are pronounced like 
shus ; as in farinaceous, capacious, and contentious. 

d. The terminations geous and gious are pronounced like jus; as 
in courayeowt and reh ’gious. 

e. The terminations sion and tion are pronounced Y&e shun ; as 
in mission and invention ; but the termination sion, preceded by a 
powel, is pronounced like zhun ; as in explosion and confusion. 

12. The seat of the accent will generally serve as a guide in the 
pronunciation of final syllables in ice, ile, ine, ise, and ite. 
When the i is accented, it is long, and when unaccented, it is 
usually short; as in the following words :— 


Advice 

Revile 

Premise 

Av'arice 
Benefice 
Cow'ardice 
Ju venile 
Mer' cantile 
Pu'erile 
Adam an'tine 
Al'kaline 
Aquiline 


Nov'ice 
Ser'vile 
Prem'ise 

Claudes'tine 

Coralline 

Discipline 

Eglantine 

Feminine 

Gen'uine 

Heroine 

Hy' aline 

Ima'' gine 


Suffice 

Combine 

Despite 

Jac'obine 

Jes'samine 

Lib'ertine 

Mas' culine 

Medicine 

hlec'tarine 

Palatine 

Ap'posz’te 

Compos'ite 


Office 
Doct'rine 
Res' pite 

Definite 

Ex'quisite 

Fa'vorite 

Hyp'ocrite 

Indefinite 

In'finite 

Op'posite 

Per'quisite 

R,eq'uisite 


13. In such terminations, that is, final syllables in ice, ile, and 


tTE, the i is sometimes long, though not under the accent; as in 
the following words:— 


Cock'atrtce 

Sacrifice 

Croc'odile 

Chain'omiie 


Brig'antine 

Cal'amine 

Cofumbine 

Crystalline 


Mus'cadine 

Pcr'cupine 

Sac'charine 

Sat'urnine 


Anc'horite 

Ap'petite 

Bed'lamite 

Car'melite 



FALSE PRONUNCIATION CORRECTED. 


427 


Reconcile Gel'atine Ser'pentine 

In'fantile Incar'nadine Tur'pentine 

In'fantine Leg'atine U'terine 

As'inine Le'onine Ac'onite 


Ex'pedite 

Er'emite 

Par'asite 

Satellite 


a. It should be observed, however, that in each of the preced¬ 
ing words the i is evidently under a second?ry accent, and there¬ 
fore inclined to be long.—See No. 5. 

14. As we have already observed, a proper accentuation of 
words is essential to their just pronunciation; and a proper ac¬ 
centuation can only be acquired by attending to the most correct 
speakers, and by consulting the most approved Dictionaries; for 
words are under so many influences with regard to their accent¬ 
uation, that it is scarcely possible to lay down a rule on the sub¬ 
ject to which numerous exceptions may not be found. The fol¬ 
lowing rules, however (in addition to the General Principles 
which we have already explained), will be found useful to the 
learner: 

15. Words ending in rial, rial, tial, dan, tian, cient, twit, ceous, 
cions, iious, rion, tion, tiale, have the accent on the preceding sylla¬ 
ble ; as 

Provincial Physf'cian Pa'tient Confu'sion 

Controversial Chris'tian Gra'cious Muta'tion 

Substantial An'cient Sententious Ingratiate 

16. Words ending in etxj, ity , or t cal, have also the accent on the 
preceding syllable; as 

Propriety Insensibility Astronomical Emphatical 

Sati'ety Spontaneity Categorical Polemical 

17. When the termination ical is abbreviated into ic, the accent 
of the original word remains; as 

Astronomic Emphatic Harmonic Polemic 

Angel'ic Fanatic Mechanic Specific 

18. In English, as has been observed, the favorite accent in pol¬ 
ysyllables is on the antepenult, or last syllable but two; but in 
many cases the accent has been transferred to that position from 
the radical part of the word, for the greater harmony and ease of 
pronunciation; as in 

An'gel Angelical Sa'tan Satan'ica! 

Har'mony Harmo'nious Sa'tire Satirical 

Rhetoric Rhetorical Victory Victo'riou3 

19. In uniting simple words into a compound, there is a tea- 



428 PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT PRONUNCIATION. 


dency to simplify the compound as much as possible, by throwing 
the accent on that syllable in which the simple words unite. Hence, 
words with the following terminations have the accent on the ante¬ 


penult, or last syllable but two: 

cracy, as democracy 
-ferous, as somniferous 
- fluent, as circuin'fluent 
-fluous, as superfluous 
- gamy, as polygamy 
-gonal, as diag'onal 
- graphy, as geography 
logy , as philology 
-loquy, as ventril oquy 
- machy, as logom achy 

a. Some words are differently 
used as nouns or verbs. 


-matliy , as polym'athy 
-meter, as barom eter 
-nomy, as econ'omy 
-parous, as ovip arous 
-pathy, as antip athy 
-phony, as euphony 
-strophe, as catas trophe 
-tomy, as anat'omy 
-vomous, as igniv'omous 
-vorous, as omniv orous 

accented, according as they are 


20. Of foreign words admitted into our language, particularly 
French, there is usually a threefold pronunciation. 1. The origi¬ 
nal or foreign pronunciation. 2. The English pronunciation. 3. 
A pronunciation which is neither English nor foreign, but be¬ 
tween the two. In this case, the middle course is not the best'; 
but it is perhaps right to encourage it as a step in advance towards 
an honest English pronunciation. 

21. Some Greek and Latin words retain the pronunciation of e 
final, though in such a position in English, it is always silent; as in 

Acme Catastrophe Strophe Cicerone 

Apostrophe Epitome Recipe Finale 

Anemone Hyperbole Simile Rationale 

22. The diphthong au before n and another consonant should be 
sounded like the long Italian a, as in far and father . In some 
words of this class, however, it is pronounced, particularly by 
persons who are ambitious of being thought to speak better than 
their neighbors, like aw in awe. Avaunt and vaunt are perhaps 
the only words of this class which should be considered as excep¬ 
tions. 


i 

j 

i 

% 




FALSE PRONUNCIATION CORRECTED. 


429 


A LIST OF WORDS COMMONLY MISPRONOUNCED OR 

IMPERFECTLY ARTICULATED. 

The article a is slurred by most persons, being mispronounced 
like an indistinct ur: a book is mispronounced ur book. The 
article a should always be pronounced distinctly, like a in repeat¬ 
ing the alphabet fast, as a, b, c, etc. When emphatic, it should 
be pronounced like a in repeating the alphabet slowly, as a ,—b,— 
c, etc. 

As should be pronounced az, not uz. 

Avoid a too broad or too slender pronunciation of the vowel a, 
in such words as command, glass, etc. Some persons vulgarly 
pronounce the a in such words, as if it were written ar, and others 
mince it so as to rhyme with stand. The same observation applies 
to the vowel o, which many persons pronounce as if written aw, as 
caw'- fe, instead of cof’-fe, while others mince it into cuf'-fe. 
Equally avoid the extremes of vulgarity and affectation. 

A. 


Correctly spelled. 

Incorrectly pronounced. 

Correctly pronounced. 

Again 

a-gane' 

a-gen' 

Azure 

a'zhur 

a'zhure 

Andiron 

hand'i-urn 

and'i-urn 

Antipodes 

an'te-podz 

an-tip'o-deez 

Apparent 

ap-pa'rent 

ap-par'ent 

Auxiliary- 

awks-il'a-re 

awg-zil’ya-re 

Attack 

at-tact' 

at-tak' 

Adept 

ad'dep 

a-dept' 

Accuracy 

ac're-ce 

ak'ku-ra-ce 

Arithmetic 

a-reth'ma-tik 

a-rith me-tik 

Appointed 

ap-pint'ed 

ap-point'ed 

Afraid 

a-feerd' 

a-frade' 

After 

ar' tur 

af tur 

Across 

akrost' 

a-kross 

Academy 

kad de-me 

a-kad de-me 

April 

a' prile 

a'pril 

Ancient 

an' tshunt 

ane' tshent 

Always 

ol'lurs 

al' waze 

Access 

ak' sess 

ak-sess 

Admirable 

ad-mi' ra-bl 

ad'mir-a-bl 

Ague i 

a' gur 

a'gu 

Alien 

a le-in 

ale'yen 

Almonds 

al'munz 

ali'mundz 

Alpine 

alpine 

al'pin 

Alternate 

ol-tur' nate 

al-tur'nate 


430 


WORDS MISPRONOUNCED. 


Correctly spelled. 

Incorrectly pronounced. 

Correctly pronounced, 

Angel 

an'jel 

ane jel 

Artificer 

ar-te-fis' ur 

ar-tif fe-sur 

Arduous 

ar' du-us 

ar ju-ns 

Arrow 

ar' rur 

ar' ro 

Asylum 

as'sa-lum 

a-si-lum 

Aunt 

awnt 

ant 

Apostle 

apos-tle 

apos-el 

Awkward 

awk-urd 

awk-ward 

Asparagus 

sparrow-grass 

B. 

as-par-agua 

Beard 

bard 

beerd 

Been 

ben 

bin 

Bleat 

blaat 

bleet . 

Bonnet 

bun'net 

bon'net 

Barrel 

barl 

bar' ril 

Boil 

bile 

boil 

Bellows 

bel'lus 

be! lows 

Broil 

brile 

broil 

Because 

be-cos 

be-cawz 

Burst 

bust 

burst 

Bachelor 

bacheldor 

bacb-elor 

Barbarous 

barbarious 

bar-barous 

Blasphemous 

blasphemions 

bias' -phemous 

Broccoli 

brokkilow 

broc'-coli 

Bade 

bade 

bad 

Beat 

bet 

beat 

Before 

beef-for 

be-four 

Biography 

biography 

bi-ograpky 

Buoy 

boy 

C. 

kam'fire 

bwoy 

Camphor 

kam’ fir 

Canal 

ka-nawl' 

ka-nal' 

Catch 

ketch 

katch 

Chimney 

tshim'ble 

tshim'ne 

Chalice 

kal'is 

tshal'is 

Choir 

koir 

kwire 

Clinch 

klensh 

klinsh 

Column 

kol'yum 

kol'Iuvn 

Combat 

kom'bat 

kum' bat 

Comma 

kom' me 

kom'ma 

Coquet 

ko' kwet 

ko-ket' 

Corps 

korps 

kore 

Cover 

kiv' ur 

kuv' ur 

Creature 

krit' tor 

kre' tshure 


FALSE PROHTTNCIATIOK CORRECTED 


431 


Correctly spelled. 

Crept 

Comfort 

Concern 

Contract 

Cottage 

Chair 

Chaise 

Children 

Coverlet 

Camlet 

Courteous 

Cowardice 

Can 

Caprice 

Century 

Chivalry 

Comparable 

Compensate 

Comrade 

Conspiracy 

Courtesy 

Crocodile 

Cupola 

Cutlass 

Camelopard 

Celery 

Chapped 

Character 

Chariot 

Chastisement 

China-ware 

Close 

Clothes 

Compromise 

Courier 

Cover 

Covetous 

Cucumber 

Curiosity 

Chaos 

Chasm 

Civilization 

Conduit 

Cresses 

Cushion 

# 

Deaf 


Incorrectly pronounced, 
krep 
kum'fut 
kon-sarn' 
kon' trak 
kolTtidge 
tsheer 
shay 
tshifdun 
kiv'ur-lid 
kamb'let 
kore'te-us 
kow'urd-ise 
kin 

kap'ris 

sent're 

tskiv'al-re 

kom-par'a-bl 

kom-pen'sate 

kum'rade 

kon-spi'ra-se 

kor' te-se 

krok o-dil 

ku'po-lo 

kut'lash 

camel-leppard 

salary 

chopped 

charac'-ter 

charrot 

•chas-fczo'-ment 

chcney-ware 

dost 

cloze 

com-promise 
currier 
kiver 
co v-e-tus 
cow- cumber 
curosity 
ka-ose 
* shasm 
civil-i-zation 
con-du-it 
crises 
coosh-zV* 

D. 

deef 


Correctly pronounoed. 
krept 
kum' furt 
kon-sern ; 
kon'trakt 
kot'tage 
tshare 
shaze 
tsliil' dren 
kuv'ur-let 
kam'let 

kurt'e-us k 

kow'urd-is 

kan 

ka-prees' 

sen'tshu-re 

sliiv'al-re 

kom'pa-ra-bl 

kom'pen-sate 

kom'rade 

kon-spir' a-se 

kur' te-se 

kroko-dile 

ku'po-la 

kut'las 

camel-opard 

celery 

chapped 

char-acter 

char-ri-ot 

chas'-tis-menfc 

china-ware 

close 

clothes 

com-pro-mise 

coorier 

cover 

co v-e-chus 

cw-cumber 

cu-re-os-e-ty 

ka-oss 

kasm 

civ-e-le-za-shun 
kun'-dit 
cress-es 
coosk -un 

def 





WORDS MISPROITOOTCED. 


Correctly spelled. 

Incorrectly pronounced. 

Coi*rectly prononiu 

Decisive 

de-sis'iv 

de-si'siv 

Depot 

de'pot 

de'po 

Docile 

do'sile 

dos'sil 

Dost 

dost 

dust 

Does 

dooz 

duz 

Drain 

dreen 

drane 

Drowned 

dround'ed 

dround 

Different 

dif runt 

dif fur-ent 

Daughter 

dar'tur 

daw'tur 

Dandruff 

dan' dur 

dan'druf 

Depth 

Aobth 

dep£/i 

Delicate 

dil'e-kit 

del'e-kate 

Decrepit 

de-krip'id 

de-krep' ifr 

Doing 

doo'in 

doo'ing 

Drop 

drap 

drop 

Drover 

drov'yur 

dro'vur 

Drawer 

draw 

draw'ur 

Debut 

de-but' 

de-bu' 

Diamond 

di' mund 

di'a-mund 

District 

dees' triki 

dis'trikt 

Daunt 

dant 

daunt 

Destine 

des'tine 

des'tin 

Diffuse 

dif-fuze' 

dif-fuse' 

Discipline 

dis'se-pline 

dis'se-plin 

Disputant 

dis-pu' tant 

dis'pu-tant 

Ductile 

duk' tile 

duk'til 

Duodecimo 

du-dis'e-mo 

du-o-des'emo 

Dromedary 

drom'e-da-re 

drum'e-da-re 

Design 

des-ine 

de-zine 

Despicable 

dis-picable 

des'pica-bl 

Dictionary 

dixonary 

dic-shun-ary 

Draw 

drawr 

draw 

Drought 

droug^A 

drout . 

Dubious 

du-ber-us 

du-be-u3 

Despatch 

dis-patch 

de-spatcb 

Diploma 

dip-lo-ma 

de-plo-ma 

Diplomacy 

dip-lo-macy 

de-plo-macy 

Direct 

di'rect 

di-rect' 

Dome 

doom 

dome 

Duke 

dook 

dwke 

Edge 

E. 

aje 

edge 

Either 

i' thur 

e'thur 

English 

eng'lisli 

ing' glish 

Era 

e're 

e'ra 


FALSE 

Correctly spelled. 

Ere 

Enemy 

Emaciate 

Extempore 

Etiquette 

European 

Enunciate 

Edgewise 

Endwise 

Enervate 

Engine 

Enjoin 

Envelope 

Esquire 

Education 

Errand 

Exaggerate 

Edict 

Egotism 

Epistle 

Epitome 

Epoch 

Equinox 

Every 


Fearful 

Fiend 

First 

Foliage 

Fortune 

Fragrance 

Futile 

Future 

Fellow 

Follow 

Forward 

Family 

Faucet 

Forget 

Feminine 

Frustrate 

February 

Far 

Further 

Falchion 

Fanatic 


PROHUKCIATIOK CORRECTED. 


Incorrectly pronounced, 
ere 

in'ne-me 

e-ma'shate 

exs-tem'pore 

et' e-kwet 

yu-ro'pe-an 

e-nun'shate 

aj'waz 

end'waz 

en'ur-vate 

in'jine 

in-jine' 

en've-lope 

e'skwire 

eddicatioa 

arrand 

ex-ag-er-ate 

ed-ickt 

e-go-tism 

e-pis-tle 

ep-i-tome 

e-pock 

ek'we-nox 

ev-ry 

F. 

fer'ful 

fend 

fust 

foil'age 

for tin 

frag'ranse 

fu' tile 

fu'tur 

fel'lur 

fol'lur 

for'rud 

fam'le 

fas'sit 

fur-git 

fem'e-nine 

flus'trate 

feb'u-wa-re 

fur 

fur'der 

fal'tsbe-un 

fan'a-tik 


Correctly pronounced, 
are 

en'ne-me 

e-ma'she-ate 

exs-tem'po-re 

et'e-ket 

yu-ro-pe'an 

e-nun'she-ate 

ej'wize 

end'wize 

e-nur vate 

en 'jin 

en-join' 

en-vel'up 

es-kwire' 

ed-ju-ka-shua 

er-rand 

ex-ad-jir-ate 

e-u.ckt 

eg-o-tizm 

e-pis-el 

e-pit-o-me 

ep-ock 

e'kwe-nox 

ev-er-ey 


feer'ful 

feena 

furst 

fo'le-aje 

for' tshun® 

fra'granse 

fu' til 

fu' tsliure 

fel low ' 

follow 

for' ward 

fam'e-le 

faw'set 

for-get 

fem'e nin 

frus' trate 

feb'ru-a-re 

far 

fur'tbur 

fol'sliun 

fa-nat'ik 


434 


WORDS MISPRONOUNCED. 


Correctly spelled. 

Felloe 

Ferocious 

Fertile 

Flatwise 

Forger 

Fragile 

Franchise 

Finance 

Foundling 

Gather 

Get 

Girth 

Going 

Gold 

Grudge 

General 

Gifts 

Gimlet 

Girl 

Genuine 

Guardian 

Gown 

Gave 

Galled 

Generally 

Gymnastic 

Gallows 

Grandeur 

Galveston 

Genealogy 

Geography 

Geometry 

Government 

Grindstone 

Garden 

Galleon 


Incorrectly pronounced. Correctly pronotmoed. 


fel le 

fe-rosh' us 
fer'tile 
flat'waze 
for'jur-ur 
fra'jile 
fran tshize 
f&'-nance 
fond ling 

G. 

geth'ur 

git 

gurt 

gwine 

goold 

be-gretsh' 

gin'ral 

gifs 

gimb'lit 

g a ! . 

jin u-ine 

gar-deen' 

gound 

gin, or give 

gald'ed 

jin'ral-le 

gim-nas'tik 

gal'loz 

gran'dur 

galves'-ton 

gen'-e-ology 

gog-grapliy' 

j'om-e-try 

gover'-ment 

grin'-stone 

gar'-den 


fel'lo, 
fe-ro'shus 
fer' til 
flat'wise 
fore'jur 
fraj'il 
fran' tshiz 
fe'-nance 
found'-ling 

gath'ur 
get 
g erth 
go ing 
gold 
grudge 
gen' er-al 

gim let 

gerl 

jen'u-in 

gyar de-an 

goun 

gave 

gald 

jen'er-al-le 
jim-nas'tik 
gal'lus 
gran jur 
gal' -ves-ton 
ge-ne- ology 
ge-og-ra-phy 
ge-om-e-try 
govern-ment 
grind-stone 
gar'dn 
gal'-le-on 


gal -loon 

Gallant, meaning brave, gay, etc. y should have tlie accent on 
the first syllable, gal'-lant; but gallanv, meaning polite to ladies, or 
as a substantive, meaning a w r ooer, should have the accent on the 
second syllable, gal- font. 

H. 

Many English people, especially Londoners, omit the aspirate 
not only at the beginning of words, but after tlie w, as in where ; 
and in the middle of words, as in fore/mad, which they mispro- 


FALSE PROHUNCIATIOH CORRECTED. 


435 


nounce for-ed , instead of for’-Aed; in abAor, beAold, ex-Aaust, in¬ 
habit, un-Aorse, etc. The h should always be sounded, except in 
the following words, where it is silent:—Heir, heiress, heir-loom; 
herb, herbage ; honest, honesty, honestly ; honor, honorable, hon¬ 
orably ; hospital; hostler; hour, hourly; humor, humorist, hu¬ 
morously ; and their other derivatives. The A in Aumble was 
formerly silent, but it is now aspirated. Humble-pie is an incor¬ 
rect spelling of umble-pie, a pie made of umbles, a plural noun, 
meaning a deer’s entrails. 

Many persons not only omit the aspirate where it should be 
sounded, but aspirate where there is no A, or where it should be 
silent, as Aend for <md, etc. 

Be careful not to mistake loudness for aspiration. Hold up tho 
finger a few inches from your mouth, and pronounce any word 
containing the A. If you aspirate you will feel the breath against 
the finger, but not if you merely speak loud. 


Correctly spelled. 

Has 

Have 

Hearth 

Hoist 

Home 

Homely 

Hoof 

Humble 

Horse 

Hollow 

Height 

Heard 

Husband 

Hinder 

Hers 

Hindrance 

Humorous 

Hallelujah 

Harsh 

Hurricane 

Haunt 

Hostile 

Hypocrisy 

Heinous 

Horizon 

Hundred 

Hover 


Incorrectly pronounced, 
hez 

hev 

hur£A, or ha^A 

histe 

hum 

hum'le 

huf , 

hum'bl 

hoss 

hoi lur 

hate, or hith 

heerd 

huz'bun 

hen'dur 

burn 

hen'drans 

yu'mur-sum 

bal-le-lu'ja 

hash 

har' re-kane 

haunt 

hos'tile 

hi-pok're-se 

hee'-nous 

hore'-zon 

hun'-derd 

hov'-er 


Correctly pronounced* 
haz 
hav 
harth 
hoist 
home 
home'le 
hoof 
um'bl 
horse 
hollo 
bite 
hurd 
huz'band 
hin'd ur 
hers 

liin'drans 

yu'mur-us 

lial-la-loo'ya 

harsh 

hur're-kane 
hant 
hos'til, 
he-pok're-se 
hay'-nous 
ho-ri'-zn 
hun'-dred 
huv'-er 


436 


WORDS MISPRONOUNCED. 


Correctly spelled. 

Incorrectly pronounced. 

Correctly pronounced. 

Highland 

hee'-land 

hi'-land 

Hymenial 

hy-me-ni-al 

hy-men-e'-al 

Hyperbole 

hy'-per-bole 

T 

hy-per'-bo-le 

Indian 

in'jun 

in'de-an 

Instead 

in-stid' 

in-sted' 

India 

• / • 
in je 

in'de-a 

Impudence 

im'pur-duns 

im'pu-dens 

Irregular 

ir-reg'lur 

ir-reg'u-lar 

Israel 

iz'rul 

iz'ra-el 

Illustrious 

il-lus'trus 

il-lus'tre-us 

Invariable 

in-va'ra-ble 

in-va're-a-bl© 

Idea 

i-de' or i-deer 

i-de'a 

Ingredient 

in-gre de-ant 

in-gre'jent 

Indemnify 

on-dem ne-fi 

in-dem'ne-fi 

Iron 

i run 

i urn 

Impetus 

im-pe'tus 

im'pe-tus 

Interval 

in'tur-vale 

in'tur-val 

Intestine 

in-tes'tine 

in-tes' tin 

Inventory 

in-vent'tur-ro 

in'ven-tur-re' 

Industry 

in-dus'-try 

in-dus-try 

Invalid 

(a sick person) 

in-va-leed' 

Invalid 

(of no force) 

in-val'-id 

Isolate 

i -zo-late 

T 

is'-o-late 

Jesting 

J • 

jeestin 

jest'ing 

Join 

jine 

join 

Joist 

jise 

joist 

Jaundice 

jan'durs 

jan'dis 

January 

jin'ur-wa-re 

jan'nu-ar-® 

Joint 

jint 

joint 

Joiner 

jin'ur 

join'ur 

Jaunt 

jant 

jant 

Jugular 

jug'ur-lur 

ju'gu-lar 

Juvenile 

ju've-nile 

ju ve-nil 

Jalap 

jolop 

K. 

jal-ap 

Kettle 

kit tl 

ket'tl 

Knew 

nod 

nu 

Kept 

kep 

kept 

Keg 

kag 

keg 

Kiln 

kiln 

kil 

Kind 

key-rad 

kind 

Knowledge 

should be pronounced no*-edge, not woMedtre. It is 

, false idea, especially prevalent among 

the cleigy and classical 


EALSE PROOTHCIATIOtf CORRECTED 


437 


scholars, that a different accentuation to that used in ordinary 
conversation, and an over-distinctness of articulation, as the pro 
nouncing e-vil for e'vl , dev-il for dev'vl, etc., should he adopted in 
solemn speech and Scripture reading, in order to impart impressive 
ness. True impressiveness depends upon the tone, and not upon 
the mere pronunciation. To be truly impressive you must be nat¬ 
ural, expressive, and in earnest. 

L. 


Correctly spelled. 

Incorrectly pronounced. 

Correctly pronoun 

Lecture 

lek'tur 

lek'tshure 

Leisure 

lezh'ur 

le'zhure 

Lever 

lev'ur 

le'vur 

Lid 

led 

lid 

Little 

lee'tl 

lit'tl 

Learn 

larn 

lern 

Lover 

luv'yur 

luth'ur 

luv'ur 

Leather 

leth'ur 

Legate 

le'gate 

leg'ate 

Lengthwise 

length'waz* 

length'wiae 

Lenient 

len'e-ent 

le'ne-ent 

Library- 

lib're 

li' bra-re 

Lilac 

lay'-lock 

li'-lack 

Lutheran 

lu-the-re-an 

lu-the-ran 

Leave 

leaf 

leave 

Legend 

le'gend 

M. 

lej'end 

Maintain 

mane-tane 

men-tane' 

Massacre 

mas'a-cre 

mas'sa-kur 

Museum 

mu' ze-um 

mu-zeum 

Mile 

mild 

mile 

Mountain 

moun'tn 

moun'tin 

Meadow 

med dur 

med do 

Memory- 

mem're 

mem'mur-re 

Mixture 

mix' tur 

miks'tshur 

Muskmelon 

mush'milyun 

musk'mel-un 

Mulatto 

mu-lat'tur 

mu-lat'to 

Mandarin 

man'dur-in 

man-da-reen' 

Mechanism 

me'kan-izm 

mek' kan-izm 

Messuage 

rnes'su idge 

mes'swadge 

Miracle 

mer a-cl 

mir'a-cl 

Marbles 

mar vis 

mar'bis 

Medicine 

med'-cine 

med-i-cine 

Mineralogy- 

min-er-ology 

min-er-al-ogy 

Monument 

mon-i-ment 

mon-u-ment 

Mosquitoes 

mos-quters 

mos-kee-toea 

Many 

iuaw-uy 

men-ney 



43$ 


WORDS MISPRONOUNCED, 


Correctly spelled. 

Marchioness 

Mattress 

Matron 

Mischievous 


Nature 

Neither 

Nominative 

National 

Narrow 

Next 

Natural 

Negro 

N onpius 

Nowise 

Nape 

Nothing 

Nephew 

Norwich 

Neighborhood 


Oblige 

Oblique 

Oil 

Only 

Ordinary 

Octavo 

Onions 

Otherwise 

Offence 

Odorous 

Of 

Off 

Omniscience 

Orchestra 

Organisation 

Ostrich 


Parent 

Partner 

Pasture 

Patron 

Pincers 

Pith 

Point 


Incorrectly pronounced, 
march'-yun-ness 
mat'-trass 
mat' -ron 
mis-chi?0v'us 

N. 

na' tur 

ni’itAur 

nom'e-tiv 

na'shun-al 

nar' rur 

nex 

nat'ral 

nig'gur 

nun'plush 

no' waze 

nap 

no^A'in 

nev-vy or nef-u 
nor-wich 
nay -bur-wood 

O . 

o-bleeje' 

o-bleek' 

ite 

on'le or unle 

or'na-re 

ok-ta'vo 

ing'uns 

uth' ur-waze 

o-fenco 

od'-ur-us 

of 

aw r f 

om-ni-sci-ence 

or-ches-tra 

or-ga-m-za-shuii 

os-tridgo 

P. 

pa'rent 
pard'nur 
pas'tur 
pat' run 
pinsli' urs 
perA 
pint 


Correctly pronounced, 
mar'-sliun-ess 
mat'-tress 
m« -trun 
mis'-chiv-us 


na'tshure 

ne'i/mr 

nom'e-na-tiv 

nash'un-al 

nar'ro 

next 

nat'tshu-ral 

ne'gro 

non'plus 

no' wize 

nape 

nuking 

nev-u 

nor-ridge 

nay-bur-hood 

o-blije 

ob-liko' 

oil 

one'le 

or' de-na-re 

ok-ta'vo 

un'yuns 

utli ur-wize 

of-fence 

o-dur-us 

ov 

of 

om-nish'-ense 
or-kes'-tra 
or-gan-e-za'-shun 
os'-trich 


parent 

part'nur 

pas'tsliure 

pa' trun 

pin'sura 

phA 

point 


FALSE PRCWUKCIATION CORRECTED. 


430 


Correctly spelled. 

Precept 

Preface 

Prelude 

Process 

Product 

Profile 

Pother 

Poison 

Plaintiff 

Pedestrian 

Particular 

Partiality 

Patriot 

Philosophy 

Plagiarism 

Pretty- 

Pristine 

Partridge 

Pageant 

Partisan 

Patent 

Physiognomy 

Poet 

Poignant 

Pomegranate 

Precedent 

Predecessor 

Princess 

Progress 

Progress 

Prologue 

Pronunciation 

Pantomime 

Parsley 

Perhaps 

Phaeton 

Piano 

Pillow 

Promiscuous 


Quoit 

Quarrel 

Quantity 

Quandary 

Quorum 

Quench 


Incorrectly pronounced, 
pres'sept 
pre' fase 
prelude 
pro'ses 
pro'dukt 
profile 

bo£//ur 
pi'z’n 
plan'tif 
pe-des' trin 
pu-tik'lur 
par-shal'e-te 
pat' re-ut 
fi-los'o-fe 
pla' ga-rizm 
put' te 
pristine 
pat' ridge 
p«-jant 
par-t e-scm 
pa'- tent 
phys-e-o«-omy 
po-& 

poig'-nant 
pum-gran -it 
pre-ce -dent 
-de-ces-sur 
prin-cess' 

(as a verb) 

(as a substantive) 
pro'-loge 

pro-nun-sAe-a-shun 

pan-to-mine 

pasley 

praps, or prehaps 
fe'-ton 
pe-an-ner 
piller 

pro-mis-cus 

Q. 

kwate 

kworl 

kwan'te-te 

kwon'du-re 

ko' rum 

kwinsh 


Correctly pronounced, 
pre sept 
prof fas 
prelude 
pros' ses 
prOd'ukt 
pro'feel 

puth'ur 
poe'z'n 
plane' tif 
pe-des'tre-an 
par-tik' u-lur 
par-she-al e-te 
pa'tre-ut 
fe-los'o-fe 
pla'ja-rizm 
pret te 
pris' tin 
par' tridje 
paj'ant 
par'-te-zan 
pat'-ent 

phys-e-og-no-nay 

po-et 

poy- nant 

pome-gran'-ate 

pres'-e-dent 

pred-e-ces' -sur 

prin'-cess 

pro -gress 

prog'-ress 

prol-og 

pro-nun-ce-a' -shun 

pan-to-mime 

par-sley 

per-haps 

fa' -e-ton 

pe-an-o 

pil-lovv 

pro-mis-cu-ous 

kwoit 

kwor'ril 

kwon'te-te 

kwon-da're 

kwo'rum 

kwensh 


440 


WORDS MISPRONOUNCED. 


Correctly spelled. 

Quay 

Quash 

Quadrille 

Query 

Quoth 


Incorrectly pronounced 
kwa 
skwosh 
Jcuod- ril 
kuir'-y 
kwoth 


Correctly pronounced, 
ke 

kwosh 

ka-dril' 

kwe'-ry 

kwuth 


has two sounds—the strong vibratory r, heard at the beginning 
of words and of syllables, as in rage, error; and the smooth r, 
which is heard at the termination of words, or when it is suc¬ 
ceeded by a consonant. The first is formed by jarring the tongue 
against the roof of the mouth, near the fore teeth; and the second, 
by a vibration of the lower part of the tongue, near the root, 
against the inward region of the palate. In some parts of Ireland, 
the r before the final consonant, as in card , is pronounced with 
the force of the commencing r, accompanied by a strong aspira¬ 
tion at the beginning of the letter; whereas in England, and par¬ 
ticularly in London, it is entirely sunk, and the word sounds as if 
written caad. The Scotch frequently give it with more roughness 
and clearness at the termination than at the beginning. But the 
sound which they give at the commencement is not the English 
terminational sound; it is a negligent and imperfect quivering of 
the first English r. In such words as thorn, worm, many of the 
Scotch, as well as the Irish, sound the rn as if they formed a sepa¬ 
rate syllable. Many persons, from indolence or inattention, in¬ 
stead of quivering the tip of the tongue in this letter, give it a 
burring sound by quivering the epiglottis. In looking into the 
mouth of these persons, on desiring them to sound r, the tongue 
is seen thrust behind the lower teeth; by causing them to lift up 
the tongue, balance it in the mouth, and then breathe strongly, 
they will frequently at once give the true sound of the letter. The 
difficulty afterwards lies in teaching the terminational r, which 
they will for a time give with the old sound; in such cases they 
should use the first r , though it is harsh, and soften it gradually. 


Reptile 

rep'tile 

rep'til 

Rind 

rine 

rind 

Rinse 

rense 

rinse 

Rosin 

roz um 

roz'in 

Routine 

rou'tene 

roo-teen' 

Rapture 

rap'tur 

rap'tshura 
rek' ord 

Record 

re-kord' 

Really 

ra'ls 

re'al-le 


FALSE PRO^U^CIATIOI^ CORRECTED. 


Correctly spelled. 

Rose 

Reaped 

Radishes 

Roof 

Radiance 

Ratio 

Rational 

Rivet 

Rather 

Rheumatism 

Recognize 

Reparable 

Raillery- 

Release 

Resort 

Resound 

Respite 

Revolt 

Route 

Regular 

Remunerate 

Ridicule 


Scarce 

Schedule 

Since 

Slothful 

Soot 

Spoil 

Steelyard 

Stamp 

Stint 

Sword 

Synod 

Salad 

Spirits 

Subject 

Soldier 

Swallow 

Search 

Slept 

Sassafras 

Scatter 

Skirmish 

Saucy 

Saucer 

Seminary 


Incorrectly pronounced, 
riz 
rep 

red'dish-iz 
ruf ^ 

rad'e-anse 

ra'sho 

ra' shin-al 

rib' it 

ru^A'ur 

roo' ma-tiz 

re-kog'nize 

re-par a-bl 

rail'-ery 

re'-lease 

re-sort 

re-sound 

res'-p/te 

re-volt 

rout 

reg' -lar 

re-num-er-ate 

raf-i-cule 

S. 

skass 

sked jule 

sense 

slaw^A'ful 

sut 

spile 

stil’yurdz 

stomp 

stent 

sword 

si'nod 

sal'lit 

sper'itz 

sub'jik 

so'jur 

swol'lur 

sartsh 

slep 

sas'sa-fax 

sket'tur 

skur'midje 

sas'se 

sas'sur 

sim'e-na-re 


Correctly pronounoed 
rose 
reep’t 
rad' dish-iz 
roof 

ra de-anse 
ra'she-o 
rash'un-al 
riv'it 
T&ttim 
roo'ma-tizm 
rek'kog-ntee 
rep'par-a-bl 
ral ler-ey 
re-lease' 
re-zort 
re-zound 
res'-pit 
re-volt 
root 

reg'-u-lar 
re-mu-ner-at© 
rid-i-cule 

skarse 
sed'jule 
sinse 
slo^'ful 
soot 
spoil 

steel'yard 
stamp 
stint (task) 
sord 
sin'ud 
sal'lad 
spir'itz 
subjekt 
sol'jur 
swol'lo 
sertsh 
slept 

sas'sa-fras 
skat'tur 
sker'mish 
saw'se 
saw'sur 
sem'e-na-ro 



443 


WORDS MISPRONOUNCED 


Correctly spelled. 

Seldom 

Scared 

Stereotype 

Sorrow 

Saffron 

Sapphire 

Singular 

Steady 

Surcingle 

Sphere 

Stupendous 

Suavity 

Saturday 

Sacrament 

Satan 

Satanic 

Satire 

Saunter 

Sausage 

Scenic 

Shone 

Solecism 

Specious 

Stomachic 

Strove 

Suggest 

Saith 

Saw 

Sepulchre 

Shocking 

Subpoena 

Subtraction 


Tour 

Treble 

Towards 

Trophy 

Tuesday 

Turnips 

Tassel 

Thousand 

Touch 

Terrible 

To-morrow 

Tobacco 

Tomatoes 

Trivial 


Incorrectly pronounced, 
sildum 
skart 
ster'o-tipo 
sor' rur 
saf'frun 
saffire 
singglar 
stid de 
si'sing-gl 
spere 

stu-pend'u-us 

su-av' e-te 

sat'a-de 

sa'-cra-ment 

sat'-an 

sa'-tan-ic 

sa'-fo’re 


scen'ic 

shone, or shwn 

so'-le-cizm 

spesti -ns 

stuma£c/uc 

struv 

suggest 

setli 

sawr 

sep'-ul-km 

shaw-king 

soo-pe-na 

sub-strak-shun 

T. 

tour 

trib'bl 

tu-wardz' 

trof fe 

tshuz'do 

turn'ups 

tos'sl 

thou'z’n 

tetsh 

tur' re-bl 

to-mor'rur 

to-bak'ur 

to-ma te-siz 

triv'e-al 


Correctly pronounced, 
sel'dum 
skaird 
ste're-o-tipe 
sor'ro 
saf furn 
saffir 
sing'gu- 
sted' de 
sur'sing-gl 
sfere 

stu-pend'us 
swav'e-te 
sat' ur-da 
sac'-ra-ment 
sa'-tan 
sat'-an-ic 
sat'-er 
san' -ter 
saw'-sage 
sce-nick 
sbon 

sol'-e-cizm 
spe'-shus 
stum-ak'-ik 
strove 
sud-gest 
saith 
saw 

sep'-ul-ker 
shock-ing 
sub-pee-na 
sub-trak-shun 


toor 

treb' bl 

to' urdz 

tro'fe 

tuze'de 

turn ips 

tas'sel 

thou'zand 

tutsh 

ter' re-bl 

to-mor'ro 

to-bak'ko 

to-ma'toa 

triv'yal 


sawn-ter 

sos-sidge, or scs-sage 


FALSE PROKUNCIATIOH COKKECTEI) 


448 


Correctly spelled. 
Tyranny 
Teat 

Temperament 

Tenure 

Tenable 

Tenet 

Than 

Tremor 

Tapestry 

Theatre 

Trestle 


Incorrectly pronounced, 
ti'ran-e 
tit 

tem-per'-a-ment 

tenure 

te'-na-bl 

t/-nit 

thun 

tre'-mor 

ttf'-pes-try 

thay'-ter 

trus'-sel 


Correctly pronounood. 
tir'ran-no 
teet 

tem'-per-a-ment 

ten'-ure 

ten'-a-bl 

ten'-et 

than 

trem'-or 

tap'-es-try 

the -a-ter 

tres-tle 


Therefore should be pronounced ther'-fore, not thare-for , but 
there should be pronounced thare in the other compounds, there¬ 
from, there-in, there-in-to [too), there-of, etc., all of which should 
have the accent on the last syllable, except tliere-un-der. 

To (particle or preposition) is seldom articulated as it should 
be. To be is commonly pronounced tub be; to think, ter think; 
go to him, go ter him. To should always be clearly, but not pe¬ 
dantically, articulated. It should be pronounced like two, in 
counting one, two, three, fast. 

Too, the adverb, should be pronounced like two, in counting 
one— two —three, slowly. 


Umbrella 

Unknown 

Unawares 

Unerring 

Ungenial 


U. 

um-bur-rel'lur 
un-be-none' 
on-a-warz' 
un-ur'ing 
un-jeen'yul 

Y. 


um-brel'la 

un-none' 

un-a-warz’ 

un-er'ring 

un-je'ne-al 


Many English persons, particularly natives of London, often 
substitute the sound of w for v, and v for w. To cure this, often 
repeat a few words beginning with or containing the v , and bite 
the under lip while sounding the v, until the letter be well pro¬ 
nounced j then repeat words beginning with or containing the w, 
which must be pronounced by a pouting out of the lips, without 
suffering'them to touch the teeth. V is formed by pressing the 
lower part of the upper teeth against the inside of the lower lip. 


Verdure 

Volume 

Vendue 

Voyage 


vur'dur 

vollum 

van'du 

vidje 


verjur 
vol'yume 
ven-due' 
voe'adje 


WORDS MISPRONOUNCED. 


444 


Correctly spelled. 

Incorrectly pronounced. 

Correctly pronounced, 

Verbatim 

ver-bat'im 

ver-ba'tim 

Volatile 

vol'a-tile 

vol'a-til 

Vase 

vawze 

vaze 

Vivacious 

viv'-a-shus 

vi-va'-shus 

Venison 

ven' -son 

W. 

ven'-i-son 

Was 

wuz 

woz 

Weary 

wary 

we're 

Were 

ware 

wer 

Wont 

wont 

wunt 

Wrath 

rath 

rawth 

Waistcoat 

wes'-eutt 

waist-coat 

Willow 

wil' -ler 

wil'-low 

Worcester 

wor-ces-ter 

v 

wooster 

Yacht 

I . 

yat 

yot 

Yellow 

yul-low, or yal'ler 
Z. 

yel'-low 

Zebra 

zeb'ra 

ze'-bra 

Zenith 

ze'-nith 

zen'-ith 

Zodiac 

zo-di-ac 

zo-de-ak 

Zoology 

zoo-lo-gy 

zo-ol-o-gy 


Words ending in enee and anee. —It is important to give 
the pure vowel sounds of short a and short e in words ending in 
ance and cnee; examples, maintenance, surveillance, sustenance, confi¬ 
dence, Providence, etc. A common fault in the United States is to 
blur the vowel, and give it the half-sound of an indistinct short 
u, “ maintenunce,” surveillunce,” “ sustenunce,” “ confidunce,” 
“ Providunce.” The same remark is applicable to adjectives end¬ 
ing in ant and ent, as “ providunt,” “confidunt,” instead of provi¬ 
dent, confident. The cultivated speaker may always be known by 
his giving attention to the accurate pronunciation of these final 
syllables. 

Present participles, and words ending in ing.— The 
habit of slurring the terminal g in present participles and other 
words ending in ing, should be carefully guarded against. Say 
“ going,” not “ goin’.” “ He is standing there,” not he is stand- 
in 5 .” “ Good-morning,” not !f good-mornin’.” All the present 

participles, and many other words ending in ing, come within the 
range of this observation. 


FALSE PRO^UKCIATIOiT CORRECTED. 


145 


Words ending in a. —The proper pronunciation of the last 
syllable in all words ending in a, is as the a in father. Two errors 
are of frequent occurrence. One is to drawl out the a as if it had 
an r after it. In this case the r is sounded with more force than 
is commonly given to it in words that properly end in r. Some¬ 
times the a is changed, and the syllable pronounced as if it ended 
in er. The other error is to pronounce the syllable as if it ended 
in ie, or y. “ Emma ” is pronounced “ Emmy,” “ Sarah,” “ Sary.” 
[The a , with the power of the broad a in father, should be pro¬ 
nounced very quickly. 

Words ending in ar and er.— An error of the opposite 
character is committed in the case of words ending in ar and er. 
The r is often out off, and a broad sound it given to the a , stronger 
than in father, and often as strong as the a in water. “ Waitah,” 
“altah,” “mistah,” “watah,” for “waiter,” “altar,” “mister,” 
“water.” The r should always he heard in such words. 

Cork, fork, curtain, morsel. —Be careful to sound the r 
Do not say “cawk,” “ fawk,” “ cu’tain,” “mo’sel.” 

Car, card, kind, and other words beginning with e or k, as 
well as many beginning with g, are often given an e or y sound 
that does not belong to them. As “ kyar,” “ kyard,” “ kyind ” 
“gyard,” etc., for car, card, kind, guard, etc. 

Harriet, superior, interior, etc. —In these words, and in 
others in which r is followed by a y sound, we sometimes perceive 
that it is omitted, hearing such pronunciation as “ha’yet,” “supe’- 
yor,” “inte’yor,” etc. Be careful to sound the r. 

While r should always be sounded when it occurs, it is not 
trilled or 'rolled in the English as it is in other languages, or as 
the Irish roll it in their brogue. “ Warm ” should no more be 
pronounced “warrum” than “wawm.” “Stormy” no more 
“storrumy,” than “ stawmy.” 

V/ords and syllables containing ow and ou.— Avoid 

the sharp nasal pronunciation of “ how,” “ cow,” “ confound,” and 
other words containing the ow sound; as “heow,” or “h’yow,” 
“keow,” “confeound.” The sound of this diphthong should be 
formed deep in the chest, and should be pure and rotund. 

IT in tune, mute, etc. —The u in tune, mute, etc., has a pecu¬ 
liar sound, which cannot be represented by any other letter, or by 
any combination of letters. It must be heard. Some persons err 
by sounding it like oo, saying “ toon,” “dook,” “dooty,” for “tune/ 



446 


Words mispronounced. 


“duke,” “ckity.” Others make it excessively sharp, as if it had a 
dj sound before it. They say “ tjewn,” “ djewk,” “ djewty.” The 
correct sound must be heard, carefully observed, and copied. 

Do, to, have also a peculiar sound, which cannot be represent¬ 
ed. It is alike distinct from the sound of <! too,” and from that 
of “ dew.” This sound also must be heard, then followed. 

Boot, shoot. —Do not pronounce them “ bute,” “ shute.” 

Butcher. —Another difficult u sound is that in butcher. It oc¬ 
curs in but few, if any, other words. Some pronounce it “ booch- 
er;” that is a word of very different sound. The u is formed 
deep in the chest, and is made very short. 

Either, neither. —A fashion sprung up in England a few 
years ago, of giving to ei in these words the long sound of i, as in 
eye. It has been extensively copied in the United States by cler¬ 
gymen and others who pride themselves on precision in speech. 
The proper pronunciation is with ei as e long, as in receive , grief. 
That pronunciation is as old as the words; it is sanctioned by all 
lexicographers, and by the critics who have written upon the sub¬ 
ject since the innovation came into notice. 

Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names.— There 
are no difficulties as to the pronunciation of these, since they are, 
most of them, so much used in modern speech, as to have long 
ago adapted themselves to the ordinary rules of English pronun¬ 
ciation. The foregoing rules, therefore, when applicable to this 
class of words, are to have full force; and the only particular 
which requires notice here is as to their division into syllables. 
It is evident that unless we divide words properly we must mar 
the pronunciation. Thus Ca-to may, by improper division, be pro¬ 
nounced Cat-o; and a similar error may convert Mi-das into Mid-' 
as, So-lon into Sol-on, and so on, to the destruction of all that is 
sacred in the mechanism of ancient literature. Reference to 
“ Webster ” will give the accent of all classic names, and likewise 
the proper mode of dividing them for purposes of pronunciation. 
Usually the words have a full sound. The accent generally falls 
late in the word, and i, e, and o, especially, are used as long 
vowels. 

The diphthongs m and oe, which are found only in classic words, 
are to have the sound of e, as described in connection with the 
digraphs; ai is to be sounded as our alphabetical a } and ei unlike 


FALSE PRONUNCIATION CORRECTED. 447 

the sound of it in ordinary English e, must, in classic words, have 
the sound of i. 

C and g , before e , *, y, <z , ce, must have their soft sounds, like s 
and j; but ch in Greek words is always sounded Jc, and in Scrip¬ 
ture names also, though with one or two exceptions. Ph has the 
same sound as in English, namely, f; while cn,ct, gn, mn,pn , ps,pt, 
phth , tm, and other similar combinations, when they occur at the 
commencement of words, drop their first letter in the pronun¬ 
ciation. 

In all classic names the seat of accent is the important matter; 
this, with a few exceptions, is always on the last syllable but one, 
or on the last but two. 

The termination es, in Greek proper names, should have a dis¬ 
tinct utterance, and by giving it this, the accent will indicate itself 
to both ear and tongue. For instance, we once heard an incipient 
orator pronounce Hippocrates, Hip'-po-crah'-tes, and Socrates, 
So-kraytes. Had the learned gentleman ever struggled for a 
scholarship, or passed through the tortures of matriculation, he 
would have known that es -was not to be so trifled with, but would 
have given the termination its importance, thus—Hip-pock-ra-teea 
Sock-ra-tees. I should not have called attention to this subject, 
from a belief that the veriest tvro in book knowledge would' be 
well aware of the necessity of giving es its due in classic proper 
names, had I not observed the deficiency, even in public speakers. 
The following instances will suffice to place the reader on his 
guard, and serve as keys to the pronunciation of names having 
this termination— Pericles , Perry-klees; Socrates, Sock'-ra-tees'; 
Thucydides, Thu-sid'-i-dees'; Praxitilcs, Pracks-it'-i-lees; Jlarmoni- 
des, Har-mon^-i-dees^ 5 Simonides, Sigh-mon'-i-dees'. 

Foreign Thames of Persons and Places.— Continental 
languages have an almost uniform alphabet, and the sounds of the 
vowels are as nearly as possible identical in each separate tongue. 
A is usually sounded like our a in ah, or the second a in afar. It 
has, however, its sound of a as in may, in all continental languages, 
but this sound occurs very seldom. E has the sound usually of a 
in way, and sometimes a shortened sound, approaching to er, made 
by curling over and pressing Ihe tongue against the lower palate, 
at the same time breathing outward. The vowel i has almost in¬ 
variably the sound of e ; o maintains its English sound of 0, as in 
so, but has occasionally the sound of 00; in Italian it has the dig- 


448 


WORDS MISPRONOUNCED. 


tinct sounds of o as in so, and aw in saw. The u in French has a 
delicate sound, the lips being compressed ; but in Italian it inva¬ 
riably bears the full sound of oo; as, Luisa, pronounced Loo-e-zah. 

With respect to the consonants, their sound, generally speaking, 
is the same in all European languages, and little hazard will be 
incurred by adhering in this respect to English custom. Among 
the exceptions is th, which, on the Continent, is usually sounded 
as t simply. Thus the French name Berthollet is sounded Bare'- 
tol-lay'. X is often sounded as s, or ce, as in Aix-la-chapelle, 
Ace'-la-sha-pel. The French nasal sound of n it is sometimes 
proper to retain, as in Nantes, Nongt, the Simplon, Sang-plong; 
and sometimes to sink the nasal sound, as in Lyons, Orleans, which 
two words, and many others, easily receive a purely English pro¬ 
nunciation. It must be confessed that this point is very doubtful, 
as in the word Ghent, which some call Gongt, and others Guent. 
Similar remarks apply to Caen (the place in Normandy), which 
some call Cang, and others Ca-en. The last syllable in Elbceuf, 
has its diphthong sounded with a medium between the English u 
in buff, and the oo in roof. If the reader will curl up the tongue 
against the lower palate, and the inner side of the lower front 
teeth, and breathe outward, this sound may easily be produced. 
In La Saone, the ao have the sound of long o, and so have the 
the eaux in Bordeaux; while in Bruxelles the x is sounded as s. 

In Boulogne the concluding sounds are oin, with a sound as of 
y consonant added. With regard to Italian, the c always has the 
sound of tch before e and i; and of 7c before a, o, u, or any other 
letter. G is soft before e and i, and hard before all other letters, 
except l or m. J always has the sound of ii or y; Ajaccio is pro¬ 
nounced A-yat-che-o. G before 1 or n takes the sound of y after 
it, as in Bentivoglio, Benti-vo-le-yo. In Spanish, the y is sounded 
as in Italian. 

Double consonants in Italian must always be both sounded: as 
Machiavelli, Ma-kee-a-vel-ee. When two gs , or two cs come to¬ 
gether, the first always alters the sound of the second: thus Guic¬ 
ciardini is pronounced Gwitch-tche-ar-de-ne. In this beautiful 
language there are no diphthongs. Every vowel has its own clear 
sound, however many may occur together, as calzolaio is cal-tzo- 
lah-eo. The only approach to a diphthong which this language 
contains is in do and gia. 

French Names. —In regard to French names, they occur so. 


FALSE PRONUNCIATION CORRECTED. 


449 


often in newspaper reading, they mingle so much in our every-day 
conversation, that we feel it a duty to offer a few plain instruc¬ 
tions on this head. 

There are some few sounds so common to the French, that every 
one not acquainted with the language should at least know the 
correct utterance of these few. The article le (the) is pronounced 
ler ; the article la (the) lah; and the indefinite articles tin and une, 
as nearly as possible as they are written. The plural let is pro¬ 
nounced lay before a consonant, and lays before a vowel. De (of) 
is pronounced der; and des, day before a consonant and days be¬ 
fore a vowel. 

We have already given, in the above quotations, a sufficiently 
clear account of the sound of the French vowels. There are, how¬ 
ever, a few combinations that require notice. The most impor¬ 
tant of these is oi, as in mot, me, pronounced mwor; mouchoir , 
handkerchief, mouschtvor; Vive le Hot, Veev ler Jtwor, long live the 
King. 

Another important compound is ait, which has the sound of o; 
or when united to x, and fo llowed by a vowel, ose. The e having 
the sound of our a, and m and n having a nasal twang, causes the 
pronunciation of some words to be very difficult to a novice; 
for instance, the M. Druon de L’huys will be pronounced Mong- 
senur Droo-ong der Lwees. In addressing titled personages the 
French say Monseigneur, instead of the ordinary Monsieur; the 
latter is pronounced short Mongsur , and so much abbreviated by 
the tongue and rapidity of utterance, that it is almost impossi¬ 
ble to place the sound on paper. The nasal sound must, how¬ 
ever, not pass through the nose, but rest in it; and the g must not 
be fully uttered. 

In verbs of the third person plural, the ent with which they usu¬ 
ally terminate is always mute. The consonant r must be trilled 
freely at all times. 

In sounding u or eu, the mouth should be contracted as if for 
whistling, so as to accomplish a sound between our u and oo. 
Thus Moniteur is pronounced, as nearly as possible, mon-e-tur, 
amateur, generally pronounced am-a-tew-er, should be am-a-tur. 
Where ai occurs as a compound vowel, i has the sound of our a, 
with a minute dash of i in it—so minute, however, as to be but 
scarcely perceptible. 

Terminal consonants are usually mute; as, for instance, Si t 


450 


WORDS MISPRONOUNCED. 


Arnaud is pronounced Sarntarno — Charngarnier, Shangarneay — 
Anglais, Aunglay — Canrobert , Kangrobare — Fellissier, Fel-leece-ce-ay, 
etc. When the article le or la is abbreviated, as it always is be¬ 
fore a vowel or silent h, it combines with the word to which it is 
attached, thus VEmperor —the emperor—is pronounced laungp'rer. 
French words have no decided accent; and where the reader is at 
a loss, he must give the accent as if it were an English word. 

Italian Names. —The Italian language is the most musical 
of any in the world. It is like the song of the nightingale ren¬ 
dered into syllables. Hence it is easy of utterance: there are 
no harsh gutturals, such as perplex us in German and Dutch, and 
which have been humorously described as compounded of a cough, 
a sneeze, a hiccough, and a husk of barley in the throat. The 
vowel a has two sounds, one of which, at the end of words, is 
sharp, and the vowel i the full sound of the English e. The Italian 
vowels are said to represent the seven notes in music, a, a, e, i, o, 
5, u, having the graduations of do, re, mi, fa, sul, la, ci. The con- 
sonant-compounds are not difficult; zz has the sound of tz, and 
serves to break the syllables, as in Mazzini, pronounced Mat-zee- 
ne; Festalozzi, Pes'-ta-lot-ze. In a general sense, the correct pro¬ 
nunciation of Italian names is very easy, the great point being to 
give the syllables, vowels, and double consonants their full music 
and distinctness. 

German Names. —The pronunciation of German is exceed¬ 
ingly simple. “ The rule is,” says Mr. L'ebahn, “ to speak it as it 
is written, and to write as it is spoken.” The sounds are mostly 
the same as the French, though their uses and combinations vary. 
The frequent occurrence of the long vowel, as a, o, ii, is a striking 
peculiarity. When a occurs long, with the dieraesis, its sound is 
the same as our a in hay. Otherwise the sound of a in German is 
broad, like our a in cart. The o, when so made long, has just the 
same sound as our u in purse; hence, Carl Theodor Korner is pro¬ 
nounced Carl Ta-o-dor Kur-ner; th, as before explained, being 
equivalent to t in English. How many thousand blunders have 
been made over those well-known names, Schiller and Goethe, 
names, of all others, most easily pronounced when the rule is 
once made plain. We have heard the first converted into Skiller, 
and the second into Gurthey, Go-e-the, and Goat. The oe is 
equivalent to o, and hence, if we proceed in the same way as in 
the Korner, we shall have Gur-e-tay, a very slight trill of the r 




FALSE PROKUlsCIATIOK CORRECTED. 


45 " 


giving it the roughness with which a German utters such words. 
Schiller is pronounced exactly as it is written, and sch has always 
a soft sound, exactly the same as in English. Ng has the sound 
of nk, and u generally that of oo. The consonant v is equivalent 
to f, and w to v, while j is used precisely as we use y when a 
consonant. 

The great terror of all Americans, how T ever, is the German ch. 
This is described by Mr. Smart as being sounded in the same way 
as the English k. This is an error; for although those who can¬ 
not easily accomplish it may fall back on k, yet the German sound 
of ch has but little resemblance to k in English. Mr. Lebahn pro¬ 
poses not to consider ch “ as a letter at all, but merely as a loud 
breathing.” However bold this assertion may appear, still, fre¬ 
quent trials have proved its accuracy. “For instance, if you are 
to pronounce ich, pronounce the i with the short sound of ee, then 
push a loud breath through the upper teeth, but be not con¬ 
founded by the c or ch, which is not to be considered at all, nor 
is the breath to be interrupted, but joined to the ee, and ich will 
be correctly pronounced.” We advise the reader to practice this, 
as ch occurs so frequently in German names and in ordinary news¬ 
paper reading, that to slur it over, or halt before the word, has 
an illiterate appearance, and greatly reduces the pleasure of read¬ 
ing and conversation. The vowel compounds ie and ei are sounded 
respectively like e in bee, and like y in my. The second vowel of 
the two has its full English sound, the other remaining mute. 
The vowel combination eu or aeu has the sound of oi in oil, and 
of a broad, has a slight sound, but scarcely so much as to give it 
the character of a syllable. Au has always the sound of ow. 

Remembering these particulars, and the general rule that Ger¬ 
man is written as it is pronounced, the reader will find no difficulty 
in pronouncing German words correctly. For instance, the Ger¬ 
man paper, Allegemeine Zeitung , is pronounced Al-ge-mi-ne-zi-toonk; 
Vadcrland , Far-ter-lant (d being like English t); Oesterrissche Cor¬ 
respondents, Urs-ter-is-sher Ivor-res-pon-dens. The Fremden Blalt is 
frequently pronounced Fremden Blah, but the correct mode is as it 
is spelt, Frem-den-blat. Kreuz Zeitung must be pronounced Kroiz 
Zi-toonk. 

The following example will show how easy is the acquisition of 
a correct pronunciation of German : 

Was is das Beutchse Vaterland. Vos is das Doitcher Fahterlant* 


452 


WORDS MISPRONOUNCED. 


Wieland, V61and; Mosheim, Mosh-ime; Gesner, Gues-ner; 
Schwartzenburg, Schvart'-zen-burg; Lichtenstein, Lick-ten-stine; 
Souderhausen, Sou'-der-kow-sen; Stahl, Stahl; Hohenlohe, Ho'-hen- 
lo-he; jager, yay-ger Schlcgtl, Schlay'-gl; Kielmeier, Keel'-mi-er; 
Fitchte, Fick-ta; Tieck, Teek; Moller , Meel'-ler; Muller , Meel'-ler; 
Grundtioig, Grunt'-vig; Niebuhr, Neeb'-ur-r; Gmelin, G-may'-lin; 
Gottingen, Geat-tin-gen—the g in each syllable hard; Jellaclxic, 
Yel-iak-ik; Metternich, Met-ter-nick. 

Dutch Names come within the scope of what has been said as to 
German names, though with a few exceptions; uy has the sound 
of oo, as Zuy-der-zee, pronounced Zoo-dev-zee ; the consonant t be¬ 
comes d in sound, and ch is the same guttural aspirate as in the 
German. 

Danish, Swedish, a‘nd Norwegian come within the rules first laid 
down. 

Examples.— Schleiermacher, Schli-er-mah-ker, the last syllable 
following the rule already given for ch; Oehlenschldger, Air-len- 
schlay-ger, the g in the last syllable hard; Oersted, Air-sted; Lan- 
geland, Lahn-ger-lahnt; Welt Chronich, Velt-kron-ik ; Schonbein , 
Schean-bine; Neue Beitrage zu dem Geist in der Natur, Noi-er Bi- 
trah-ger zoo dem Gist in der Nah-tur (Contributions to the Soul 
in Nature), 



COMMON ERRORS 

IN SPEAKING AND WRITING CORRECTED. 


ACGGpt of.— Pleas© accept of this gift.” Say “please accept 
this gift.” 

Admit of.—“ His conduct admits of no apology.” Say “his 
conduct admits no apology.” 

Ascend up.— “ He ascended up the mountain.” Omit up. 

Ask for why. —“If you ask for why I did it.” Say “if you 
ask why I did it.” 

At all. —“ Some found fault with me for dealing at all witn the 
matter.” At all adds no force to the remark, and is generally 
superfluous. In “without any pains at all,” it tends to make the 
expression weaker. 

Before —first.—“ Before I do that I must first be secured 
against loss.” Omit first. 

Both alike.—“These two watches are loth alike.” Say 
“ these two watches are alike.” 

Both of. —“Give me both of those books.” Say “both those 
books.” 

But — however. —“ But climate, however , always stamps its seal 
upon the human race.” Either but or however is enough. Both 
should not be used. 

But that. —*•' There can be no doubt but that he will succeed.” 
Say “there can be no doubt that he will succeed.” 

But What. —“ They will never believe but what I have been to 
blame. ” What is that which. But what would be but that which. 
The sentence might be supposed to read, “ They will never be¬ 
lieve but that which I have been to blame.” That is nonsense. 
Say “they will never believe but that I have been to blame.” 

453 



454 


COMMON ERRORS IK SPEAKIKG 


“ They will never believe that I have not been to blame ” is pref¬ 
erable. 

Cannot by no means. —“ I cannot by no means allow it.” Say 
“ I can by no means allow it,” or, “ I cannot by any means allow 
it.” 

Combine — together. —“He combined them together.” Omit 
together. 

Consider Of. — !< Let me consider o/this matter.” Omit of. 

Continue on. —“ He continued on thus.” Say “ he continued 
thus.” Omit on also in such expressions as “he continued on his 
journey.” But it is proper to use on in such expressions as “ he 
continued on the road,” because he might have continued his jour¬ 
ney off the road—that is, through the fields, or by a bye-way. 

Converse together. —“ They conversed together for more than 
an hour. Omit together. 

Cover—over.—“ He covered it over." Say “ he covered it.” 

Dead corpses. —“ Evil spirits are not occupied about the 
dead corpses of bad men.” Omit dead ; it is implied in corpses. 

Descend down. —“ He descended down the hill very rapidly.” 
Omit down. 

Enter in. —They told me to enter in" Omit in. 

Equally as. — As should not be used after equally. Say equally 
high , equally dear , equally handsome , etc.; not equally as high , equally 
as dear , equally as handsome. 

Equally as well as. —“ I can do it equally as well as he.” 
Omit equally ; it is implied in the words as well as. 

Equally the same.— “It is equally the same" Say “it is 
the same.” 

First of all, last of all. —“ First of all he measured the 
ground.” Omit of all, saying simply, first. “We must do this 
last of all." Omit of all. What is first, or what is last, is necessary 
first of, last of, all. 

From hence, from thence, from whence. — Hence is 

equivalent to from here; thence to from there; whence to from where. 
Hence using from with either of these words is equivalent to using 
it twice when it is wanted but once. 

Funeral obsequies.— “ After the funeral obsequies were per¬ 
formed.” Say obsequies. The sense of funeral is contained in this 
word. It would be as proper to speak of a “wedding marriage- 
ceremony ” as of “ funeral obsequies.' 



akd writing corrected. 455 

Go fetch.-— 1 “Go fetch me my riding whip.” Say “ fetch it,” or 
“ go and bring it.” Fetch has the sense of go and bring. 

Have got. —“ John has got a sorrel horse.” Say “ John has a 
sorrel horse.” Have signifies to be in possession of anything. Get 
signifies to obtain possession. When one has got a thing, he ceases 
getting it, and from that time has it. 

If ill case. —“If in case he comes, all will be well.” Say “ if he 
come or ‘‘in case he come.” 

Issue out. —“A warrant wa3 issued out for his arrest.” Say 
“ a warrant was issued.” 

It — what. —“ It is true what he says,” Say “whathe says is 
true.” 

Latter end. —“ I expect to get through by the latter end of the 
week.” Say “by the end of the week.” “The latter end of that 
man shall be peace.” Say “ the end of that man.” 

More than one thinks for.— “ It amounts to more than you 
think for." Say “ to more than you think,” or “ than you sup¬ 
pose,” or “ imagine.” Prepositions are often thus unnecessarily 
tacked upon the ends of sentences. 

Hever — whenever.— “ I never fail to read whenever I can get 
a book.” Say “ when I can get a book.” One ever is enough. 

Hew beginner. —Say beginner. When one begins anything, 
he is new at it of course. 

Hofoody else. —“ There was nobody else but him.” Omit else. 

Of four years old. — “A child of four years old.” Say “a 
child four years old,” or “a child of four years.” 

Off of. —“ There were ten yards of the cloth before I cut thi3 
piece off of it.” Say “ before I cut this piece off it,” or “ from it.” 

Plunge down.— “ He plunged down into the stream.” Omit 
down. 

Retreat back. — “ They retreated back." Say “ they re¬ 
treated.” 

Return back. —“ After a week’s absence he returned back." 
Say “ he returned.” 

Rise Up.—“ He rose up and left the room.” Say “ he rose; ” 
say also, raise, lift , hoist; not raise up , lift up, hoist up. 

Sink down. —“The stone sunk doivn in the water.” Omit 
down. 

Some one or other.—“ Some one or another has it.” Say 
“ some one has it,” 


456 


COMMON ERRORS IK SPEAKIKG 


They both, you both, and we both. —“ They both met.” 
Say “ they met.” “ My friend came to see me, and we both took a 
walk.” Say “we took a walk.” 

Throughout the whole. —“ They sought him throughout the 
whole country.” Omit the whole. The idea of the whole is embodied 
in throughout. “They sought him through the whole country,” 
using through instead of throughout is also correct. 

Double negatives. —Two negatives used in the same clause 
contradict each other, and give the sense of an affirmative. Yet 
nothing is more common than to use two negatives in this way. 

“ I did not do nothing ,” or “ I didn’t do nothing ,” means that “ I 
did something.” Say instead, “I did nothing,” or “I didn’t do 
anything.” 

“I have not but one.” Say “I have but one.” 

“I did not see him but once.” Say “ I saw him but once,” or 
c ‘ only once.” 

“ He is not improving much, I don’t think.” Say “ I don’t 
think he is improving much,” or “I think he is not improving 
much.” 

“ He had not hardly a minute to spare.” Omit not. 

Above. —“It is above a month since.” Say “more than a 
month since.” Instead of “ the above discourse,” it is better to 
say “ the preceding discourse,” or “ the discourse above quoted.” 

Aggravate. —“ His indifference aggravates me.” Say “ dis¬ 
pleases me,” “irritates me,” or “makes me angry.” But if the 
displeasure already exists, his indifference may aggravate it, that 
is, increase it, or make it heavier. 

Almost with a negative.— “ They pay almost no rent.” 
Say “they pay scarcely any rent,” or hardly any rent.” The 
thought of “ almost nothing ” is ridiculous. 

Alternative. —“ You may take either alternative.” Say “ you 
may take the alternative of either.” Alternative relates to the 
choice of things, rather than to the things themselves. 

Balance. —“ You may pay me five hundred dollars down, and 
the balance in a year.” “I cut part of my hay yesterday, and shall 
cut the balance to-day. if it does not rain.” Instead of balance say, 
in both cases, the rest. 

Calculate. —“ The failure of the house of-is calculated to 

cause great excitement in the money market.” “ Weston’s feats 
have this additional recommendation, that they are calculated to 




AND WRITING CORRECTED. 


457 


promote the species of exercise to which most people have a mor¬ 
bid aversion.” “ I calculate, friend, you are a stranger in these 
parts.” For “ is calculated" in the first example, say “ is likely." 
In the second example, say “ have a tendency to" In the third 
say “ I suppose, sir, you are a stranger here.” 

Caption.—“ The caption of the paragraph.” Say “ the head¬ 
ing of the paragraph.” 

Catch.—“ If you hurry you may catch the cars.” Say “ catch 
up with the cars,” or overtake them. 

Convene.—“The President convened Congress.” Say, the 
President convoked Congress, or called a session of Congress. But 
Congress convened (that is, came together) at the call of the Pres¬ 
ident. 

Directly.—“ Directly Mr. Hendricks finished his speech, Mr. 
Thompson rose to oppose the motion.” Say “ as soon as,” etc. 
“ 1 will come directly.” Say “ immediately.” 

Dry.—“I am dry , let me have a glass of water.” Say “I am 
thirsty.” 

Empty.—“ The Ohio river empties into the Mississippi.” It is 
better to say “ flows .” The river cannot be emptied while any 
water remains in its channel. 

Endorse.—“ He endorsed this proceeding.” Say “ he approved ,” 
or “ commended this proceeding.” 

Enjoys bad health.—“ This business would suit any one who 
enjoys bad health .” Say “ who is in delicate health,” or “ who is in 
bad health.” 

Expect.—“ I expect my brother sold his house yesterday.” Say 
“ I expect to heat that he sold it,” or, “ I think,” “ believe ” or “ am 
confident,” “I think,” or “I hope that he sold it.” We do not 
expect things of the past, but of the future. 

First, the First.—“ I have not yet heard of the first objection 
to the scheme.” Say “a single objection,” or “I have heard of 
no objection.” 

Get .—“ I am afraid Mary is getting crazy.” Say “ is growing,” 
or “ is becoming crazy.” “ John got left by the train.” Say “ was 
left.” We get any thing that we come in possession of. We may 
also get a disease. But get must be followed by a noun as its ob¬ 
ject. 

Gratuitous .—“ That is a gratuitous assumption.” It is better 
to say “unfounded,” “ unreasonable,” or “unwarranted.” 



458 


COMMON SRBOES IN 8PEAKING 


Hall!—“Cut it in half” Say “cut it in halves,” or “cut it in 
two.” There must be two halves. 

Hearty. —“ He ate a hearty meal” Say “ he ate heartily of 
the meal.” It is the eater not the meal, that is hearty. 

Inaugurate. —“ He receives regular informatioa of the official 
changes to be inaugurated at Albany and Washington.” “ A sub¬ 
scription was inaugurated last evening to purchase a house for Gen. 
Sherman.” Say “ changes to be made,” “a subscription was 
commenced,” “ started,” “ opened,” or “ begun.” Inaugurate 
means to induct into office under solemn ceremonies The Presi¬ 
dent of the United States is inaugurated , as also are the Presidents 
of colleges. Pastors are installed. A ball is opened , a new business 
is established. 

Initiate. —“ He initiated the proceedings.” Say “ he opened 
them.” “ He took the initiative in the affair.” Say he “ com¬ 
menced,” “begun,” or “opened’’the transaction. 

Leave. —“ I shall leave this morning.” Leave what 1 If any 
thing, or any place, name it. If you mean “go away,” say “I 
shall go away.” 

Light. —“In reading Macaulay’s essays, I suddenly lit upon the 
passage I wanted.” Say “ met the passage,” or “ found the pas¬ 
sage.” Another bad expression is, “I came across the passage.” 

Limb. —“She fell, and bruised her limb” Say what limb. 
The arm is a limb, as well as the leg. The foolish shame which 
avoids mentioning the leg by name, is not modesty but prudery. 

Like. —“ We don’t do that like you do.” Say “as you do.” 

Midst. —“ In our midst.” Say “ among us,” or “ in the midst 
of us.” 

Most for Very, &C.—“ It is a most melancholy and most unac¬ 
countable fact.” Say “ very melancholy ” and “ quite unac¬ 
countable.” 

Monstrous. —“It was a monstrous gathering.” Say “large,” 
“ great,” or “ immense.” Monstrous means ill formed, misshapen. 

Never. —“Washington was never born in New York.” Say 
“ Washington was not,” etc. Do not use never in denial of events 
which by their nature could take place but once. 

Notice. —“I shall notice a few particulars” is frequently used 
when “ I shall mention a few particulars ” is meant. 

Obnoxious. —“His conduct is obnoxious to me.” Say “his 
conduct is offensive to me.” Obnoxious means exposed to. A per- 



AND WRITING CORRECTED. 


45& 


son or his conduct may be obnoxious to blame, to censure, to re¬ 
proof, etc., but not to persons. 

Of all others. —“ The guerilla style of warfare is of all others 
the most barbarous.” Say “ of all styles,” or “ above all others.” 

Over, under. —“ He wrote over the signature of Junius.” Say 
“ under his signature,” in all cases. 

Over, with a number. — Over 300 persons were present.” It 
is better to say “ upwards of 300 persons,” or “ more than three 
hundred persons.” 

Over a bridge. —“ He went over the bridge.” It is more ex¬ 
act to say, “ he went across the bridge.” A bird may fly over a 
bridge, if it does not touch the bridge. 

Partial — Partially.— “ This view is partially correct.” Say 
“ partly correct,” or “ in part correct ” is better. Partially means, 
properly, one sided, with bias. 

Portion. —“A large portion of the town was burned.” Say 
“ part.” A portion is a part set aside for any one. 

Posted. —“He is posted on that subject.” Say “ he is well in¬ 
formed.” 

Predicate. —“ My opinion is predicated on the belief,” etc. Say 
“is based upon the belief,” or “ formed upon it.” 

Prejudice. —“ I was prejudiced in his* favor.” Say “ was pre- 
possessed.” We are prejudiced against people or things. 

Promise. — “I promise you I was much astonished.” Say “ J 
assure you.” 

Repudiate. —“ Secretary Stanton repudiated the policy of Mr. 
Johnson’s administration.” Say “ disowned it,” “ condemned it,” 
“ disapproved of it,” or “ denounced it.” 

Section.—“ Mr. Smith does not live in this section .” Say “ in 
ibife neighborhood,” “vicinity,” or “part of the country.” A sec¬ 
tion, in geography, is one square mile, or 640 acres of land, which 
has been kid out by the government surveyors, and called “ Sec¬ 
tion No. —The use of the word as a term of place in any 
other sense is i7»v 1 ' 0 P er - 

Stand. —“ He stane* upon security.” Say “ insists upon 
security.” 

Stop.— “ Mr. FergusoiL is stopping at the American House.” 
Say “ is staying.” Stopping is e momentary act As soon as one 
has stopped he stops stopping , and begins to stay. It is customary, 




460 


COMMON ERRORS IN SPEAKING 


however, to express a very brief stay by stop. “We stopped at 
Altoona twenty minutes for breakfast.” 

Transmit. —“ He transmitted his check for the amount.” Say 
“ he sent his check.’ 

Transpire. —“More than a century transpired ’.” Say “ elapsed.” 

“ The bass-ball match for the championship between the Atlantics 
and the Mutuals transpired yesterday.” Say “ took place.” News 
or a secret may transpire, an event cannot. The word means to 
breathe through, to leak out, and can be correctly used only when 
such a construction can be put upon it. “ What took place at the 
cabinet meeting yesterday”—that is, news, report, or knowledge 
of what took place—“has not transpired,” is correct. 

Try and. —“ I will try and do it.” Say “ I will try to do it.” 
Undeniable. —“ Mr. Jones is aperson of undeniable character.” 
Say “ of unexceptionable character.” An undeniable character is one 
that cannot be denied. It may be good or bad, but whichever it 
is, there can be no dispute about it. An unexceptionable character 
is one to which no exception can be taken. 

Existing truths. —Matters that are as true now as at the 
time spoken of, should be stated in the present tense, no matter 
what may be the tense of the context. “ His text was, that ‘ God 
was love,’ ” should be “His text was, ‘ God is love.’ ” “ The truth 
was, that John struck him first.” Say “the truth is, that John 
struekhim first.” “I told him that the Mississippi ran south¬ 
wardly.” Say “ runs southwardly.” “ Did you tell him you were 
Johnson’s brother.” Say “that you are Johnson’s brother.” 
“ They ascertained that the great pyramid stood near the banks 
of the Nile.” Say “ that the great pyramid stands.” 

Instead Of.—“ I have seen him last week.” Say “ I saw him last 
week.” “ Last week ” is a past time. “ I saw him this week.” Say 
“ I have seen him this week.” This week still continues. 

“The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away.” 
Say “the Lord gave.” 

“AH the brothers have been greatly indebted to their father.” 
Say “are greatly indebted.” But if by any strange circumstance 
they may have discharged the obligation, “have been indebted” 
would be correct. 

Adverb with the infinitive.—” Teach scholars to carefully 
scrutinize the sentiments advanced in all the books they read.” 
Say “ carefully to scrutinize,” or “ to scrutinize carefully.’ 


AND WRITING- CORRECTED. 


461 


Befell — befallen.— “ It has befell me.” Say “ It has befallen 
me.” But say, in the imperfect, “it befell me.” 

Began — begun.—“I have began to study history.” Say “I 
have begun.” But it is correct to say, using the imperfect, “He 
began .to cut his wheat yesterday.” “ I begun ” is also used as 
an imperfect form. 

Broke — broken. —“I have broke my gun lock.” Say “have 
broken.” But say, using the imperfect, “ I broke the lock yes¬ 
terday.” 

Chose — chosen. —“She has chose the blue silk.” Say “has 
chosen.” But say, in the imperfect, “ she chose him in preference 
to the others.” 

Come. —“ I come to town yesterday.” Say “ I came.” But 
say, using the imperfect, “ I have come from Pittsburg to attend 
to this business.” 

Did — done. —“ Who done it 1” Say “ who did it I” “ who has 
done it?” 

Drank — drunk. —“ He was very thirsty, and drunk eagerly.” 
Say “ drank.” “ lie has drank three glasses of soda water.” Say 
“has drunk.” “ Drunken,” the ancient form of the participle, is 
not now used. 

Drove — driven. —“ They have drove very fast.” Say “ they 
have driven.” But using the imperfect, say “they drove the 
people out, and locked the gates.” 

Froze — frozen. —“ The potatoes are froze." Say “ the pota¬ 
toes are frozen.” But say, in the imperfect, “ it froze very hard 
last night.” Avoid saying frozed or frizen. 

Bode — ridden. —“ I have rode fifty miles on horseback to¬ 
day.” Say “I have ridden.” But say, using the imperfect, “a 
courier rode up with great speed to warn them of the approach 
of the enemy.” 

Bang — rung. —“ I have rang the bell half a dozen times.” 
Say “ have rung.” But say, in the imperfect, “ they rang the bells 
merrily for Christmas day.” 

Saw—seen—see.—‘‘I see him last Monday.” Say “ I saw 
him.” “I seen him yesterday.” Say “ I saw him.” “I hav'n't 
saio him for a long time.” Say “ I havVt seen him.” See is pres¬ 
ent, saw imperfect, seen the participle. The habit of confusing 
them prevails widely. 

Shook — shaken. —“Have you shook the carpet? ” Say shaken . 




.462 


COMMON ERKOES I2ST SPEAKING 


But say, in the imperfect, u they shook it well.” Do not in any 
case say shaked. 

Spoke—spoken.—“ It was spoke in my hearing.” Say “ it was 
spoken.” But say, in the imperfect, “ Mr. L. being called upon, 
spoke as follows. ” Spake, the ancient imperfect, is not now in 
use. 

Swam — swum. —I have swam across the river many a time.” 
Say “ have swum.” But say, in the imperfect, “ the mate swam 
to the shore with a rope.” Swum may also be used as the imper¬ 
fect. “ The mate swum” would be correct. 

Took—taken.—“ Mr. Smith and family have arrived in Wash¬ 
ington and took up their quarters for the winter.” Say “ have ar¬ 
rived in Washington and taken up their quarters,” etc. 

Went—gone.—“He would have went with us, if he had been 
invited.” Say “he would have gone.” But say, in the imperfect, 
“ being invited, he went with us.” 

Wove—woven.—“ This cloth is toove very compactly.” Say 
“ is woven.” But say, in the imperfect, “ the girls wove jeans and 
linseys enough to clothe the family.” 

Beholden—beholding.—“ I am beholding to you for it.” Say 
“ I am beholden.” 

Know—knew—known—“I Mowed it.” Say “I knew it.” 
“ I have knoived it all along.” Say “ I have known it.” 

Plead.—“ He plead earnestly,” say “ he pleaded earnestly.” 

Proved—proven.—“ That is not proven .” Say “ that is not 
proved.” 

Idiomatic use of some verbs.—-Sometimes an active and 
transitive verb is used in its entire form intransitively or in a pas¬ 
sive sense. “ The cloth tears too easily;” “ Mahogany planes 
smoothe ;” “These‘lines read well.” Sometimes an intransitive 
verb takes a kindred noun as an object. “ He lived a virtuous 
life ;” “ This dream which I (Pharaoh) have dreamed.” 

Words like scissors, snuffers , tongs, trousers, etc., denoting arti- 
- cles which are paired or coupled, are plural, and take a plural 
verb. “The scissors are dull,” not “is dull.” 

“Many is the exhortation given.” Say “many are the 
exhortations given.” 

As he has.—“I can lift as many pounds as he has" As “he 
has” what? Say as “he has lifted.” 


AKD WRITING CORRECTED 



463 


<c The first remark I have to make shall be.” Say “ the first re¬ 
mark I shall have to make will be.’ ’ 

Is ceased. —“ The storm is ceased.” Say “ has ceased.” 

Was burning since. —“ The fire was burning since Wednes¬ 
day night.” Say “ the fire had been burning since Wednesday 
night.” 

“Each of the daughters take an equal share.” Say 
“ takes.” “ Every leaf, every twig, every blade, every drop of 
water, teem with life.” Say “teems.” Also, instead of “one of 
those house have been sold,” say “has been sold.” 

“ Where is it, says I to him.” —Say in all such instances, 
“ said I.” 

“ John will earn his wages when his work is done.” Say 
“ will have earned.” 

Use the subjunctive form instead of the indicative 
in hypothetical cases. —“ Was I to tell of all her good qualities 
it would look like flattery.” Say “ were I to tell.” “Be that as 
it will." Say “ be that as it may.” 

Was you ? —you was. —Say “ were you ? ” “ You were.” 

I who is. —“ It is I who is to go.” Say “ who am to go.” 

It is one of the subjects that is, etc.— Say “it is one of 
the houses that was built by Mr. Jones,” Say “it is one of the 
houses that were built,” etc. 

; “Be wise and good that you might be happy.”— Say 
“ that you may be happy.” 

Among — Between. —“The father divided part of his prop¬ 
erty among his two children, and distributed the remainder between 
his other kin,” should be “ he divided a part between his two chil¬ 
dren,'and distributed the remainder among his other kin.” 

“ John will be apt to catch the fever if he goes into that house,” 
should be “John will be liable,” etc. A person who is studious 
may be spoken of as apt to learn, and liable to become dyspep¬ 
tic. 

At length — At last. —“ I have heard from my friend at length" 
may mean, and often does mean, that a detaded statement of his 
affairs,—a setting of them forth at length—has been received. 
“ I have heard from him at last ” must mean that he has been 
heard from, after long waiting for news from him. 

Than him. —“ You are stronger than him" Say “ than he." 

It was them.— Say “ it was they" 





464 


COMMON ERRORS IN SPEAKING 


Is it me. —■“ Is it me you mean ? ” Say “ is it I? ” or “ do you 

mean me ? ” 

It is him whom. —“ It is him whom you said it was.” Say 
£ ‘it is he." 

“,In consequence of me neglecting.” —“ The horse got 

away in consequence of me neglecting to fasten the gate.” Say 
“ in consequence of my neglecting,” etc. 

With James and I. —“ They went with James and I." Say 
“ with Janies and me." 

Wot me. —“ Who made that noise 7 ” “ Not me." Say “ not 1." 

“ It wasn’t me." Say “ It wasn’t I." 

Me being. —“ Me being absent, the young folks lived high.” 
Say “ I being absent,” or “ while I was absent,” or “ during my 
absence.” 

Between you and I.—“ This is'a secret between you and I." 
Say “ between you and me." Better “ with you and me.” 

Let you and I. —Say “ let you and me" 

As good as me. —Say “ as good as I" 

It is me. —Say “it is I." 

“ You and us enjoy many privileges.”—Say “ you and 

we." 

He and they we know. —“ He and they we know, but who 
are you V’ Say “ him and them we know.” 

If I was him. —“ I would do the same if I was him" Say “ if 
I was he." 

He that was mentioned. —“ They chose William, he that 
was mentioned before.” Say, him that was mentioned,” or better, 
“him who was mentioned.” 

I am him. —“ I know I am him whom he meant.” Say “ I am 
he" 

That is him—that is her. —Say “ that is he" 11 that is she" 
From him having.—" From him having always assisted me, 
I again applied to him for help.” Say “because he had,” etc. 

“ What you saw was but a picture of him, and not 
him.” —Say “and not he." 

To be they. —“ I knew it to be they." Say “ to be them." 

As for who. —“ The boy as is reading.” Say “ the boy who 
is reading.” 

WTlO for whom.—“ Bo you know who this cane belongs to 1” 
Say “ to whom this cane belongs.” “ Whom this cane belongs 


AND WRITING CORRECTED. 


465 

to” is correct, and less formal. “ Who do you wish to see?” 
Say “ whom.” “ He did not know who to suspect.” Say “ whom 
to suspect.” “ He is a person who I respect very much.” Say 
whom I respect.” 

Which for who.— “The men which you saw.” Say “the 
men whom you saw.” But, of an animal, “the horse which you 
saw.” 

Of the relative pronouns, who is used exclusively with per¬ 
sons, which exclusively with things, and that with persons and 
things. In common conversation that is more frequently used 
with persons than who. But who is considered more elegant. 

Where for in which. —“ It is a cause where justice is partic¬ 
ularly concerned.” Say in which. “ We presented a paper where 
his case was fully explained.” Say “ a paper in ivhicli .” But 
where may be used instead of which and a preposition when place 
is the prominent idea. “ The old house where I was born.” 
Them books. —“ Give me them books.” Say “ those books.” 
Thus for this. —“ The manner of it is thus.” Say “the man¬ 
ner of it is this," or “ this is the manner of it.” 

This for thus or SO. —“ This much is certain.’! Say “ thus 
much,” or, “ so much.” 

I Who is.—“ It is I who is to receive the appointment.” Say 
“ it is I who am to receive the appointment.” 

Those set. —“ I will take those set of books.” Say “ that set.” 
This twenty years. —“I have not been there this twenty 
years,” Say “ these twenty years.” 

One another — themselves. —“ These authorities differ 
among one another." Say “differ among themselves." 

Every for all. —“ The men deserve every praise.” Say “ all 
praise.” “Every human being has this in common.” Say “ all 
human beings have,” or, “ each human being has this in common 
with every other one.” 

Every for entire. — “I have every confidence in him.” Say 
“ entire confidence.” Every means “ each of all,” and should not 
bo used in any other sense. 

All for each. —“ Seven lads were present, and he gave them 
all a book.” Say “ he gave them each a book.” 

Such for SO. —“ Such distinguished virtues seldom occur.” Say 
tc so distinguished virtues,” or, “virtues so distinguished.” 

. All — the whole. —“ Almost the whole inhabitants were pres- 



468 


COMMON ERRORS IN SPEAKING 


ent.” Say “ almost all the inhabitants.” But say “ almost the 
whole society attended the ceremonies.” Use all in speaking of a 
multitude or collection by the individual parts, the viliole when it is 
spoken of as a body. 

dumber of every. —“ Every rifleman and lancer were at their 

post.” Say “ was at his post.” 

The indeterminate possessive. —“ Every child should 
obey their parents.” Say “ his parents.” “ No one should incur 
censure for being careful of their good character.” Say his, or 
her, if talking more particularly of women. “Let each of us mind 
their own business.” Say “ his own business.” 

“When he was entered.” Say “when lie had entered.” 
So also say “ when he had departed,” “ when he had returned.” 

“I catehed it.” Say “ I caught it.” 

“ Of two evils choose the least.”— Say “ the less.” 

“Is this or that the best road?” -Say “the better 
road.” 

“The prisoner has, of all the gang, committed the fewer 
misdemeanors.” Say “the fewest.” 

Perfect. —“This is the more 'perfect of the two.” “This is the 
most perfect piece of mechanism I ever saw.” Such expressions are 
in common use. Thev are allowed but not encouraged. “More 
nearly,” or “ most nearly perfect,” is a more accurate term. 

Chief. —“ He sought the chiefest positions.” Say “ the chief." 
The chief positions are the head positions ; “ the chiefest ” would 
be “ the headest.” 

Universal. —“ Of all vices, pride is the most universal” Say 
“ most general.” What is “ universal,” extending over, and in¬ 
cluding the whole universe and every thing in it, cannot be more 
so. 

Eight—wrong.—“ That is very right.” “ That is very wrong.” 
Omit very in both cases. 

Agreeable — agreeably —“ Agreeable to my promise.” Say 

agreeably. 

Bold—bolder—more boldly. —“ He acts bolder than was ex¬ 
pected.” Say more boldly. 

Comformable — comformably. — “ Comformable to your 
orders.” Say “ comformably to your orders.” 

Distinct — distinctly.— “ The girl speaks distinct .” Say 
“ speaks distinctly .” 




AND WRITING CORRECTED. 


467 


Exceeding — exceedingly.—" He was exceeding kind to me.” 
Say exceedingly kind. " She was exceeding careful.” Say exceedingly 
careful. 

Fluent—fluently— £< He speaks very fluent .” Say very flu¬ 
ently. 

Indifferent—indifferently He was indifferent honest.” 
Say indifferently honest. 

Near — nearly.—“ I lost near twenty pounds.” Say " nearly 
twenty pounds.” 

Previous—previously. —“ He wrote me previous to his com¬ 
ing.” Say " previously to his coming.” 

Remarkable — remarkably. —"She is a remarkable pretty 
girl.” Say remarkably pretty. 

Shocking—shockingly.— 1 " This letter is written shocking .” 
Say shockingly. Shockingly is generally too strong a term to em¬ 
ploy in this case. Badly is a better word. Bad writing is not so 
uncommon or so important a matter as to cause a shock. 

Never — not for.— " He was never an instant diverted from his 
purpose.” Say “ not for an instant.” 

Seldom or ever. —" I seldom or ever see him now.” Say 
"seldom if ever,” or "seldom or never.” 

Almost never. — Scarcely ever , or hardly ever, is better. 

Never so. —" He is a man of honor, be he never so close in 
trade.” Say " ever so close.” 

Such a—for SO. —" He was such a disagreeable fellow that no 
one liked him.” Say " he was so disagreeable a fellow.” 

This — thus— SO. —" This much is certain.” Say “ thus much,” 
or "so much is certain.” 

So for very. —" That was so nice.” Say very nice. 

Yery — very much — greatly. —" I was very disappointed .*» 
Say u very much disappointed,” or "greatly disappointed.” 

Very much of. —" He is very much of a gentleman.” Say 
"he is very gentlemanly.** 

Over for more than. —" There were not over twenty persons 
present.” It is better to say " not mope than twenty persons.” 

As for that. —" Not as I know.” Say " not that I know.” 

But for if. —" I shouldn’t wonder but that was the case.” Say 
" if that was the case.” 

But for than. —" We suffered no other inconvenience but that 
arising from the rain.” Say " no other inconvenience than that,” 


468 


COMMON - ERRORS IN SPEAKING 


etc., or omitting other , and using but, “ We suffered no inconvenience 
but that arising from the rain.” 

But for that. —“ I have no doubt hut he will be here to-night.” 
Say “I have no doubt that,” etc. “I doubt not but I shall be 
able.” Say “ I doubt not that I shall be able.” Some writers 
have a habit of omitting the conjunction altogether, saying, “ I 
doubt not I shall be able.” This is a slipshod style. 

If that. —“ If that I had offended him.” Omit that. 

In SO far as. —“ We are to act up to the extent of our know¬ 
ledge ; but in so far as our knowledge falls short.” Say “ so far 
as,” omitting in. 

Doubt not but. —“ I doubt not but I shall be able to help 
you. 1. Say “ I doubt not that,” or, better, “I have no doubt,” or 
“ I do not doubt, that I shall be able,” etc. 

If for whether. — “ He doubts ?/his friend will come.” Say 
“he doubts whether ,” etc. 

That for if or whether. —“ I doubt that it be so.” An awk¬ 
ward expression, though common. Say “ I doubt if” or “I 
doubt whether.” 

After that. —“ After that he had seen the parties.” Omit 
that. 

But that.—“I don’t know but that I shall buy that house.” 
Omit that. 

But what. —“ They will never believe but what I have been to 
blame.” Say “ but I have been to blame,” or, better, “ that I have 
Pot been to blame.” 

X<To doubt but that— “ There can be no doubt but that he 
will succeed.” Say “ there can be no doubt that he will succeed,” 
or, “there is no doubt of his success.” 

Xtfot impossible but.— “ It is not impossible but I may go 
with you.” Here are two errors. That should be used instead of 
but. In “not impossible,” two words are used to express what 
one word expresses better. By this one of the words is made to 
kill the force of the other. Say “ it is possible that I shall go with 
you,” or “it is probable,” or “possibly I shall go with you.” 

Confide. —“ He is a man on whom you can confide.” Say “ in 
whom you can confide.” But “ on whom you can rely,” “ on 
whom you can depend,” “whom you can trust.” 

Fall into a man’s conversation.— “ When I fall into that 


AHD WRITING CORRECTED. 


469 


man's coiwersation, I am entertained and profited.” Say “when I 
engage in conversation with that man.” 

Taking one apart.—“ I took my friend apart to converse 
with him.” Say “ I took him aside,” and avoid a ludicrous sug¬ 
gestion. 

To change one’s self.—“ I am very wet, and must change 
myself Say “ I am very wet, and must change my clothes." 

One of the family.—“ Wanted, two apprentices, who will 
be treated as me of the family.” Say “ will be treated as membei’3 
of the family.” 

“I have not written to him, and am not likely to" Supply 
the verb, “ am not likely to write to him.” 

Quite the lady.—“ She is quite the lady.” Say “ she is very 
ladylike.” 

Such expressions as “ I do not like too much sugar,” “ X 
do not want to walk too far,” are indefinite. They mean “ I do 
not like more sugar than I like,” “ I do not want to walk farther 
than I like.” 

Not only—for only—except—or unless.—“ The cars will 
not stop at this station only when the bell rings,” should be, “ the 
cars will not stop at this station unless the bell rings,” or “ except 
the bell rings.” It would be correct also to say, “ the cars will 
stop at this station only when the bell rings,” omitting not. 

A most beautiful.—“ It was a most beautiful sight.” Say a 
beautiful sight , or a very beautiful sight. The superlative degree is 
not used with the indefinite article. “A most a beautiful sight” 
is low. 

Most for almost.—“ They see each other most every day.” 
Say almost. 

“Not as I know of.”—“ Say “not that I know of.” 

Some for somewhat.—“ He is some better to-day.” It is 
better to say “ he is somewhat better.” 

Bad and badly.—“ He feels bad," used sometimes in descrip¬ 
tion of ill health, means literally that he is troubled with a sense 
of wickedness. “He feels badly,” expresses clearly that he is 
sick. 

Good for well.—“ He can do it as good as any one else can.” 
Say as weld. 

Bred and born.—“ Bred and born," should be, “ Born and 
bred." — Birth precedes education. 




470 COMMON ERRORS IN SPEAKING 

Not mistaken.— 1 ' If I am not mistaken" should be, 11 If I mis¬ 
take not." 

Are mistaken. — 11 You are mistaken ,” should be, “You mis¬ 
take .” 

Had — would.— 11 1 had rather not,” should be, “ I would rather 
not.” 

Had better. — “I had better go,” should be, 11 It were better that 
X should go.” 

New pair. — 11 A new pair of gloves,” should be, “ A pair of new 
gloves.” 

Very rising. —“He is a very rising man,” should be, “ He is 
rising rapidly .” 

To let. —“ Apartments tolet," should be, “ Apartments to be let" 

Learns. —“ Who learns you French'?” should be, “ Who teaches 
you French?”—The pupil learns. 

Less — fewer. —“No less than ten persons,” should be, “No 
fewer than ten persons.”— Less must be applied to quantity, as 
“No less than ten pounds.”— Fewer must be applied to things. 

Never — whenever. —“I never speak whenever I can help it,” 
should be, “ I never speak when I can help it.” 

Get over. — “x 0 get over an illness,” should be, “ To survive ,” 
or, “ To recover from an illness.” “To get over a person,” should 
be, “ To persuade a person.” “ To get over a fact,” should be, “ To 
deny," or “ refute ” it. 

Never. —“ Be it never so good,” should be, “ Be it ever so good.” 

Began. —“ I have began," should be, “ I have begun." 

The then. —“ The then Mrs. Howard,” should be, “ The Mrs. 
Howard then living," or “ of that time." 

Ought.— 11 For ought I know,” should be, “ For aught I know’.” 
— Aught means anything ; ought implies obligation. 

As far as. — 11 As far as I know,” should be, “ So far as I know.” 
— As far as expresses distance. 

Couple. —“A couple of dollars,” should be, “ Two dollars.”— 
Couple implies union, as, “'a married couple.” 

United together.— “ They are united together," should be, 
'• They are united A 

So much.— 11 She is so much the lady,” should be, “ She is very 
lady-like A 

Noways. — 11 He is noways in fault/’ should be, “ He is nowise 
in fault.” 


AND WRITING CORRECTED. 


471 


Like. —“ He is like to be,” should be, “ He is likely to be.” 

All Over. —“ All over the land,” should be, “ Over all the land.” 

Whenever — always. —“ Whenever I sing I always am ap¬ 
plauded,” should be, “Whenever I sing, I am applauded.” 

To — with. — “I am stout in comparison to you,” should be, 
“ I am stout in comparison with you.” 

At — by.- —“It will look beautifuls night,” should, 11 By night.” 

Best. —“ At best,” should be, “At the best.” 

Worst. —“ At worst,” should be, “At the worst.” 

For to. —“For to give,” should be, “ To give.” 

Eat Up. —“ The dinner was all eat up,” should be, “ The dinner 
was all eaten.” 

Eat. —“ I eat heartily of fruit,” should be, “ I ate heartily,” etc. 

Again. —“ He again repeated it,” should be “He repeated it.”— 
Again is included in repeated. 

Approved. —“ His conduct was approved of by all,” should be, 
“ His conduct was approved by all.” 

Sweetly — sweet. —“ The rose smells sweetly,” should be, 
“ The rose smells sweet.” —You smell, and not the rose, and an 
adjective must be used to express the quality of a thing. “ Those 
roses scent the room sweetly,” is correct, because the roses scent 
and not you, and an adverb is required to express the action. 

In — into. —“ He fell in the river,” should be, “ He fell into the 
river.”— Into should be used after a verb of motion; in, when mo¬ 
tion or rest in a place is signified: “I walk im the garden daily,” 
“ I sleep in this room.” 

Every — another. —“ Handed down from every age to another,” 
should be, “Handed down from one age to another.” “On some 
day or another,” should be, “ On some day or other.”—Another cor¬ 
responds to one, some and every to other .” 

In. —“ Who finds him in money V should be, “ Who finds him 
money V’ 

TWO first. —“ The two first,” should be, “ The first two.” 

TWO last. —“ The two last,” should be “ The last two.” 

First of all. —“ The first of all,” should be, “ The first.” 

Last Of all. —“ The last of all,” should be, “The last.” 

Will—may. —“ Be that as it will,” should be, “ Be that as it 
may.” 

Every — all. — <! My every hope,” should be, “ All my hopes,” 


472 


COMMON ERRORS IN SPEAKING 


When—which.—“ Since when'' should be, “ Since which 
time." 

If that.— 11 If that I said so,” should be, 11 If I said so.” 
“ After that you had spoken,” should be, “ After you had spoken.” 
— That is superfluous. 

What—that.—“ I do not know but what I shall call upon you,” 
should be, “ I do not know but that I shall call upon you.” 

Of-at.—“I am glad of your success,” should be, “ I am glad 
at your success.”—“ Glad of," should be used when something is 
gained or possessed; “ Glad at," when something happens to 
another. 

From—to.—“ I am averse from it,” should be. “ I am averse to 
it.”—We show aversion to, not from a thing. 

Got.—“ He has got money,” should be, “ He has money.”— Got 
is superfluous. 

An one.—“ Such an one," should be, “ Such a one!—An should 
not be used before a long u, o when that vowel has the sound of 
w, or eu. Thus, it is correct to say, a University, a European, a 
unit. 

Or—are.—“ I or my son are to call,” should be, “ I or my son 
is to call.” “ Neither one nor the other are true,” should be, 
‘‘Neither one nor the other is true.”— Or and nor are disjunctive 
conjunctions, and separate things. 

Setting.—“ The hen is setting," should be, “ The hen is sitting." 

Hung—Hang.—“He was hung," should be, “ He was hanged." 
—To hang , to take away life by hanging, is a regular verb, having 
hanged for its past participle. To hang, to suspend, is an irregular 
verb, having hung for its past participle, as, “ The picture was hung 
up.” “ His life hung upon a thread.” 

Propose—purpose.—“ I propose going," should be. “ I purpose 
going.” 

Ho—not.—“ Is it true or no ?" should be, “ Is it true or not ?" 

Sets.—“ The wind sets," should be, “The wind sits." 

Further—farther.—“ He walked further than you,” should 
be, “He walked farther than you.”— Farther must be applied to 
distance, further to quantity, as “ Further funds are wanted.” 

Over again.—“I said so over again," should be, “I repeated it" 

But—than.—“ No sooner but," should be, “No sooner than." 
“ No other but," should be, “ No other than." 


AND WRITING CORRECTED. 473 

Nobody else.—' “Nobody else but him,” should be, “ Nobody 
but him.” 

Back — ago. —“ Six weeks back” should be, “ Six weeks ago” 
or “ since.'” 

This — these. —“ This two days,” should be, “ These two days.” 

Mean — intend. —“Do you mean to come,” should be, “Do 
you intend to come.”—To mean is to signify ; to intend is to purpose* 

Each. —“ Each of them are,” should be, “ Each of them is .”— 
Each means one and the other of two. 

Neither — or. —“ Neither one or the other,” should be, “Neither 
one nor the other.”— Neither (not either) means, not the one nor 
the other of two. 

Either — any. —“ Either of the three,” should be, “ Any one of 
three.”— Either means one, or the other of two. 

Every — are—is.— “ Every one of them are,” should be, “ Every 
one of them is.” — Every refers to any one of a number more than 

two. 

Whom — to whom. — “ Whom do you speak to ?” should be, 
“ To whom do you speak ?”—The preposition should not be sepa¬ 
rated from the relative. The answer should be, “ Him,” or “ Herd' 

I—me.—“ Who said that?” The answer should be, “/(said 
It),” not “ me.” —The word containing the answer to a question 
must be in the same case with the word which asks it. 

Into —from.—“ They were refused entrance into, and driven 
from , the house,” should be, “ They were refused entrance into the 
house, and driven from it.” —Two propositions should not be con¬ 
nected with a noun. 

Ever. —“As soon as ever,” should be, “As-soon as.” 

Some — one. —“ You will some day be sorry,” should be, “ You 
will one day be sorry.” 

Direct — address. — 11 Direct to me,” should be, “ Address to 
me.” 

Very. —“The very best,” should be, “The best.” “ The very 
worst,” should be, “ The worst.” 

Now.—“ From now,” should be, “From this time .” 

With — from. —“ I differ with him,” should be, “ I differ from 

him.” 

Thought — think. —“ Therefore, I thought it proper to write 
to you,” should be. “ Therefore, I think it proper to write to you.” 


474 


COMMOK ERRORS IK SPEAR IK G 


With—in.—“ Conversant with politics,” should be, “ Conver¬ 
sant in politics.”—We say conversant with men, in things. 

Oh, Ah, and other interjections, generally require the objective 
case of 1, and the nominative case of Thou, as “Ah me /” “ 0 thou 
fool! ” “0 ye hypocrites! ” “ Woe’s thee" (is to theej is correct. 

Ok is used to express pain, sorrow, or surprise; 0 to express 
wishing, exclamation, or an address to a person. 

“ Since then,” should be, “Since that time." 

“A summer's morning,” should be, “ A summer morning.” 

Have got.—“ My clothes have got too small, or too short for 
me,” should be, “ I have become too stout or too tall for my 
clothes.” 

Most perfect. —“A most perfect poem,” should be, “A perfect 
poem.”—Perfect, supreme, complete, full, empty, true, false, chief, 
universal, honest, do not admit of comparison. 

In—within.—“Is Mr. Smith in V should be, “Is Mr. Smith 
within 

Other. —“ The other one," should be, “ The other.” None other,” 
should be, “ No other.”— Another has no plural. “ Another one," 
should be, “ Another.” 

Spoonsful.—“ Two spoon sful," should be, “ Two spoon fuls." 
—You do not measure the medicine, etc., in iivo spoons. For the 
same reason we say Mouthfuls, Cupfuls, Handfuls. 

To.—“ I spoke to, and warned him," should be, “ I spoke to him 
and warned him." —A preposition and an active verb should not be 
connected with a noun or pronoun. 

Therefore, Doubtless, and Ter haps, are generally placed at the 
beginning of a sentence, as “ Terhaps he will.” 

Left.—“ I left this morning.” Name the place left. 

Head and ears. —‘ Over head and ears," should be, “ Over 
head." 

Perhaps.—“I may perhaps," or “ probably," should be, “I 
may.” 

Possibly.—“ I can possibly," should be, “ I can."—May and can 
imply probability. 

Ho—not.—“ Whether he will or no," should be, “ Whether he 
will or not." 

Says—said.— “ Says I,” should be, “ Said I," or, “ I said." 

Contemptibly. —“lie spoke contemptibly of him,” should be, 

He spoke contemptuously of him.” 




AND WRITING CORRECTED. 


475 

Cannot — can.— “ Nothing cannot,” should be, “Nothing can” 

No — not.— “ No one has no* ” should be, “ No one lias.” 

Oftener. —“ I am ofiener well than ill,” should be, “ I am more 
frequently well than ill.” 

Without — unless. —“ I cannot agree to it without you prom¬ 
ise,” should be, “ I cannot agree to it unless you promise.’ 

Quantity. —“ There was a quantity of people,” should be, 
“ There was a number of people,” 

Good and all. —“ For good and all,” should be, “ For ever” 

Above — more. —“It is above a month since,” should be, “It 
is more than a month since.” 

Superior. —“ He is a superior man,” should be, “ He is superior 
to most men.” 

At — in. —“ He lives at New York,” should be, “He lives in New 
York.”— In should only be applied to capital cities. 

To. —“ He lives opposite the park,” should be, “ He lives oppo¬ 
site to the park.” 

Right — bound.—“ I have no right to pay this bill,” should be, 
M I am not bound to pay this bill.” 

On — of. —“ I think nothing on it,” should be, “I think nothing 
of it.” “ Take hold on it,” should be, “ Take hold of it.” 

Need — needs. — “ He need not do it,” should be, “ He needs not 
do it.” 

Me —I.—“You are older than me (am),” should be, “You are 
older than I (am).” 

Her — she. — “I am taller than her (is),” should be, “ I am 
taller than she (is).” 

Over — across. —“ Go over the bridge,” should be, “ Go across 
the bridge,” unless you mean, “ to go from side to side.” 

Some — at some. —“ I was some distance from home,” should 
be, “I was at some distance from home.” 

Some.—“ I knew him some six years ago,” should be, “I knew 
him six years ago.” 

Here—hither. —“ Come here,” should be, “ Come hither” 

Such another. —“ For such another book,” should be, “ For 
another such book.” 

Mutually. —“ They mutually loved each other” should be, 
“ They loved each other.” — Mutually means both. 

Eminent. —“ He was iu eminent danger,” should be, “ He was 


m 


COMMON ERRORS IN SPEAKING 


in imminent danger.”— Eminent relates to rank. Imminent means, 
to hang over. 

Plenty.—“Vegetables were plenty” should be, “Vegetables- 
were plentiful.” 

Ye—yon.— Ye must always be used in the nominative case, aa 
“ Ye have wronged me,” but never in the objective case. “ I have 
wronged ye,” should be, “ I have wronged you.' 

One—lie.—“'When one speaks incorrectly, he should not be 
offended at being politely corrected,” should be, “ When one 
speaks incorrectly, one,” etc. 

They—those.—“ They who do right shall be blessed,” should 
be, “ Those who do right,” etc. Those stands for a noun not intro¬ 
duced but understood.— They stands for a noun already used, as 
“ I saw the pictures. They are very good.” 

That—this.—“ They are not experienced, and for ^(reason,” 
etc., should be, “ and for this reason,” etc. “ Those pictures which 
I see,” should be, “ These,” or “ The pictures,” etc. This or these 
refer to things present or just named, that and those to things past. 

Has—have.—“ Ignorance and official routine has caused the 
evil,’ r should be, “Ignorance and official routine have caused the 
evil.” Two or more singular nouns coupled with and require the 
verb to be in the plural number, unlegs the nouns denote only one 
person or thing, as “That great statesman and warrior has said,” 
etc. When the nouns coupled -with and are qualified by every, the 
verb should be singular , as “ Every man and woman was,” etc. 

This— these. —“ They were industrious, and by this means 
rose to eminence,” should be, “ and by these means.”— This means 
and that means refer to what are singular; these means and those 
means to plurals. By means , By this means, etc., are used to denote 
instrumentality, as “ By means of art.”— A mean is used only to 
denote a middle state, as “ There is a mean between extravagance 
and stinginess.”— Amends should be used in the same manner, as 
“ That will be an amends to me for my exertions.” “ Fame and 
wealth are amends for his dangers.” 

Do.—“You do me honor,” should be, “You honor me.”—You 
might as well say, “You do me flattery,” instead of “You flatter 
me.” 

Avoid using “fine” language. Speak good, strong, expressive 
English, such as Shakespeare and the best writers used. Many 
persons affect grandiloquent language, ponderous, but poor. 




GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


Abandonment. —In marine insurance, when the person who 
has insured goods, exercises his right, in certain cases of accident 
to the ship, of abandoning the property insured to the person or 
company that granted the insurance, in order that he may claim 
indemnity for the value of the property. 

Abstract. —An abridgment or epitome of a deed or document. 
An epitome is a cutting or lopping applied to a whole throughout, 
abridging it generally and not in parts only. 

Acceptance.—Acceptor.— See Bill. 

Accommodation Bill. —A bill not representing any trade 
transaction, but merely concocted between two or more parties, 
with a view to its being discounted, for the temporary accommo¬ 
dation of either the drawer, acceptor, or indorsers, or, frequently, 
for all; the several parties agreeing to provide the acceptor, at or 
previous to its due date, with the portion for which they have re¬ 
ceived the discounter’s money. 

Account. —A statement showing the several sums and amount 
due by one person to another for goods, cash, &c., or arising out 
of any mutual transactions. Accounts are kept under their re¬ 
spective heads in the ledger, from which they are copied when 
the account is to be sent in or is asked for. 

When invoices giving the particulars and items were either sent 
with the goods, or by mail, or messenger, it is not necessary to 
repeat the particulars of the entries in the account, but only the 
dates and sums need be given. 

When no invoice was sent, all the particulars must be given. 
These particulars must be copied from the day-book, as the ledger 
contains only the amount of each entry. 

477 



GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


478 

If the account has to be sent again, it is only necessary to give 
the date when sent, or of the last entry, with the words “ Account 
rendered ” or “ To bill delivered,” and the total amount. 

Account Current. —A statement of the transactions that have 
taken place between two parties during a certain time, drawn out 
in Dr. and Cr. columns, in the order of their dates. An Account 
current is usually sent in at the end of any adventure, or series of 
transactions, and in a general way at stated periods, yearly, half- 
yearly, or quarterly. Interest is frequently charged or allowed 
upon each item. 

Account Sales.—An account drawn out by a commission agent 
or broker, showing the sales he has made of goods on account of 
another; also an account rendered by a merchant to the consignor 
of goods. It states the weights or quantities sold, and the prices 
at which they were sold with the total amount due to the owner 
after deducting the charges for freight, cartage, advertising, &c., 
and the agent’s commission. 

An “Account Sales Book' 1 is generally used for entering sales of 
goods on commission. 

Acquittance. —A discharge in writing for money, debt or lia¬ 
bility. 

Actuary. —One who makes the calculations for a Life Assur¬ 
ance company, and advises on all matters relating to its finances 
and statistics. 

Adjustment. —In marine insurance when the insured party 
agrees to accept certain terms for the loss incurred, and the in¬ 
surer writes on the policy—“ adjust this loss at — per cent., pay¬ 
able,”—naming the rate per cent, and time for payment. 

Adjustment of an Account. —Is the agreeing to, or arrang¬ 
ing the particulars of a faulty or disputed account. 

Ad Yalorem Duty. —Duty levied on goods according to their 
value, and not on the quantity, or by their weight or measure. 

Administrator. —A person legally authorized to take charge 
of the estate of a deceased individual, dying without a will, or 
when a named executor refuses to act. 

Advances. —Money advanced by merchants and agents on 
goods which they are commissioned to sell. Loans of money are 



AGREEMENT FOR THE SALE OF LAND 


479 


often termed advances. Also, additional price or profit, as, an 
advance on the former price. 

Adventure. —A term applied to shipments of goods on the 
merchant’s own account, to or from some foreign market. Thus, 
if a merchant shipped goods to Jamaica, an account would be 
kept in the ledger under the head “ Adventure to Jamaica,” stat¬ 
ing the proceeds and expenses, and showing how much was gained 
or lost by the transaction. 

Bill of Adventure. —A writing signed by a person who takes 
goods on board of his ship wholly at the risk or the owner. 

Advice or Advices. —Mercantile information sent by letter, 
which is called the “ Letter of Advice .” 

Agent or Factor. —A mercantile agent who buys and sells 
goods and transacts business for others on commission. He may 
be a home factor or a foreign factor. He may buy and sell iu 
bis own name, and is entrusted with the possession and control of 
the goods ; and in these respects he differs from a broker. 

Agencies, Mercantile. —Places to which bankers and mer¬ 
chants refer to ascertain the credit and particulars relating to 
dealers in town and country. 

Agio ( ad'-ge-o , Italian).—The difference in value between bank 
notes and metalic money in Venice and Holland, formerly, but 
now applied to other countries; also, between one sort of money 
and another. 


Agreement for the Sale off Land. 


Agkeement made and entered into the Twelfth day of May, 18— , between 
Walter Graham, of Kinney, County of Hudson, and State of New Jersey, 
and Henry Kerr, of Kinney, County of Hudson, State of New Jersey, 
Witnesseth, that the said Graham, in consideration of the sum of five hun¬ 
dred dollars now paid and the further sum of fifteen hundred dollars to be 

E aid when a deed is executed, doth grant, bargain and sell unto said Kerr, 
is heirs, and assigns, all that piece of ground situate, etc. (describing the 
premises) together with all and singular appurtenances thereunto belonging 
or in any wise appertaining. 

And the said parties bind themselves, their heirs, executors and adminis¬ 
trators, for the performance of all and every part of the above agreement; as 
witness their hands and seals, day and year above-written. 



480 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


Agreement for the Sale of Grain. 

It it agreed, this first day of June, 18—, by and between Wm. Morris of 
Aberdeen, County of Harford and State of Maryland, and Bromwell Bros., 
of Baltimore city, State of Maryland, as follows: The said Bromwell Bros., 
in consideration of five hundred bushels of wheat, to them this day sold by 
the said Morris, and by thesaid Morris agreed to be delivered to them, the said 
Bromwell Bros, on or before the first day of October next, free of all charges, 
agree to pay to the said Morris within one month after such delivery the sum 
of five hundred and seventy-five dollars. And the said Morris, in considera¬ 
tion of the aforesaid agreement of the said Bromwell Bros doth hereby agree 
to forward and deliver to the said Bromwell Bros., at Baltimore, aforesaid, 
free of charge, the said five hundred bushels of wheat, so to them sold as 
aforesaid, hereby warranting the same to be good, clean and merchantable 
grain. 

"Witness our hands and seals, day and year first written. 

Sealed and delivered in presence of \ 

E. Richardson. > Wm. Morris. L. S. 

Geo. Rixham. ) Bromwell. Bros. L. S. 

Agreement with a. Clerk, or Salesman, for services. 

It is agreed, this first day of January, 18—, between Geo. Blackie & Co. and 
John Simple, all of the city of New York and State of New York, in man¬ 
ner following, to wit: 

That said John Simple covenants and agrees, faithfully and dilligently to 
serve and act as clerk (or salesman) of the said Geo. Blackie & Co. in their 
store in said city, from the day of the date hereof, for and during the space 
of one year, if both parties shall so long live, without absenting himself from 
the same; during which time hq, the said John Simple, will in the store of 
the said Geo. Blackie & Co. faithfully, honestly and dilligently attend, doing 
and performing all matters pertaining to his duties as clerk (or salesman) 
aforesaid, and in all respects complying with the request and desire of said 
Geo. Blakie & Co., relative to the discharge of such duties. 

In consideration of which services so to be performed by the said Simple, 
we, the said Geo. Blackie & Co., covenant and agree to allow and pay to the 
said Simple, the yearly sum of one thousand dollars, by four quarterly pay¬ 
ments, or oftener if required; provided, nevertheless, that payment for all 
time, during which the said Simple may be absent from the store of the said 
Geo. Blackie & Co., is to be deducted from the sum, otherwise by this agree¬ 
ment due from, and payable by, the said Geo. Blackie & Co. to said Simple. 

Witness our hands and seals, day and year first written. 

Signed, sealed and delivered in presence of \ 

Walter Dorsey. > Geo. Blackie & Co. L. S. 

Robert Michael. ) John Simple. L. S. 

Agreements between Landlord and. Tenant. 

LANDLORD’S AGREEMENT. 

This is to certify, That I have Let and Rented unto P. J. Cox, the 
House and Lot, known as 27 Doolittle street, in the village of Newburgh, 
New York, for the term of one year, from the first of May, 18—,at the yearly 
rent of two hundred and fifty dollars, payable quarter yearly. 

The premises are not to be used or occupied for any business deemed extra- 
hazardous on account of fire, nor shall the same, or any part thereof, be let 
or underlet without the written consent of the Landlord, under the penalty 
Of forfeiture and damages. 

Given under my hand and seal the 10th day of June, 18—. 

, W. H. Wbbb. 

TENANT’S AGREEMENT. 

This is to certify, That I have Hired and Taken from W. H. Wbjbb, o* 
the Village of Newburgh, New York, a House and Lot, known as 27 4Joo’lib 




ASSETS. 


481 


tie street, in the village of Newburgh, aforesaid, for the term of one year, 
from the first of May, 18—, at the yearly rent of two hundred and fifty dollars, 
payable quarter yearly. 

And I hereby promise to make punctual payment of the rent in the man¬ 
ner aforesaid, and quit and surrender the premises, at the expiration of said 
term, in as good state and condition as reasonable use and wear thereof will 
permit, damages by the elements excepted, and engage not to let or underlet 
the whole or any part of the said premises, without the written consent of the 
Landlord, under the penalty of forfeiture and damages; and also not to oc¬ 
cupy the said premises for any business deemed extra-hazardous without the 
like consent, under the like penalty. 

Given under my hand and seal the 10th day of April, 18—. 

P. J. Cox. 


Surety. 

In Consideration of the letting of the premises above described, and for 
the sum of one dollar, I hereby become Surety for the punctual payment of 
the rent, and the performance of the covenants in the above written agree¬ 
ment mentioned, to be paid and performed by P. J. Cox, and if any default 
shall be made therein, I hereby promise and agree to pay unto W. H. Webb 
such sum or sums of money as will be sufficient to make up such deficiency 
and fully satisfy the conditions of the said agreement, without requiring any 
notice of non-payment or proof of demand being made. 

Given under my hand and seal the 10th day of April, 18—. 

Wm. Gordon. 

Annuity. —A payment made yearly or at stated periods. 

Arbitration. —The settlement of disputed accounts, claims, or 
other matters, by the decision of one or more persons, having no 
personal interest in the matter, who are called arbitrators , and are 
authorized by a court of law, or by the parties concerned, to de¬ 
cide the disputed points. One person, only may be appointed to 
arbitrate; but it is usual to choose two or three; or for each 
party to name one, and these to name a third, who is called the 
umpire. Their determination is called the aivard. 

Arbitration Boml. —A deed which obliges one to abide by the 
award of the arbitration. 

Arbitration of Exchanges. —The calculation of the rate of 
exchange of the currency between two places, through the cur¬ 
rency of intermediate places, in order to ascertain whether it is 
most profitable to forward drafts or money, directly to the place 
or indirectly through another place. When one intermediate 
place only is to be considered it is termed Simple Arbitration , but 
when mo p e are concerned Compound Arbitration. 

Assets. —Cash and property of every description, belonging to 
a person or firm. Originally it meant goods and chattels suffi¬ 
cient for the discharge of all legal claims, but now merely the ao- 


482 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


tual property of an individual, in contradistinction to his liabil¬ 
ities. 

Assignee ( as-se-nee ).—A person to whom an assignment is made. 
In case of bankruptcy, the court appoints an Official Assignee to 
take charge of the bankrupt’s property or estate, as it is termed ; 
and the creditors appoint a Trade Assignee, from their own body, 
to take care of their interests. 

Assignment '—The appointment of a person to take charge of 
and manage property ; also, the transfer of property of any de¬ 
scription, or making over a right or claim to another person, by a 
legal document which is called a Deed of Assignment. The per¬ 
son who makes over the property is commonly called the Assignor, 
but in legal phraseology tho Assignor '. 

Assignment ©f JEtemd, Assignor feeiEig JLiaMe. 

For value received, I do assign and set over the within, obligation, and all 
moneys due thereon, unto John Jone3, bis executors, administrators and as¬ 
signs, hereby guaranteeing the payment thereof, in case of default being made 
by the within named Josiah Hopkins. 

Witness my hand and seal this first day of November, 18—. 

Signed , sealed and delivered in presence of \ 

Augustes Marsh. [ It. Ramsay. L. S. 

Simon Clodpole. ; 

Assignment of Account Emlorsecl tlaereoEt. 

In consideration of one dollar, value received, I hereby sell and assign to 
Emmet Jones the within account, which is j istly duo from the within named 
Alex. Harris, and I hereby authoiizc the said Emmet Jones to collect the 
same. Richard Smith. 

New York, October 2,18—. 

Attachment. —A legal process by which an embargo is laid 
tipon money, money due, or goods in possession of other persons 
who are thereby prohibited from parting with the goods or money, 
or paying the money due until a claim against the owner is settled. 
See Garnishment. 

The term is also applied to a seizure or taking both of persons 
or property. 

Attorney, Power of.— A legal document conveying to a per¬ 
son, usually residing in another country or distant part of the 
same, authority to act and sign for another person, either in a 
special case or without reserve. It is sometimes called a Letter 
of Aiiorneg. See Procuration. 

Audit. —A scrutiny of accounts and vouchers by duly authors 
jzed persons, called auditors. 


AVERAGE OE PAYMENTS. 


483 


Average.-—In shipping transactions, the term general average is 
appiled to the proportionate contribution levied upon the value of 
a ship and its cargo generally, when part of the sails, masts, &c., 
or part of the cargo, has been voluntarily sacrificed in a storm, or 
under peculiar cicumstances in order to sa,ve the rest; the loss is 
distributed amongst the owners of the ship and the various owners 
of the cargo in fair proportion. This risk is covered by the ordinary 
insurance policies. If the full value was not insured a proportion 
according to the amount of insurance is recoverable. 

Particular average is the terra applied to partial damage of the 
ship alone or part of the cargo alone, arising from the ordinary 
wear and tear, or from the ordinary mishaps of a voyage, and not 
involving the general safety of the ship or cargo. Such partial or 
particular risks are not usually covered by the insurance policies, 
unless specially provided for. It is usual for the underwriters to 
except certain goods, by a clause in the policy warranting them 
free of particular average , on account of such goods being very lia¬ 
ble to be damaged by sea water, heat, &c. However, when the 
loss exceeds a certain percentage, or if the ship is stranded, sunk 
or burnt, partial damage to goods, &c., is recoverable from the 
underwriters, under an ordinary insurance, notwithstanding the 
clause. To prevent paltry claims being made, it is customary to 
warrant a ship, freight, and cargo, free of particular average un¬ 
der 3 per cent. 

Petty averages are certain small charges, which occur regularly, 
and are necessarily defrayed by the master in the usual course of 
the voyage; such as port charges, common pilotage, and the like, 
which formerly were, and in some cases still are, borne partly by 
the ship and partly by the cargo. 

In the clause commonly found in bills of lading, “ primage and 
average accustomed,” average means a kind of composition estab¬ 
lished by usage for such charges, which were formerly assessed 
by way of average. 

Average of Payments.— Is the method of finding the time 
when payment of several sums due at different times, may be 
made at once without loss of interest to either party. To find the 
average time when all the terms of credit begin at the same time. 

Rulr.— Multiply each amount by its term of credit and divide the sum of 
the several products by the sum of the debts; the quotient will be the average 
time of credit. 


484 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


Example. 

A merchant purchases goods on May 1st amounting to $750.00; $350.00 pay¬ 
able in 3 months, $250.00 in 6 months, and $150.00 it 8 months. When may 
the whole be paid without loss to either party ? 

$350 for 3 mos. equals.$1050 for 1 month 

$250 « 6 “ “ $1500 “ “ “ 

$150 “ 8 “ « .$1200 “ “ “ 


$750 )3750(5 mos. average time. 

Note.— If the result contains a fraction less than a day reject it. When the 
cents are less than 50 disregard them, when more call them 100. 

To find the average time when the credits begin at different 
times. 

Rule. —Eind the date when each debt becomes due. Find the time interven¬ 
ing between the earliest of these dates and the date of each succeeding 
amount. Multiply the amount first due by 0. Multiply each succeeding 
amount by the tune intervening between the earliest date and the time the 
amount becomes due. 

Divide the sum of the products by the sum of the debts; the quotient will 
be the average time required. Add this average time to the day of maturity 
of the amount first failing due for the day of payment. 

Example. 

♦ 

Required the time when the amount of the debts as below stated becomes 
due per average. 

Date of Purchase. Amount. Time. When due. Time from. 

Jan. 6th.$300... .6 mos.. .July 6th. .July 6th to Aug. 7th, 32 days. 

Apl. 10th. 200....6 mos...Oct. 10th.. 

May 7th. 400....3 mos...Aug. 7th..July 6th to Oct. 10th, 96 days. 

Amount. Time in days. 

July 6th.$300.0. 0. 

Aug. 7th. 400.32.12800. 

Oct. 10th. 200.96.19200. 


900 )32000(35 5-9 days. 

Ans. 36 days from July 6th is August 11th. 

Bailment. —A delivery of goods in trust for some special ob¬ 
ject or purpose, upon a contract, expressed or implied, that the 
trust shall be faithfully executed. 

Balance. —the difference of money required to make the Dr. 
and Cr. sides of an account equal. 

Balance Sheet. —A paper giving a summary and balance of 
accounts. 

Balance of Trade. —The difference in value between the ex^ 
ports and imports of a country, by which also the rates of ex¬ 
change are much affected. 

Banco. —A term used to distinguish between the value of 
money at a bank, and its current value ; as, at Hamburg banco is 
worth about 23 1-3 per cent, more than currency. 

Balancing Accounts. —It is often of advantage to the account¬ 
ant to find the difference between the sums of the debit and credit 

















BEARS AND BULLS. 


485 


columns of his ledger by addition instead of subtraction. For 
example, if he wishes to find the difference between 1897 and 682, 
instead of placing the lessser number under the greater, he will 
add mentally to 682 such a number as will make the whole equal 
to 1897, writing the figures as he proceeds under 682. 

1897 682 

1215—balance. 

When each side contains several amounts, first add the greater 
side in the usual manner, then commence at the top of the col¬ 
umns on the lesser side of the account and add downwards, in¬ 
serting such figures as may be necessary to make tne required 
balance. To prove its correctness add the whole of the lesser 
columns including the balance. 


Dr . 

Edward Shaffer. 


Cr . 

18- 
Feb. 1. 

“ 25. 

To Mdse. 184.50 

..203 10 

18- 
Feb. 20. 
Apl. 1. 

By Cash. 

(« ii 

240 00 

Apl. 10.... 


Balance. 



502.85 



501.85 


Bankrupt. —A trader unable to meet his engagements, who, 
by his own acts or those of his creditors becomes amenable to 
the bankruptcy laws. 

Banker. —A dealer in money, who grants loans, discounts bills 
and receives deposits at interest; he also receives the deposits of 
others for safe custody, acts as an agent in their payments and re¬ 
ceipts, and facilitates the remittances of money from one place to 
another. 

Barratry. —A fradulent breach of duty or wilful act of known 
illegality on the part of a master of a ship, in his character of 
master, or of the mariners, to the injury of the owner of the ship 
or cargo, and without his consent; it includes every breach of 
trust committed with dishonest views, as running away with the 
ship, sinking or deserting her, embezzling the cargo, &c. 

Bears and Bulls.—Cant names for persons engaged in the 
gambling transactions of the stock exchange. A Bear is a specu¬ 
lator who engages to deliver stock or shares which he does not 
possess, at a stated price, at a stated time, calculating that a fall 
in the market price will take place before the settling day, when 
he will be able to buy them at a lower price than he has agreed 
to deliver them at. A Bull is a speculator who purchases stock 











GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


486 

or shares, which he does not intend to tako up, to be delivered at 
a stated price, at a stated time, calculating that a rise in the mar¬ 
ket price will take place before the settling day, which will enable 
him to sell them at a profit. Hence, in the intervening time, it is 
the interest of the former to depress stocks, as the bear pulls 
down with his strong paws, and of the latter to raise stocks, as the 
bull throws upward with his horns. The stock is, in fact, never 
delivered, and was never meant to be. When the time for delivery 
arrives, the losing party pays the difference between the price of 
the stock then, and at the time when the contract was made. 

Bill of Entry. —A written account of goods entered at the 
Custom House, whether imported or intended for exportation. 

Bill of Exchange is a written order or request from one per¬ 
son to another, desiring the latter to pay to some person designa¬ 
ted, a certain sum of money therein named on a certain day. It 
generally is, and, to be negotiable, must be, made payable to or¬ 
der or to bearer, and it also states that it is given for value re¬ 
ceived.” The person w r ho draws the bill is called the Drawer , the 
person on whom it is drawn is, before acceptance, called the 
Draivee; he accepts it by writing his name either below that of the 
Drawer, or, more commonly, across the face of the bill; he is then 
termed the acceptor of the bill, which is often called an acceptance; 
the person to whom the money is directed to be paid is called the 
Payee. The person making the order himself may be the Payee. 
The bill itself is frequently called a Draft. The banking house or 
place where the bill is made payable is also generally stated by 
the Acceptor. Any person into whose hands it may come is called 
the Holder. Now, if the drawer of the bill wishes to make use of 
it, he indorses the bill—that is, writes his name across the back of 
it—and thus it becomes negotiable paper, and may be paid away 
to a third party; and this holder indorsing it below the other’s 
name, may pay it away to a fourth, and so on; the person to 
whom he makes it payable is called the Indorsee. Thus the bill 
may be transferred an indefinite number of times, each time 
liquidating a debt to the amount for which it is drawn, till the 
day of payment by the acceptor arrives, when it is duly presented 
by the last holder. Instead of being thus '■'paid away,” the bill 
may at any period be discounted by a banker or bill-broker, who 
will give the money for it, less a certain sum for interest. 


BILLS. 


487 


Asa laalas-id 15! 11 of Escliaaisg-e. 

$963 83-100. _ Cincinnatti, Oct. 10, 18 —. 

Sixty days after sight, pay to the order of Messrs. Bulinger & Co. the sum 
of nine hundred and sixty-three, 83-100 dollars, value received, and charg* 
the same to the account of _ James Elris. 

To Messrs. Howes & Macy, Broadway, Hew York. 

This is accepted by the drawee's writing across the face, 

Accepted Oct. 20, 18—. Payable at the Park Bank. 

Howes & Macy. 

Set of Foreign Hills ©f Fxels.assge. 

£100. No. 350. New Yoke, Feb. 10, 18—. 

Thirty days after sight of this, my first of exchange (second and third of 
same tenor and date not paid), pay to the order of Francis Waters, one hun¬ 
dred pounds, value received (with"current rate of exchange), and charge the 
same without further advice to Smith & Co. 

To Messrs. Kemp, Cash & Co., London 

£100. No. 350. 

Thirty days after sight of this, my second of exchange (first and third of 
same tenor and date not paid), pay to the order of Francis Waters, one hun¬ 
dred pounds sterling, and charge the same without further advice to 

To Messrs. Kemp, Cask & Co., London. Smith & Co. 

£100. No. 350. 

Thirty days after sight of this, ray third of exchange (first and second of the 
same tenor and date not paid), pay to the order of Francis Waters, one hun¬ 
dred pounds sterling, and charge the same without further advice to 

To Messrs. Kemp, Cash & Co., London. Smith & Co. 

All foreign bills must be indorsed in full, tbus: 

Pay to the Oriental Bank or order , value received. 

J. M. Stewart. 

All bills, except Promrnissory Notes require to be presented for 
payment on the exact day they become due—that is, on the last 
day of grace , which see; if not presented, they lose the peculiar 
privileges of bills, and become mere evidences of debt. When a 
bill is not duly paid on presentation, it is said to be dishonored, and 
is taken to a Notary Public , who again presents it, when, if not 
paid, he notes its non-payment; and afterwards draws out a formal 
protest, that legal proceedings may be taken for recovering the 
amount. A bill may be passed from hand to hand without any of 
the persons indorsing it, in which case none of them are liable to 
the last holder if it should be dishonored. Any material alteration 
of a bill after it has been drawn or accepted, makes it useless. A 
bill is renewed when a creditor receives a new bill instead of 
payment. 

Bills are sometimes drawn at sight , or at so many days after 
sight. A bill of this kind is usually drawn by a person residing 
at a distance from bis debtor; and he sends it to the debtor to bo 
sighted, which consists in his accepting it by signing his name, and 
adding the day on Mkick he has done so. Is is now negotia- 




488 GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


ble, and on the third day after the time named for payment it is 
presented. 

Foreign bills of exchange are drawn at so many days after 
sight; and are of exactly of the same nature as the ordinary bills, 
but for the sake of security in transmission, they are drawn in 
sets of three, two of which are sent by different mails, and on 
payment of one the others become void. The third bill of the 
same tenor is retained by the drawer or holder, until he learn 
whether the first or the second has been received ; and if both 
have been lost, it is sent. Such bills are seldom sent by the ac¬ 
tual drawer, but are usually paid away or sold on the spot to an¬ 
other party, who transmits them to a creditor of his own, who 
obtains the payments. 

A bill of exchange puts a debt in a tangible form; thus, instead 
of leaving a debt to be paid at an indefinite period, if it be put in 
the form of a bill, the creditor possesses the power to compel 
payment very soon after the time named, by legal process, with¬ 
out the delay of an ordinary suit at law, unless the bill has been 
fraudulently or falsely obtained, in which case an application 
must be made to a judge, who can stay the process. 

Promissory Notes—Note on Demand. 

$600. New York, Nov. 2,18— 

On demand I promise to pay to John Flin, or order, six hun¬ 
dred dollars, value received. Bknj. Smith. 

Note on Time. 

$275 55-100 New York, Nov. 2, 18- 

Ninety days after date we promise to pay to Eli Josking, or 
order, two hundred and seventy-five and 55-100 dollars, value received. 

Goodsell & Bareum. 

Note not Negotiable. 

$150 62-100 New York, Nov. 10, 18- 

Thirty days after date I promise to pay to William Cannon 
one hundred and fifty and 62-100 dollars, value received. 

Thomas Cautious. 

Form off Judgment Note. 

$900.00 

For value received I promise to pay to Henry James, or order, 
the sum of nine hundred dollars, ninety days after date, and I hereby nomi¬ 
nate, constitute, and appoint the said Henry James, or any attorney-at-law 
of this State, my true and lawful attorney irrevocable, for me, and in my 
name, to appear in any Court of Record of this State, at any time after the 
above Promissory Note becomes due, and to waive all process and service there¬ 
of, and to confess judgment in favor of the holder hereof for the sum that may 
be due and owing hereon, with interests and costs, and waiving all errors, &c. 

In Witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal at the city 
of Cincinnati, State of Ohio, this 10th day of May, one thousand eight hun« 
dred and seventy-three. 

Sealed and delivered in the presence of 
C. L. Soper. 

James O’Neil. 



T. C. Spenoeb. L. S, 


BILL OF LADIM. 


489 


Due Bill. 

$25.00 New Tore, Nov. 12,18- 

Due Charles Merritt Twenty-five dollars on demand, value 
received. John Smart. 

Negotiable Note Payable in Merchandise. 

$300.00 Boston, May 28,18— 

Thirty days after date, for value received, I promise to pay to 
Henry Jackson, or order, three hundred dollars in merchantable corn, at the 
current price. Joseph Johnson. 

A note on demand is due at any time when demanded. A note 
payable to S. H., or order, may be sold or negotiated if S. H. 
writes his name upon the back ; and if payable to S. H., or bearer, 
it can be sold without being indorsed, and will be good to the 
holder. In the State of Pensylvania the words^“ without defalca¬ 
tion” are inserted after dollars. When two or more persons sign 
a note “severally and jointly,” they are each fesponsible for its 
payment. The words “ value received ” should be written on a 
note to make it valid. 

A person indorsing a note, or writing his name across the back, 
becomes responsible for its payment. If, however, the person 
thus indorsing is not notified when the note becomes due, of its 
non-payment by the drawer, he can no longer be held responsible 
for its payment. A partial payment of a note should always be 
indorsed on the same. 

The principal difference between a sealed note and one without 
a seal, is that the former must be first paid in the settlement of a 
decendent’s estate, and is not barred by the statue of limitation. 

A Promissory Note is a written promise to pay to some person 
named, and at a time specified therein, a certain sum of money. 
It is frequently called a note of hand. It is subject to the same 
laws, and may be transferred by indorsement in the same way as 
an acceptance.. It is complete in itself, not requiring to be accepted 
by another person, and consequently only one person is responsible 
for the payment to its holder ; whereas the amount of an acceptance 
may be recovered from the drawer if the acceptor should not be 
found, or otherwise not be made to pay it. 

Bill of Lading 1 .—A receipt, usually a printed form filled up 
with writing, given by the master of a vessel for goods that have 
been shipped with him, and agreement as to their delivery, freight, 
&c. It states the number or quality of the bales, &c., with their 
brands or marks. Four or more copies are filled up, one for the 


490 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


master; another is reserved by the shipper of the goods as 
“proof of interest” in case any claim should be made against 
the underwriters; a third is sent in a letter by the ship; and the 
fourth by the next mail, in case of the preceding not reaching 
the consignee. The shipper gives the person to whom he sends 
the bill the right to receive the goods. A bill of lading, like a bill 
of exchange, may be transferred by indorsing or writing the name 
of another person on the back of it, who thus acquires the right 
to the goods. When one of the bills has been used the others be¬ 
come void. The master usually makes certain exceptions in writ¬ 
ing ; as, “ contents unkown ” of dry goods in bales, &c.; “ weight un¬ 
known ” of loose goods ; “ not accountable for leakage or breakage ” of 
liquids in bottles ; “ not accountable for leakage ” of liquids in casks, 
and 11 pieces in dispute if the skipper’s list of articles differs from 
the ship’s account. The master also makes notes of any goods 
which seem to be in bad order or condition, lest he should be 
compelled to make good or pay for any defect, as the bill of lading 
begins by stating them to be “ shipped in good order and well- 
conditioned.” 


Form o£ Bill of lAa&iaig;. 

Shipped, in good order and well-conditioned, by Rawlinson and Co., in and. 

upon the good ship called the Neptune, whereof is Master, 

/-v for this present voyage, George Thornton, and now at an- 

| C.E- | chor in this port, and bound for Singapore, 

v_' 

1 to 10 Ten hogsheads beer, 

R. & Co. 16 to 18 Three casks brandy, 

being marked and numbered as in the margin, and are to ba 
delivered in the like good order and well-conditioned, at the 
aforesaid port of Singapore (the act of God, fire, and all 
and every other dangers nnd accidents of the seas, rivers, 
and navigation, of whatever nature and kind soever, ex¬ 
cepted), unto Arthur Wilkinson, or to his assigns, freight 
for the said goods being paid here, with primage and aver¬ 
age accustomed. In witness whereof I, the said master of 
the said ship, have affirmed to three bills of lading, all of 
this tenor and date; the one of which three bills being ac¬ 
complished the other two to stand void. 

Dated in New York, 31st March, 18— 

George Thornton. 

Contents and weight unknown, and not accountable for 
leakage or breakage. 

Bill of Parcels. —A list of goods that have been sold, with 
their prices, sent by the seller to the buyer. It is nearly the same 
as an Invoice , and that term or Account is now generally used in¬ 
stead. 


GENERAL FORM OF A BOND 


491 


Bill of Parcel*. 


2 

6 

H 

5 

1 

K 

H 

1 


Messrs. Waters & Sows, 


New Yoxk, May 10, 18— 


Bought of D. Appleton & Co. 


Doz. Ready Reckoner.$2 00 per doz. $4.00 

“ Song Books (cloth).3 00 “ 18.00 

“ Hand Books. 6.00 “ 3.00 

“ National Copy Books. 1.25 “ 6.25 

Gross Paper Pass Books. 2.63 

“ Leather .Memorandums, 8vo.16 50 per gross 8 25 

“ Eagle Playing Cards.40.00 “ 13 34 

Ream Fancy Note Paper........ 3.50 


$54.97 

Bill of Sale. —A legal document conveying or transferring 
the right to certain goods, &c., from one person to another. 

Bill off Sale. 

Know oil men by these presents, that I, Wm. Hart, of Athens, County of 
Henderson and State of Texas, in consideration of three hundred dollars, to 
me paid by George Boyd of the same place, have bargained and sold to the 
said George Boyd the following goods and chattels, to wit: two mules, one 
wagon and four cows. In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and 
seal, this third day of August, 18— 

Signed , sealed and delivered in presence of \ 

Thomas Smot.let. > William Hast. L. S. 

John Bluebottle. ) 

Bill of Sight.— A form of entry made at the Custom House 
when the importer of goods or the person to whom they are con¬ 
signed, does not know the exact description or quantity, by which 
form they are permitted to be landed for his examination or 
“ sighting,” and he then makes a correct form of entry for the 
goods. 

Bond.—A legal document by which a person binds himself to 
pay a certain sum at a stated time, or to perform a contract. 

General Form off a Bond. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, Robert Smith of Oxford, County of 
Benton, and State of Alabama, am held and firmly bound unto Josiah Field¬ 
ing, of the same place, in the sum of two thousand dollars, lawful money of 
the United States, to be paid to the said Josiah Fielding, his certain attorney, 
executors, administrators or assigns; to which payment well and truly to be 
made, I do bmd myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, firmly by 
these presents ; sealed with my seal, and dated this first day of march, one 
thousand eight hundred and seventy-three. The condition of this obligation 
is such that if the above bounden Robert Smith, his heirs, executors, adminis¬ 
trators. or any of them, shall and do well and truly pay, or cause to be paid, 
unto the aforesaid Josiah Fielding, his executors, administrators or assigns, the 
full and just sum of one thousand dollars, lawful money as aforesaid, with 
legal interest on the same, on or before the first day cf July next, without 
fraud or further delay, then this obligation to be void and of none effect; 
otherwise to be and remain in full force and virtu3. 

Signed, sealed and delivered in presence of \ 

John Walters. S Robert Smith, L. S* 

Henry Morr. $ 











492 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


Bonded Goods.—Imported goods liable to duties, left in 
charge of the officers of the customs, for the duties on which 
bonds are given at the Custom House ; and they are then depos¬ 
ited in government warehouses, where they remain until the du¬ 
ties are paid. The goods are said to be In Bond. 

Bond-Creditor. —A creditor whose debt is secured by a bond. 

Bond-Debt. —A debt contracted under the obligation of a 
bond. 

Bonns. —An extra dividend to the shareholders of a joint stock 
company, out of accumulated profits; also applied to periodical 
additions made to policies of life assurance, out of the general 
profits. 

Book Debts. —The debts owing to a trader, as shown by his 
books, and usually classed as good , doubtful , or bad debts. 

Bottomry. —A contract by which the owner of a ship, or the 
master as his agent, hypothecates and binds the ship as security 
for the repayment of money advanced or lent for the use of the 
ship, such as repairing her, fitting her out for the voyage, procur¬ 
ing a cargo, etc., if she terminates her voyage successfully. If 
the ship is lost, the lender loses the money; but if the ship ar¬ 
rives safe, he is to receive the money lent, with the interest or 
premium stipulated. The tackle of the ship, also, is answerable 
for the debt, as well as the person of the borrower. The deed is 
called a Bottomry Bond. 

Broker. —An agent employed to effect bargains and contracts, 
as a middleman or negotiator, between other persons, for a com¬ 
pensation or percentage, commonly called Brokerage. He takes no 
possession, as broker, of the subject matter of the negotiation. 
He generally contracts in the names of those who employ him, 
and not in his own. The principal are Bill Brokers , who buy 
and sell notes and bills of exchange ; Exchange Brokers, who buy 
and sell uncurrent money, and deal in exchanges relating to 
money; Insurance Brokers , who are agents in procuring insurance 
on vessels, or against fire: Produce Merchandise Brokers, who buy 
and sell goods; Ship Brokers, who deal in buying and selling 
ships, procuring freight, etc.; and Stock Brokers , who deal in stocks 
of moneyed corporations and other securities. 

Broker’s Contracts.—A paper signed by the broker, and sent 


CHARTER-PARTY. 


40? 


to the person for whom he has bought or sold goods, immediately 
upon completing the bargain, describing the goods and the price, 
and conditions upon which they were bought or sold. 

Bulk.—In a mass, or solid state, as pork in bulk, or bulk pork , 
pork not cut up or prepared for packing. Laden or stowed in bulk 
is having the cargo loose in the hold, or not inclosed in boxes, 
bales, or casks. Sale by bulk is a sale of goods as they are, with¬ 
out weight or measure. To break bulk is to begin to unload. 

Bullion.—Properly, the precious metals are called bullion when 
smelted and not perfectly refined, or when refined, but in bars, 
ingots, or in any form uncoined, as in plate. But the word is 
generally used in commerce to denote gold and silver, both coined 
and uncoined, when reckoned by weight and in mass. 

Capital. —The net amount of property belonging to a public 
company or trader, after deducting the debts owing. The term, 
however, is more correctly applied, either to the sum of money 
with w r hich the business was commenced, or to the available sum 
which is afterwards at command for carrying it on. 

Cargo.—The lading or freight of a ship, goods, merchandise, 
or whatever is conveyed in it. The term does not apply to live 
animals or persons. 

Cash Account. —In book-keeping, an account to which nothing 
but cash is carried, and from which disbursements are deducted. 

In banking, an account of advances made by a banker to an in¬ 
dividual w T ho has given security for their repayment. 

Cash Credit. —The privilege .of drawing money from a bank, 
obtained by personal or deposited security. 

Cashier. —One who has charge of money; the clerk who su¬ 
perintends the books, payments, and receipts of a bank or 
company. 

Charter-Party.—An agreement in writing respecting the hire 
of the whole or a part of a vessel, made between the owmer or 
master and the freighter, on a determined voyage, and under cer¬ 
tain specified conditions. No exact form of words is absolutely 
necessary, or could be used, as the purposes of such parties must 
vary considerably. Two copies are drawn out and signed by both 
the owner or master, as his agent, and the charterer or hirer, each 
party having one. 


494 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


Check. —An order on a bank or banker for a sura of money 
payable on demand to a person named, or to his order, or to 
bearer. Checks should be presented as soon as received ; if de<- 
tained after the date drawn, and the banker fail, the amount can¬ 
not be recovered from the drawer of the check. The holder must 
be identified by the teller when presenting a check payable to 
order, as the person indorsing it. This inconvenience can be ob¬ 
viated by the drawer’s writing beneath the indorser’s name on the 
back, Indorsement correct , Bush <$■ Co. The teller may also certify 
the check, which means that the bank has sufficient money belong¬ 
ing to the drawer to meet it; it can then be used as cash, provid¬ 
ing the bank’s credit is good. A certified check is at once charged 
against the account of the drawer. A check deposited by a dealer 
and returned through the clearing house as not good, or no funds , 
is at once charged against the depositor's account. Checks in¬ 
tended for payment of notes or drafts, placed in bank for collec¬ 
tion, must be certified. 

Circular Note.—A bill or note issued by bankers for the con¬ 
venience of travellers, who can get it cashed at any one of the 
various places named. 

Clearing' a Yessel. —To clear a ship at the Custom House is to 
exhibit the documents required by law, give bonds, or perform 
other acts requisite, and procure a permission to sail, and such 
papers as the law requires. 

Clearing'.—In banking is a method adopted by banks and 
bankers for making exchanges of checks and settling balances at 
a place called the Charing House , where a clerk from each bank 
attends every day, and balance sheets are made ; by which method 
the transferring of a large amount of money backwards and for¬ 
wards from bank to bank is obviated. 

C. 0. I).—Collect upon delivery. Goods sent by express, 
marked in this manner, must be paid for when delivered, or they 
will be returned to the sender. 

Collateral Security. —Secondary security for the perform¬ 
ance of covenants, or the payment of money, besides the principal 
security. It is generally applied to the deposit of deeds or docu¬ 
ments conveying the right to property which may be made availa¬ 
ble if the chief security fails. 

Commission. —A charge of so much per cent, upon the amount 


COMPOSITION. 


495 


of goods bought or sold, or upon transacting or negotiating busi¬ 
ness of any kind, by an agent for another. 

Commissioner. —A person who has a commission or warrant 
from proper authority, to perform some office, or execute some 
business, for the person or government which employs him; as, 
commissioners for adjusting claims. 

Commission Merchant. —A merchant who transacts business 
on commission, as the agent of others, receiving a rate per cent, as 
his commission. 


Compound Interest. —Compound interest is on both principal 
and interest. To compute compound interest: 

Rule .—Find the interest on the given principal to time the interest becomes 
due, and add the principal. Then find the interest on this amount for the nest 
period, and add as be ore, and so continue for each successive period to the 
time of settlement. Subtract the given principal from the last amount, and 
the remainder willibe compound interest. 

Example. 

What is Ibe compound interest on $1,000 for 4 years, at 6 per cent. ? 

Given principal. $1,000 

.06 


Interest for 1st year 


60.00 

1000.00 


Principal for 2d year 


1060.00 

.06 


Interest for 2d year. 63 6000 

1060 00 


Principal for 3d year..... 1123.60 

.06 


Interest for 3d year.... 67.4160 

1123.60 

Principal for 4th year. 1191.0160 

.06 

Interest for 4th year.... 71.4609G0 

1191.0160 

1262.476960 

Given principal... 1000. 

Compound interest for 4 years. $262.476960 


Composition. —A payment of so much on the dollar by a 
debtor to his creditors on their agreeing to accept that sum by 
way of composition for the full amount of the debts, and giving 
an acquittance for the whole; which act is called compounding or 
compromising with creditors, and saves the expense and publicity 
of bankruptcy. 





















496 


GUIDE TO BUSIHESS. 


Conditions of Sale.—The terms upon wmch it is proposed to 
sell property at auction; also the writing containing or express¬ 
ing these terms. 

Consignee [con-si nee). —The person to whom goods or other 
things are delivered in trust, for sale or superintendence. The 
thing consigned is termed the consignment , and the person who 
consigns it, the consignor , written also consign er. 

Consul. —A person commissioned to reside in a foreign coun¬ 
try as an agent or representative of a Government to protect the 
rights, commerce, merchants, and seamen of the state, and to aid 
in any commercial, and sometimes diplomatic, transactions with 
such foreign country. 

A Consul-General is a consul having jurisdiction in several places 
or over several consuls. 

Consulage. —A duty or tax paid by merchants for the protec¬ 
tion of their commerce in a foreign place. 

Contraband. —Prohibited merchandise or traffic. It is fre¬ 
quently applied to smuggling. 

Contraband of War is applied to goods which neutrals are pro¬ 
hibited from carrying during war to the belligerent parties, or 
which a belligerent has, by the law of nations, the right of pre¬ 
venting a neutral from furnishing to an enemy, and which is lia¬ 
ble to seizure and confiscation, as warlike munitions, &c. 

Contract. —An agreement between two or more persons, upon 
a sufficient consideration or cause, to do. or to abstain from doinsr, 
some act; as, to contract or a contract for carrying the mails, sup¬ 
plying an army with cattle, buying certain goods, &c. Also, the 
formal writing which contains the agreement of the parties, with 
the terms and conditions, and which serve as a proof of the ob¬ 
ligation. Each of the parties is a contractor , but that term is, gen¬ 
erally applied as below, and the persons named are styled the 
contracting parties. 

Contractor. —Specifically one who contracts or engages to per¬ 
form any work or service for the public, or to supply certain 
quantities of goods or materials at a certain price or rate. 

Contract for tluilding-. 

Contract for Building, made tlie day of one 

thousand eight hundred and by and between 

of the second part, in these words: the said party of the second part cove¬ 
nant and agree to and with the said party of the second part, to n&ake- 


orjsditoh. 


49? 


erect, build, and finish, in a good, substantial, and workmanlike manner, on 
the agreeable to the draft, plan, and 

explanation hereunto annexed, of good and substantial materials, by the 
day of next. And the party of the first part covenants 

and agrees to pay unto the said party of the second part, for the same the 
sum of lawful money of the United States, aa 

follows: the sum of 

and for the true and faithful performance of all and every of the covenants 
and agreements above mentioned the parties to these presents bind themselves 
each unto the other in the penal sum of dollars, as fixed 

and settled damages to be paid by the failing party. 

In witness whereof, the parties to these presents have hereunto set their 
hands and seals the day and year above written. 

Sealed and delivered in the presence of 

Conveyance. —An instrument in writing by which property, or 
the title to property, is conveyed or transmitted from one person 
to another. 

Conveyancer. —One who employs himself in drawing up and 
preparing convenances of property. 

Coupons ( koo-pong ).—Certificates of interest due, printed at the 
bottom of Government or other bonds, given for a term of years, 
designed to be cut off and presented for payment as the interest 
becomes due. 

Credit. —Mercantile reputation entitling to be trusted, or to 
receive goods or loans on promise of after payment, applied to 
individuals, firms, corporations, companies and governments, which 
are thus said to be in good or bad credit. 

In book-keeping the side of an account on which are entered 
all items reckoned as values received or transferred from the party 
or category (as cash, bills receivable, &c.), named at the head of 
the account; also, any one, or the sum of these items. To credit 
a person is to enter his name in your books, as “ Cr. by ” the cash, 
goods, &c., you have received from him. 

Creditor. —One to whom money is due. Opposed to debtor . 
When you receive goods from a person without paying for them 
at the time, he is said to be your creditor to the amount; and 
when you pay him money or bills you are his creditor that is, 
you are credited by him for that amount. 

In book-keeping by double entry the entries, instead of being 
only posted to the I)r. and Cr. side, are entered twice, being first 
posted to the Cr. side of one set of accounts, and then a second 
time to the Dr. side of another set of accounts. 

In the cash book or ledger, the right-hand side—that is, the side 
opposito to your right hand—is called the Cr. side. 


498 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


Currency.— ‘Coin, notes or other media which are in circula¬ 
tion, or given and taken as having value, for the exchange of com¬ 
modities, or as representing property. 

Customs and Excise.— Duties levied to provide revenue for 
a country. Customs are duties imposed on commodities on their 
being imported into, or exported from the country. Excise duties 
are those imposed upon goods and articles at the period of their 
manufacture in the country, and thus operate as indirect taxes up¬ 
on the consumer; also a tax levied on licenses to pursue certain 
trades, and deal in certain commodities. 

Bays of Grace. —Days allowed by law or custom for the pay¬ 
ment of a note or bill of exchange, except those payable on de¬ 
mand or at sight, after the specified day of payment; thus, when 
three days of grace are allowed, a note or bill due on the 
seventh of the month is payable on the tenth. It is presented on 
the last day of grace. If the day on which a bill falls due hap¬ 
pens to be a Sunday or a bank holiday, the bill is payable the day 
previous. 

The number varies according to the usage of the place where the 
bill is made payable. In the United States three are allowed. 

The following are the number of days allowed at the respective 
places: 


Amsterdam. 

Antwerp. 

Altona C. 

Bahia. 

Barcelona. 

Berlin. 

Bilboa.... 

Cadiz. 

Dantzic. 

Frankfort-ou-lhe-Main 

Geneva. 

Genoa . _. 

Great Britain. 

Gi'baraltar... 

Hamburg. 

Leghorn. 


0 

0 

12 

15 

14 

3 
14 

G 

10 

4 

5 
0 
3 

14 

12 

0 


Leipsic. 

Lisbon and Oporto j " " 

Madrid. 

Malta. 

Naples.. 

New York. 

Paris and the whole of France... 

Rio de J aneii'O /.. 

Rotterdam. 

(after date^.. 

St. Petersburg < “ sight .i.... 

(at “ . 

Trieste. 

Venice. 

Vienna. 


0 

15 

6 

14 
13 

0 

3 

0 

15 
0 
10 

0 

3 

3 

G 

3 


Debenture. —A Custom House certificate entitling an exporter 
of imported goods to a drawback of duties paid on their impor¬ 
tation. 

Also, a certificate of mortgage or loan on railway or other pub¬ 
lic works, giving authority to seize the works if the conditions 
named are not carried out. 



































DEED 


499 


Debit. —An entry to the Dr. or debtor side of an account. To 
debit a person is to enter liis name in your books as “ Dr. to ” the 
goods, cash, &c., he has received from you. 

Debtor. —One who owes money—opposed to creditor. When a 
person who receives goods from you without paying for them at 
the time, he is said to be your debtor to the amount, and when a 
person to whom you owe money receives your money or bills from 
you ho is also said to bo your debtor to the amount. 

In book-keeping by double entry, all the entries are first posted 
to the Dr. side of one set of accounts, as in single entry, are then 
posted a second time to the Cr. of another set of accounts. In 
the cash book or ledger, the left hand side, that is, the side op¬ 
posite to your left hand, is called the Dr. side. 

Deed. —A sealed instrument in writing, upon paper or parch¬ 
ment, duly executed and delivered, containing some transfer, bar¬ 
gain, or contract. 

A document is an original or official paper relied upon as the 
proof or support of anything else. 

Sliort Form off Seed. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, Abram King, of Hudson, County of 
Morris, and State of New Jersey, for and in considerat ion of the sum of fifteen 
hundred dollars to me paid by Benjamin Thornton, of Arlington, County of 
Hudson, and State aforesaid, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, do 
give, grant, sell and convey unto the said Benjamin 1 hornton, all that (de¬ 
scribe the premises) ; to have and to hold the same to the said Thornton, his 
heirs, and assigns, to his and their use for ever. And I, the said Abram King, 
covenant with the said Thornton, his heirs and assigns, that I am lawfully 
seized in fee of the premises; that they are free from all encumbrances ; that 
I have a good right to sell the same as aforesaid ; and that I will warrant and 
defend the same to the said Thornton, bis heirs and assigns, against the law¬ 
ful claims and demands of all persons. 

In testimony whereof I, ihe said Abram King, have hereunto set my hand 
and seal, this tenth day of November, 18— 

Signed, sealed and delivered in the presence of \ 

John Random. [ Abram King. L. S. 

Peter Wiseacre. ; 

The foregoing short form of deed is to be accompanied by an 
acknowledgment before a magistrate, which is as follows: 

Acksjowletlg-inent off Deed. 

Morris County ss. 

Before me, the subscriber, one of the Justices 
of the Peaoe, within and for the said County, personally appeared the above 
mentioned Abram King, wbo, in due form of law, acknowledged that ho did 
sign and seal the above Indenture as his free act and deed. 

° In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this tenth day 
of November, 18 — 

John Kewer, Justice of the Peace. 


500 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


Del Credere.— An agreement by which an agent or factor, in 
consideration of an additional premium or commission, called a 
del credere commission, engages when he sells goods on credit, to 
insure, warrant, or guarantee to his principal the solvency of the 
purchaser, the true engagement of the factor being to pay the 
debt himself if it is not punctually discharged by the buyer. 

Demurrage. —Payment made to the owners of a ship for the 
detention of a vessel by the freighter beyond the time allowed by 
her charter party for loading, unloading, or sailing. The term is 
also applied to land carriage, by wagons, railways, &c. 

Deposit. —A sum of money left with a bank or banker, subject 
to order, for a fixed period at interest. The account is called a 
Deposit Account as distinguished from a Current Account. 

Derelict. —A ship voluntarily abandoned at sea. 

Deviation. —The voluntary departure of a ship, without neces¬ 
sity, from the regular and usual course of the specific voyage 
issued; or sailing before or after the period in which she was 
engaged to leave, thus releasing the underwriters from their re¬ 
sponsibility. 

Director. —One of a body of persons appointed to manage the 
affairs of a company or corporation. 

Discount. —A deduction from, or abatement of, a sum of mo¬ 
ney forming the object of a business transaction ; or allowance 
made for any reason upon an account, debt, demand, price asked, 
&c. Thus, a person who owes an account of $100, on settling it 
may receive an allowance of 10 per cent.; and would therefore 
pay only $90. 

Also, a deduction made for interest, in advancing moneyAipon 
a bill or note not due; or payment in advance of interest upon 
money lent. It is equal to the interest which would be acquired 
at the given rate for the given time, either by the whole sum speci¬ 
fied to be paid, or by that sum after it is itself deducted; in the 
former case it is called Dank Discount, To discount signifies to lend 
money upon bills or notes, after deducting the discount or interest. 

Discounting Bills of Merchandise.—In making discounts 
on goods sold, losses sometimes occur when they are not suspected. 
If an article is sold at a profit of 25 per cent, and 5 per cent, de¬ 
ducted from the selling price it is not 20 per cent., but 18 3-4 per 


BTJNKAGE. 


m. 

cent., because the discount is calculated on the selling price, while 
the profit is calculated on the cost. 

So also if 25 per cent, be added and 20 per cent, be deducted, 
the apparent profit is 5 per cent, when in reality the goods are 
sold for cost. 

Example. 


Cost 

$100.00 

Cost 

$100 00 

25 per cent. 

25.00 

25 per cent. 

25.00 

Selling price 

125.00 

Selling price 

125.00 

Less 5 per cent. 

6.25 

Less 20 per cent. 

25.00 

Cash price 

Cost 

118.75 

100.00 

Cash price 

100.00 same as cost. 


18.75 Net profit—18 % per cent. 

To Sell at Cost. 

Rule .—Multiply the cost by 100 and divide the product by 100, less the rate 
per cent, to be deducted 

Bought goods for $160.00, for how much shall I sell them to deduct 40 per 
cent, and yet obtain what they cost ? 

160 by 100 equals 16000. 16000 divided by 60 equals $266.67. Answer. 

Proof. 

Selling price. . Discount. 

266.67 by 40 per cent, equals 106.67 

Selling price. Discount 

266.67— 106.67 equals 160.00 cost. 

Dividend.— A term applied to the profits divided among the 
shareholders of Joint Stock Companies, &c. 

Document Bills. —Bills with shipping documents for goods 
attached to them, given as collateral security available if the hill 
should not he duly honored. 

©raft. —A term frequently applied to checks and hills. Also, 
an allowance or deduction made from the gross weight of certain 
kinds of goods. 

Drawback. —A certain amount of duties or customs, some¬ 
times the whole and sometimes only a part remitted or paid back 
by the Government, upon the exportation of excisable articles 
upon which they were levied, or upon the re-exportation of for¬ 
eign goods upon which duty has been paid. This repayment is 
made to enable the exporter to sell his goods in the foreign mar¬ 
ket unburdened with duties. 

Dunnage. —Fagots, houghs, or loose materials of any kind, 
laid on the bottom of a ship to raise heavy goods above the bot¬ 
tom to prevent injury by water in the hold ; or, to trim the ship 







502 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


by slightly raising heavy cargo; also, loose articles of merchan¬ 
dise wedged between parts of the cargo. 

Embargo* —An order of the Government prohibiting the de¬ 
parture of ships or goods. 

Entrepot (ong-tr-po ).—A place where goods are received and 
deposited, free of duty, for exportation to another port or country; 
a free port. 

Export.—A commodity exported or conveyed from one coun¬ 
try to another ; used chiefly in the plural. 

Firm.—The name, title or style under which a business estab¬ 
lishment conducted by more than one person, such as a house or 
partnership or company is carried on ; as, Hurst & Co. 

Free Port.—A port where ships of all nations may load and 
unload free of duty, provided the goods are not carried into an 
adjoining country ; or where goods of all kinds are received from 
ships of all nations at equal rates of duty. 

Freight. —The sum which is agreed or paid for the transpor¬ 
tation of merchandise; or for the hire or use of a ship in whole 
or in part. When the rate of freight is not agreed upon previous 
to shipping goods, the full rate current is charged. All goods 
are liable for freight, and their delivery can be refused if payment 
is not made, but they cannot be detained on the ship. In genera^ 
goods must be delivered to claim freight, but in some cases it is 
recoverable under a general average although thrown overboard. 
It cannot be claimed if the ship is totally lost. 

Garbles.— The dust, soil, or filth, separated from good spices, 
drugs. &c. 

Garnishment. —Warning or legal notice to a person In whose 
hands the goods of another are attached, hot to pay the money or 
deliver the goods, but to appear in court and give information as 
garnishee . 

Goods. —A general name for merchandise. 

Good-Will. —The custom of any trade or business. 

Lord Eldon says: “ The good-will of a trade is nothing more 
than the probability that the old customers will resort to the old 
place.” 

Guarantee. —A promise to answer for the payment of some 
debt, or the performance of some duty, in case of the failure of 


INSURANCE. 


503 


Another person, who is, in the first instance, liable to such pay¬ 
ment or performance, the person so bindiug himself being gener¬ 
ally called by the same name, but guarantor is the word more 
correctly used in this sense. 

House. —A firm, but sometimes applied to a commercial estab- 
lishment carried on under the name of one person only. 

Import.—Anything brought from a foreign country, or from a 
province, dominion, or colony of the mother country, as from Ire¬ 
land, Canada, Australia, &c. ; used chiefly in the plural, Imports. 
The person who imports' the imports is called an import' er. 

Indemnity. —Compensation or remuneration for loss, injury, or 
damage sustained. Insurance is a contract of indemnity. Also, 
security from penalty, or the punishment of past offences. 

, Indenture. —A mutual agreement in writing between two or 
more parties, whereof each party has usually a part. Indentures 
were originally duplicates laid together and indented, so that the 
two papers or parchments corresponded with each other. But in¬ 
denting has gradually become a mere form, and it often neglected. 

Indorse.—To write one’s name upon the back of, as a paper 
for the purpose of transferring it, or to secure the payment of, as 
a note, draft, &c., or as a receipt for payment. The person who 
writes is called the indorser ; the one to whom any right is trans¬ 
ferred is the indorsee ; and the writing upon the back the indorse¬ 
ment, or indorsation. 

Injunction. —A writ or kind of prohibition granted by a court 
to prevent the commission of any act by which fraud or injury 
may be done, whereby a party is required to do or refrain from 
doing certain acts, according to the exigency of the writ. It is 
more generally used as a preventive than as a restorative process, 
although by no means confined to the former. It is often obtained 
for the purpose of preserving property in dispute pending a suit. 
It may be procured to prevent the negotiation of bills, the trans¬ 
fer of stock, piration of copyrights, trade marks, &c., and gener¬ 
ally where persons’ rights are infringed, and further injury might 
be done during the delay of an ordinary suit at law. 

Insurance. —A contract whereby, for a stipulated consider¬ 
ation called a premium, certain persons called underwriters, or In¬ 
surance Companies, engage to make good to the insurer, or party 
insuring, any losses he may -sustain of ships or their cargoes at 


504 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


sea, or of houses or goods by fire. The deed containing the con* 
tract is called the Policy of Insurance. 

Interest, —The premium paid for the use of money by the per¬ 
son using it to the person who lent it. The interest charged is at 
the rate of so much per cent., or in the hundred dollars, on the 
sum lent. Interest at 5 per cent, means $5 on every hundred dollars. 
The sum lent is called the principal. Simple interest is that which 
arises from the principal sum only. Compound interest is that which 
arises from the principal with the interest added as it becomes due, 
making interest on interest. The term interest is also applied to 
any right in, or advantage to be derived from, a business, manu¬ 
factory, property, &c. 

INTEREST TABLE (SIX PER CENT.) 

Showing; the Interest on any Sum from $10 to $10,000* 

at 6 per Cent. 



FOR 

1 DAT. 

FOR 

15 DATS. 

FOR 

1 MONTH. 

FOR 

1 YEAR. 

$10 . 

0 

3 

5 

60 

20 . 

0 

5 

10 

$ 1.20 

30. 

1 

8 

15 

1.80 

40. 

1 

10 

20 

2.40 

50. 

1 

13 

25 

3.00 

60... 

1 

15 

30 

3.60 

70. 

1 

18 

35 

4.20 

80. 

1 

20 

46 

4.80 

90. 

2 

23 

45 

5.40 

100 . 

2 

25 

50"\ 

6.00 

200 . 

3 

50 

$ 1.00 

12.00 

300. 

5 

75 

1.50 

18.00 

400. 

• 7 

$ 1.00 

2.00 

24.00 

500. 

8 

1.25 

2.50 

30.00 

600. 

10 

1.50 

3.00 

36.00 

700. 

12 

1.75 

3.50 

42.00 

800. 

13 

2.00 

4.00 

48.00 

900. 

15 

2.25 

4.50 

54.00 

1,000 . 

17 

2.50 

5.00 

60.00 

2,000 . 

34 

4.99 

10,01 

120.00 

3,000. 

52 

7.49 

15 01 

180.00 

4,000. 

69 

9.99 

20.01 

240.00 

5,000. 

86 

12.48 

25.02 

300.00 

6,000 . 

$1.03 

14.98 

30.02 

360.00 

7,000 . 

1.20 

17.48 

35.02 

420.00 

8,000 . 

1.36 

19.97 

40 03 

480. 09 

9,000. 

1.55 

22.47 

45.03 

540.00 

ao.ooo.... 

1.92 

24.97 

50.03 

300.00 








































INTEREST, 


508 


INTEREST TABLE (7 PER CENT.) 

Sbowing the Interest on any Sum from $10 to&lOjOOO^ 

a.t 7 per Cent. 



FOR 

1 DAY. 

FOR 

15 DAYS. 

FOR 

1 MONTH. 

FOR 

1 YEAR. 

$10.. 

0 

3 

6 

70 

20. 

0 

6 

12 

$1.40 

30. 

1 

9 

18 

2.10 

40. 

1 

12 

23 

2.80 

50.. 

1 

14 

29 

3.50 

60. 

1 

17 

35 

4.20 

70. 

1 

20 

41 

4.90 

80. 

2 

23 

47 

5.60 

90. 

2 

26 

53 

6.30 

100. 

2 

29 

58 

7.00 

200... 

4 

58 

$1.17 

14.00 

300. 

6 

86 

1.75 

21.00 

400. 

8 

$1.15 

2-33 

28.00 

500. 

10 

1.44 

2.92 

35.00 

600. 

12 

1.73 

3.50 

42.00 

700. 

13 

2.01 

4.08 

49.00 

800. 

15 

2.30 

4.67 

56.00 

900. 

17 

2.59 

5.25 

63.00 

1,000. 

19 

2.88 

5.83 

70.00 

2,000 . 

38 

5.75 

11.67 

140.00 

3,000 . 

58 

8.63 

17 50 

210.00 

4,000.. 

77 

11.51 

23.33 

280.00 

5,000. 

96 

14.38 

29.17 

350.00 

6,000 . 

$1.15 

17.26 

35.00 

420.00 

7,000. 

1.34 

20.14 

40.83 

490.00 

8,000 . 

1.53 

23.01 

46.67 

560.00 

9,000... 

1.73 

25.89 

52.50 

630.00 

10,000. 

1.92 

28.77 

58.33 

700.00 


A TABLE OF DAILY SAYINGS AT COMPOUND IN¬ 
TEREST. 


CENTS, PER DAY. 

PER YEAR. 

IN TEN YEARS. 

2% 

$10.00 

$130 

b%. 

20.00 

260 

11 

40.00 

520 

27 % 

100.00 

..300 

55 

200.00 

2.600 

$1.10 

400.00 

5.200 

'1.37 

500.00 

6.500 


IN FIFTY YEARS. 


$2,900 

5.800 

11.600 

29.000 

58.000 

116.000 

145.000 


By the above table it appears that if a mechanic, or clerk, saves 
only 2 1-4 cents per day, from the time he is 21 until he is three 
score and ten, the aggregate, with interest, will amount to $2,900; 
















































506 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


and a daily saving of 27 1-2 cents reaches the important sum of 
$29,000. A sixpence saved daily will provide a fund of nearly 
$7,000—sufficient to purchase a good farm. There are few em¬ 
ployees who cannot save daily hy abstaining from the use of cigars 
and tobacco, liquors, etc. twice, or ten times the amount of the 
six cent piece. Every person should provide for old age, and the 
man in business who can lay by a dollar a day will eventually find 
himself possessed of over $100,000. 

Investment. —The laying out of money in the purchase of 
some kind of property, usually permanent. 

Invoice. —A written account of the particulars of merchan¬ 
dise shipped or sent to a purchaser, consignee, agent, &c., specify¬ 
ing the contents of each package of goods, their price, and the 
charges upon them. The term is now generally used for all ac¬ 
counts of goods sold wholesale. The invoice is sent by the seller 
to the buyer, either along with the goods,, or separately by mail. 
Merchants often write “ errors excepted ” on the accounts which they 
send, that they may not be precluded from the correction of errors 
afterwards, if any be discovered. 

Jetsam. —Jettison is the act of voluntarily throwing goods over¬ 
board, or cutting away masts, casting away sails, &c., in cases of 
extreme peril, in order to lighten a ship, and preserve her and the 
rest of the cargo. The owners of the ship or goods can claim in¬ 
demnity by general average from the owners of the goods saved, 
and the owners of the goods, if insured, can recover from the un¬ 
derwriters. Jetsam is where goods are cast into the sea, and there 
sink, and remain under water; Flotsam is where they continue 
swimming : and Ligan is where they are sunk in the sea, but tied 
to a cork or buoy. 

Lay Bays. —Days allowed to a merchant or charterer to load 
or unload cargo. 

Lazzaretto. —A place in which goods landed from ships in 
Quarantine are fumigated previous to their delivery. 

Lease. —An agreement for letting of lands or tenements to an¬ 
other for life, for a term of years, or at will, or for any less inter¬ 
est than the Lessor or person who lets has in the property, for a 
rent or compensation to be paid by the Lessee, a person to whom 
the lease is granted. 


XjIEK, 


5°7 


ILeasc «ff Ilotts©, 

It is agreed, this first day of January, 13—, between Frederick Seemon of 
Philadelphia, County of Philadelphia, and State of Pennsylvania, of the onf 
part and Wm Long, of Philadelphia, aforesaid, of the other part, as follows: 

The said Frederick Seemon, doth agree to let unto the said Wm. Long, all 
that certain lot of ground, with the house thereon, being and situate {here, de¬ 
scribe the premises), for one year from, this first day of January, 18—, and for 
such longer time after the expiration of t!ie said year as both the said parties 
shall agree, and until the end of three months after notice shall be given by 
either of the said parties, to the other of them, for leasing the said premises 
at and for the yearly rent of seven hundred dollars, payable quarterly on tho 
first days of April, July, October, and January, in equal proportions; which 
said yearly rent, payable quarterly as aforesaid, the said Wm. Long, for him¬ 
self, his executors, and administrators, doth hereby covenant and agree to pay 
to the sa d Frederick Seemon, hi3 exec dors, administrators and assigns, ac¬ 
cordingly, for so long a time as he shall hold and enjoy the said premises as 
aforesaid, and until the end of the said three months next after notice shall 
have been given by cither of the above parties to the other, for leasing the said 
premises as aforesaid. 

Witness our hands and seals, day and year first written. 

Signed, sealed and delivered in presence of \ 

Chas. A. Brown. | Frederick. Seehom. L. S. 

Lewis Goedsborough. ) Wm. Long. L. S. 

Letter of Credit. —A letter from bankers or mercantile houses 
addressed to their agents or correspondents elsewhere, requestinf 
them upon the credit of the writer, to pay or advance money to K 
certain third party—the bearer of the letter. 

Form off Fetter off CredSt, 

New York, July 10,18— 

Messrs. Geo. Cook & Co., Gentlemen: 

Please deliver to John Myers, of this place, meiv 
chandise to any amount not exceeding ten thousand dollars, and I will hold 
myself accountable to you lor the payment of the same, in case Mr. Myer# 
should fail to make payment thereof. 

You will please notiiy me of the amount for which you may give him credit 
and if default should be made in the payment, let me know immediately. 

I am, gentlemen, your most obedient servant, 

Uriah Keep. 

Messrs. Geo. Cook & Co., No. — Market Street, Philadelphia. 

Letter of License. —An agreement signed by the creditors of 
an insolvent or embarrassed trader, permitting him to carry on 
business for a certain time without satisfying their claims. 

Liabilities. —The -whole amount of debts owing by, and pecu¬ 
niary responsibility of, a person or company, as opposed to As¬ 
sets. 

Lien. —A right or claim upon a real or personal property, vol¬ 
untarily granted by its owners for the security of some debt or 
. duty ; also, a right in one to hold and retain the property of an¬ 
other until some claim of the former is paid or satisfied. 


508 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


Lighterage —The price paid for unloading ships by lighters or 
boats used to convey the goods on shore. 

Liquidation. —Settling and adjusting debts. 

Lloyd’s Register. —Is a register of vessels, giving the tonnage, 
age, build, character and condition of each ship whose owners 
conform to their rules. It is published yearly, with occasional 
supplements when alterations or additions are necessary. 

Log-Book.—A book in which is entered the daily progress of 
a ship at sea, as indicated by the log, or apparatus for measuring 
the rate of a ship’s motion through the water, with note§ on the 
weather. 

Manifest.—A document containing a specific description of a 
ship, with the list of the names of the passengers, and a descrip¬ 
tion of the whole of the cargo, number, and marks of the pack¬ 
ages, &c., with the ports of destination, made out and signed by 
the master before leaving port, to be exhibited at the Custom 
House. 

Marking Goods.—It is customary in most business houses to 
use a private mark, which is placed upon goods in order that the 
proprietor or salesman maybe able at any time to ascertain exactly 
the cost and selling prices of an article. A word or short sentence 
containing ten different letters is selected, and as each letter repre¬ 
sents one of the ten digits, any amount, no matter how large or 
small, can be written with the same facility as in figures. Take 
for example the word, 

Charleston. 

1 2345G788 10 

Twenty-five cents would be written hi, $2.25 hhl, $6413.87 
erca tl, &c. An extra letter called a repeater is often used and 
may be any letter not contained in the original word. X is the 
most used, thus: 663 would be written exa. 

Sometimes a sentence containing ten words is used and the 
initial letters of the words taken as the representative ones, thus: 

“In walking dow T n Broadway James sees many very curious 
things,” the representative letters in this sentence are, 

Iwdbjsmvct. 
123456789 10 

Measurement Goods.— Goods on which freight is charged by 
measurement. 


PARTNERSHIP. 


509 


Merchantable. —Fit for market. Goods not in a sound state 
are said to be in unmerchantable condition, but are often made mer¬ 
chantable by separating the damaged from the sound parts. 

Mercantile and Commercial. — Commercial is the wider terrn 
being sometimes used to embrace mercantile. In their stricter use 
commercial relates to the shipping, freighting, forwarding, and oth¬ 
er business connected with the commerce of a country (whether ex¬ 
ternal or internal), that is, the exchange of commodities ; while 
mercantile applies to the sale of merchandise and goods when 
brought to market. As the two employments are to some extent 
intermingled, the two words are often interchanged. 

Monopoly. —The sole power of dealing in any species of goods, 
or of dealing with a country or market, obtained cither by en¬ 
grossing the articles in the market by purchase, or by a license 
from Government. 

Mortgage.—A conveyance of property, upon condition, as 
security for the payment of a debt or the performance of a duty, 
and to become void upon payment or performance. It was called 
a mortgage or dead pledge, because, whatever profit it might yield, 
it did not thereby redeem itself, but became lost or dead to the 
mortgager upon breach of the condition. But in equity a right of 
redemption is an inseparable incident of a mortgage, until the mort¬ 
gager is debarred by his own laches (neglect), or by judicial de¬ 
cree. The person who conveys the property is called the mort¬ 
gager, and the one to whom it is conveyed the mortgagee. 

Negotiable.—Any document which by indorsement or assign¬ 
ment may be transferred to another person, conveying to him a 
legal right to the money or property specified, as a Dock Warrant, 
Bill of Exchange, &c., is said to be negotiable. 

Notary* —A public officer who attests or certifies deeds and 
other writings, usuall} r under his official seal, and to make them 
authentic in another country. His duties chiefly relate to docu¬ 
ments used in commercial transactions, such as protests of nego¬ 
tiable paper, ships’ papers in case of loss or damage. He is 
generally called a Notary Public, and his acts are recognized and 
respected in all commercial countries. 

Partnership.—A contract between two or more persons for 
joining together their money, goods, labor and skill, or any or all 
of them, under an understanding that there shall be a communion 


§10 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


of profits, according to the shares agreed upon between them, and 
for the purpose of carrying on a legal trade, business, or adven¬ 
ture. The term is generally applied to associations in which tho 
partners personally direct the business, those of a more extensive 
character, managed by elected directors, being called Companies. 

A sleeping, silent , or dormant partner , is one who furnishes capital 
only, taking no active share in the business of a company or part¬ 
nership, but is entitled to a share of the profits,.and liable to a 
share in the losses. 


Articles of Co-partnership. 

Articles of agreement , made and concluded this first day of January, in the 
year of our Lord, one thousand eight hundred and seventy three, between 
Richard Howe, of Augusta, County of Kennebec, and State of Maine, of the 
one part and Thomas Thompson, of the same place, of the other part. The 
*aid partners have agreed, and by these presents do agree, to associate them¬ 
selves a3 co-partners in the art and trade of' buying and selling books and 
stationery; which said co-partnership shall continue from the date of these 
presents, for, and during, and to the full end and term of thirteen years next 
ensuing. The name, style, and title of such partnership shall be Howe and 
Thompson. For the purpose aforesaid, he, the said Richard Howe, hath upon 
the day and date hereof, put into partnership, as capital stock, the sum of 
four thousand dollars; and the said Thomas Thompson has also invested the 
like sum of four thousand dollars; both of which sums are to be used, laid out 
and employed in common between the parties hereunto, for the management 
of the said business to their mutual advantage. And it is hereby agreed be¬ 
tween the parties, each himself respectively, and for his own special and par¬ 
ticular part in manner and form as follows: That they shall not and will not, 
at any time hereafter, during the period above named, exercise or follow the 
said trade, or any other, to their private emolument, or advantage; but shall 
and will, from time to time, and at all times during said period (if they shall 
so long live), use their utmost endeavors, to the best of their skill and ability, 
for their mutual advantage, with the stock as aforesaid and its increase. And 
also, that they shall and will, during the period aforesaid discharge equally 
between them the rent of such premises as they may rent or hire, for the man¬ 
agement and conduct cf the trade or business aforesaid. And that all profit, 

e ain, or increase, that shall or may arise from, or by reason of said joined 
usiness. shall be equally and proportionally divided between them, share and 
share alike ; and also all losses that may happen in the said business, by bad 
debts, bad commodities, or howsoever otherwise, shall be paid by and borne 
equally between them. 

_ And it is further agreed, that there shall be kept, during the said period and 
joint business, perfect, just, and correct book accounts, wherein each of the 
said co-partners shall enter and set down, as well all the money by him re¬ 
ceived and expended, in and about the business aforesaid, as also all merchan¬ 
dise by him bought and sold, by reason and on account of the said co-partner¬ 
ship, and all other matters and things in anywise belonging or appertaining 
thereto, so that either of them may at any time have free access thereto. 

And also, that the said co-partners, once in twelve months, or oftener, if 
need shall require, upon the request of either of them, shall make and render, 
each to the other, or to the executors and administrators of each other, r true 
and full account of all profits and increase by them and each of them made, 
and all losses by them, or each of them, sustained, and also, of all payments, 
receipts and disbursements, and all other things whatsoever by them, or 
either of them, made, received, and disbursed, acted, done and suffered in the 
said co-partnership; and the account so made, shall and will clear, adjust, pay 
and deliver each unto the other, at the time of making such account* theil 
equal share of the profit go made as aforesaid. 


PARTNERSHIP SETTLEMENTS, 


511 


And that, at the end of the aforesaid period of thirteen years, or Other sooner 
determination of these presents (whether by the death of one of the parties 
hereto, or otherwise), they, the said co-partners, each to the other, or, in case 
of the death of either, the surviving party to the executors or administra¬ 
tors of the party deceased, shall and will make a true, full and final account 
of all things as aforesaid, and in all things well and truly adjust the same; 
and also, that, upon making such accounts, all and every the stock, as well as 
the gain and increase thereof, which shall appear, or is found, to be remaining, 
chall be equally apportioned and divided between them, the said co-partners, 
their executors or administrators, share and share alike. 

In witness whereof the said parties to these presents have hereunto set their 
hands and seals, the day and year first above written. 

Signed , staled and delivered in presence of ) 

Henry Franklin. > Richard Howe. L. 8. 

Joseph Faulkner. ; Thomas Thompson. L. 8. 

Notice of Dissolution. 

Notice is hereby given , that the partnership, lately subsisting between 
Thos. Wallace and George Gray, of Cincinnati, County of Hamilton, and 
State of Ohio, under the firm name of Wallace and Gray, was dissolved by 
mutual consent (death of John Kelly, or limitation) on the thirty first day of 
May last. 

All debts owing to the said partnership are to be received by the said Thos. 
Wallace, and all demands on the said partnership are to be presented to him 
for payment; (or, either partner is allowed to use the name of the firm inliquida¬ 
tion of all debts due to and f rom the partnership). 

Thos. Wallace. 

Cincinnati, June 1,18— George Gray. 

Dissolution of Partaierstiip. 

We, the undersigned, do mutually agree, that the partnership formed be¬ 
tween us by the within articles, be and the same is hereby dissolved, except 
for the purpose of the final liquidation ana settlement of the business thereof; 
and upon such settlement wholly to cease and determine. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals, this first 
day of January, 18—. 

Signed , sealed and delivered in presence of \ 

Geo. Wills. J Wm. Moody. L. S. 

Lawrence Cate. ) J ohn Coster. L. 8. 

The above to be indorsed upon the back of the original agreement. 

Partnership Settlements. —Partnership is the association of 
two or more persons for transaction of business. Such an associ¬ 
ation is called a firm, house or company, and its members are 
called partners. 

The means contributed by the members of the firm is called its 
capital. 

Money, property, notes and debts due from others are called its 
Assets or resources. Debts which the firm owe are termed Liabil¬ 
ities. Amounts withdrawn affect the original investment. When 
it is desired to retain the net capital at starting unchanged, the 
amounts withdrawn may be treated as resources ; hut they must 
he taken from each partner’s capital to obtain his true share. 

Obligations assumed by the firm for a partner are to he treated in 
Jibe same manner as sums withdrawn by him j and additional sums 


612 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


invested or to which he is entitled, increase his original invest- 
ment. If the resources are greater than the liabilities, the dif¬ 
ference is termed the net capital; if the liabilities are greater 
than the resources the difference is termed net insolvency . The dif¬ 
ference between the total gains and the total losses is called the 
net gains or net losses. The gains and losses of a firm are divided 
among the partners in accordance with the original agreement or 
contract between them. The division is seldom made in exact 
proportion to the amount invested ; it is more customary to credit 
each partner with interest on his capital, less interest on sums 
withdrawn during the year. 

Sometimes the skill of one partner is considered equivalent to 
another’s capital; in some cases certain privileges are granted to 
him who invests most; and sometimes a stated salary is allowed to 
each partner according to his ability, and is taken from the gains 
of the firm before they are divided. 

A partnership is not constituted merely by an interest, but de¬ 
pends upon the joint liability to loss, as well as on the participa¬ 
tion in the profits. A stipulated portion of the profits as a mere 
compensation for his labor or services does not constitute a part¬ 
nership. 

A General Partnership is one formed for trade generally with¬ 
out limitations, and comprehends whatever business the partners 
may engage in. 

A Special Partnership is one which is confined by the terms of 
iie agreement to some particular kind of trade or business, or 
jome praticular transaction or speculation. 

A Limited Partnership is one in which the responsibility of one 
or more partners is limited to the amount invested by him or them 
in the concern. In a limited partnership the special partner has 
the advantage of investing where the profits are equal to the 
gains of actual business, without risking more than the sum coo* 
tributed. 

Pass-Book. —A book passing between bankers and their cus¬ 
tomers, in which are entered all payments and receipts of cash. 
It is written up by the clerks as often as required, and balanced 
once a month. Also, a book in which a trader enters articles 
bought on credit, and then passes or sends it to the purchaser. 

Per Cent. —A contraction of per centum , Latin words meaning 
per hundred, and applied f rates of interest, discount, &c. Fer 


PRICE CURRENT. 


5U 

Ventage is the allowance, duty, interest, or commission on one hun¬ 
dred. 

Permit. —A written license from the Excise Office to permit 
the removal of excisable goods upon which duty has been paid, 
from one place to another. 

Policy. —A writing or instrument in which a contract of life 
Assurance, or other insurance is embodied, containing the terms 
and conditions. It is almost invariably a printed form, in which 
the names, &c., are filled up in writing, and the various companies 
and insurers use nearly the same forms. 

An Interest Policy shows by its form that the assured has a real 
interest in the matter insured. 

A Wager Policy shows on the face of it that the contract it em¬ 
bodies is a pretended insurance, founded on an ideal risk, where 
the insured has no interest in anything insured. A policy is valued 
when the agreed value of the subject is expressed on the face of 
it; open when the value of the subject is not fixed or agreed in it. 
When the sum insured under an open policy is not sufficient to 
cover the value of the goods, an additional insurance may be 
obtained, and a supplementary policy is granted ; and when the 
sum insured is more than the declared value of the goods, the dif¬ 
ference is termed Short Interest , and a portion of the premium is 
returned upon proper notice, if the fact was duly declared on the 
policy. 

Posting:. —Copying or transferring into the ledger the entries 
made in the day book or other books. 

Post Obit Bond. —A bond in which the obligor , in consideration 
of having received a certain sum of money, binds himself to pay 
a larger stim, on unusual interest, on the death of some specified 
individual from whom he has expectations. 

Premium. —The per centage or sum of money paid to a com¬ 
pany or underwriters for Life Assurance, or any other kind of 
insurance. The term is also used to signify a sum in advance of 
the capital or sum lent. It also signifies an extra sum beyond a 
fixed price. Thus, shares are said to be at a premium when their 
market price is beyond the sum paid upon them ; thus, if shares 
upon which $45 has been paid are selling at $50, they are said to 
he at a premium of $5. 

Price Current, or Price List.—A statement or list, published 


<514 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


Btatedly or occasionally, of the prevailing prices of merchandise, 
stocks, species, bills of exchange, rate of exchange, &c. 

Principal.—A capital sum of money, placed out at interest, due 
as a debt or used as a fund—so called in distinction from interest 
or profit. Also the responsible person in a transaction, or the head 
of, or partners in, an establishment. 

Procuration. —A written document, either a letter or power of 
attorney, by which a person is empowered to transact the affaire 
of another. When the representative signs any paper it is cus¬ 
tomary for him to say 11 per procuration,” and add his own name. 

Pl’O Forma. —Latin words signifying t( for the sake of form.” 
Proforma invoices or account sales are papers made up previous 
to entering upon an adventure for the purpose of forming an 
opinion as to its probable success. 

Promissory Note. —See Bill. 

Prompt.—A limit of time given for the payment of an account 
for produce purchased, this limit varying with different goods. 

Pro Rata.—Latin word signifying “ in proportion,” to divide or 
distribute proportionally. 

Quarantine (. kwor'-an-teen ).—Specifically, the term originally 
of forty days, but now of undetermined length, during which a 
ship, arriving in port, and suspected of being infected with a 
malignant contagious disease, is obliged to forbear all intercourse 
with the shore ; hence, restraint or inhibition of intercourse to 
which a shi is subjected on the presumption that she may be in¬ 
fected. 

Quotation. —The current prices of stocks or commodities. 
When, as in certain articles, the prices named include all charges 
for shipping them, they are termed quotations F. 0. B. (free on 
board). 

Rebate. —Deduction of interest, or any sum, &c., on account 
of prompt payment. The term is used for any return of discount, 
by bankers and bill discounters, upon bills being taken back, be¬ 
fore they become due, by those for whom they were discounted. 

Receipts. —An acknowledgment in writing of a certain sum of 
money having been received from a person named. 

An account may be acknowledged as settled by the person who 
receives the money writing at the bottom of it “ Paidf or “ 


EECEIPTS 


S15 


etwed Payment,” and then signing his name. Tv 7 hem one person re¬ 
ceives money for another, he signs his name thus, “ Paid, John 
Thompson for Charles Howard.” Also, a writing acknowedging 
the taking of money cr goods. 

Receipt on Accounts;. 

New Tokk, April 27, 18—. Eeeeived from James Moore, seventy-five dollar 
on account. Ketser & Troxell. 

Receipt in Full. 

New York, May 11, 18—. Received from Messrs. Smith & Curlett, one hun¬ 
dred and four dollars and seventy-three cents, in full of account to date. 

$103 73-100. William Johnson. 

A receipt like the first acknowledges the partial payment of cv 
debt, and one like the second of all claims, excepting negotiable 
notes. 


Receipts for Cash Payment in Full off all Remands, 

Received, New York, Feb. 1, 18—, of Charles A. Brown, four hundred ana 
fifty dollars and twenty-five cents, in full of all demands. 

$450 25-100. Smith, Roberts & Co. 

In Full off Account Rendered. 

Received, Cairo, Oct. 10,18—, of John Paywell, six hundred dollars in full 
for account rendered to first instant. 

$600.00 - Receiver & Co. 

In full for Goods Sold and Delivered Without a Bill. 

Received, Richmond, Sept. 1. 18—, from Henry Thomas, one hundred and 
fifty dollars, in full for three cows, now sold and delivered to him. 

Simon Sharp. 

Receipt to Guardian for Payment on account of his 

Ward. 

Received, St. Albans, June 10,18—, from Edward Morse, Esq., guardian of 
Kitty Clyde, one of the minor children of John Clyde, deceased, two hundred 
dollars, in full for board and tuition of said Kitty Clyde, from June 10, 18— 
to date. Jonathan Wisehead. 

Receipt for Fading a Wagon. 

Received, Belleville, Aug. 10, 18—, from Alonzo Cooper, in my wagon, tho 
following goods, marked, numbered, and weighing as follows: 

J. T, B. No. 1 One hogshead weighing 700 pounds 
“ “ 2 One “ “ 680 “ 

« « 3 One box « 420 “ 

“ 4 One bale “ 350 


2,150 «_ 

All in good order and condition, with which articles I promise to proceed 
without delay or unnecessary det ention to Parkersburgh, West Va., and to de¬ 
liver them in the same good order and condition unto Philip Silver, in the 
said Parkersburgh, or ilia order, on his paying the sum of seventy-five cents 
per hundred pounds for said load. Frederick Driver. 



m 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


Receipt for Stock put out to "Winter. 

Received, Belleville, October 10, 18—, from John Jacobi, ten cows and six 
swine, which I promise to keep through the winter and feed with good hay, 
etc., and return in good condition on the first day of May next, casualties ex¬ 
cepted, he paying me ten dollars each for the cows, and two dollars each for 
the swine. Witness my hand. Geo. Smith. 

Re-Exchange. —The expense chargeable on a bill of exchange 
or draft which has been dishonored in a foreign country, and re¬ 
turned to that country in which it was made or indorsed, and then 
taken up. The rate of re-exchange is regulated with respect to the 
drawer, at the course of exchange between the place where the 
bill of exchange was payable, and the place where it was drawn. 

Register. —A document issued by the Custom House, contain¬ 
ing a description of a vessel, its name, tonnage, country, ownership, 
&c., always to be kept on board on a foreign voyage as evidence 
of its nationality. Coasting vessels are enrolled, not registered. 

Re-Insurance. —A contract whereby an insurer of property, 
who has incurred too great a liability, or become dissatisfied with the 
nature of the risk he has contracted to take upon himself, obtains 
indemnity against loss, by his insurance from some other insurer. 

Release for Freight. —A document signed by the owners of 
vessels or their agents on receiving the payment of freight, giving 
a formal release to dock companies and wharfingers to whom they 
had previously given notice not to deliver goods. 

Remittance. —A sum of money, bill of exchange, or the like, 
transmitted from one person to another. 

Rente. —A French term, equivalent to government annuity. 
The holder is called a Rentier ( rong'-te-a '). 

Returns. —Bills of exchange, or goods bought and transmitted 
as a medium of returning the proceeds of consignments ; also, 
the amount of goods sold. 

Reversion. —A payment which is not to be received, or a ben¬ 
efit which does not begin, until the happening of some event, as 
the death of a person. 

Salvage. —The compensation allowed to persons who volunta¬ 
rily assist in saving a ship or her cargo from peril, or goods and 
property from fire. The salvors have a lien upon the property 
saved, and can detain it until the claims are legally settled. The 
term is also applied to property saved. 

Sample. — A small portion taken from the bulk or quantity of 


SHORT EXCHANGE. 


517 


any kind of merchandise as a specimen of the whole. A collec- 
tion of samples or average sample is called a Muster. 

Scrip.— A certificate of stock subscribed to a bank or other 
company, or of a share of other joint property, preliminary to the 
registration of the subscribers ; also one of the forms of certifi¬ 
cate given in exchange for a public loan, previous to the issue of 
the bonds, as consol scrip , reduced scrip, which may be sold separately 
as such until all the installments of the loan are paid. 

! A Scrip Company is one having shares which pass by delivery 
without register or transfer. 

Securities. —Documents showing evidence of, and securing a 
right to a debt or property of any kind, as bills of exchange, bills 
of lading, bonds, certificates of stock, deeds, dock warrants, leases, 
policies. 

Set-Off. —A counter-claim or cross-debt filed or set up by the 
defendant against the plaintiff’s demand. Set-off differs from Re¬ 
duction and Recoupment, as the latter generally growls out of the 
same matter or contract with the plaintiff’s claim, while the for¬ 
mer grows out of a distinct matter, and does not of itself deny 
the justice of the plaintiff’s demand. Off-set is sometimes impro¬ 
perly used for the legal term Set-off. 

Share. —The part allotted or belonging to one, of any property 
or interest owned by a number. 

Ship’s Papers. —Papers with which a vessel is required by law 
to be provided, and the production of which may be required on 
certain occasions; such are the register, passport, or sea-letter, 
charter party, bills of lading, invoice, log-book muster roll, bill of 
health, shipping articles, and the like. 

Shipping Articles. —Articles of agreement between the mas¬ 
ter or captain of a vessel and the seamen on board, in respect to 
the amount of wages, length of time for which they are shipped, &c. 

Short Exchange.—Bills of exchange made payable at sight, 
or at Short Sight, that is, in a little time, three days or so, after 
being presented to the payer. 

The Shorts on the Stock Exchange are those who are unsupplied 
w’ith stocks which they have contracted to deliver. To Sell Short 
is to sell for future delivery what the party selling does not own, 
but hopes to buy at a lower rate. 


518 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


Sinking Fond. —A fund created for sinking or paying a public 
debt, or purchasing the stock for the government; also applied to 
a fund set apart for a special purpose, as the paying of a debt. 

Solvent. —Able to meet all just debts and liabilities. 

Specie —Any kind of coined money. 

Specification. —A written statement containing a minute de¬ 
scription or enumeration of particulars. 

Standard. —That which is established by authority as a rule or 
measure of quantity, as a pound, gallon, or weight; hence the 
original weight or measure sanctioned by government; also the 
proportion of weight of fine metal and alloy established by 
authority for coinage. 

Staple.— The chief article of a country’s production or manu¬ 
facture. 

Sterling. — A term applied to the lawful money of Great 
Britain. 

Stock. —This term has several applications in commerce ; as, 
capital which an individual employs in business ; in book-keeping, 
the account which is credited with all values contributed or added 
to the capital of the concern, and debited with whatever is at any 
time subducted therefrom; money funded in government securi¬ 
ties of different countries, called also the Public Funds. Shares 
in joint-stock companies are also called stock. The goods kept for 
sale by a storekeeper are termed his Stock in Trade. Dead Stock 
comprises the implements of husbandry, and produce stored up 
for use;—in distinction from Live Slock, or the domestic animals 
on a farm. 

Stock Exchange. —A building where stocks and shares are 
bought and sold by an association or body of stock brokers and 
stock jobbers, who meet and transact business by certain recog¬ 
nized forms, regulations, and usages. The stock brokers deal in the 
purchase and sale of stocks and shares upon commission; the 
stock jobbers speculate in the purchase and sale, through the bro¬ 
kers, for gain. The public are excluded, and can only purchase 
or sell through a stock broker, who charges his commission, and 
also have indirectly to contribute to the profit of the stock jobbers 
through the fluctuations which they cause in the market price. 
The Stock Exchange is managed by a committee. 


TEHD'EB. 


519 


Stoppage in Transitu. —The exercise of the right of a seller 
of goods to stop them 11 on the passage ” to the purchaser or his 
agent, if the purchaser ha3 become bankrupt since they were 
bought. 

Subpoena (colloqually pronounced sup-pe-na). —A writ com¬ 
manding the attendance in court of the person on whom it it 
served, as a witness, &c., “ under penalty 

Supercargo. —An officer or person engaged to proceed in a 
merchant ship to manage the sales and commercial concerns of 
the voyage. 

Suspension of Payment. —The act of a trader or firm de¬ 
clining to pay any one debt upon finding that they are unable to 
meet all their liabilities • also, when a bank stops cashing its 
checks and notes. 

Tale Quale. —Latin words meaning “ such as” a term used in 
contracts where grain is sold off the coast, by a sample drawn at 
the port at which the ship has touched ; and signifying that the 
cargo is held to be the same in quality as the sample, and that the 
buyer takes the risk of any damage the cargo may afterwards sus¬ 
tain. 

Tare. —Deficiency in weight or quantity of goods, by reason of 
the weight of the cask, bag or other thing containing the commo¬ 
dity, and which is weighed with it; hence the allowance or abate¬ 
ment of a certain weight or quantity. 

Actual tare is the deduction made where each cask, &c., is 
weighed separately from its contents ; Average tare is where there 
are many of similar size and description, and some are weighed 
to take an average for all; and Estimated tare is where the cover¬ 
ings of certain goods are always so nearly of the same weight that 
a fixed per centage is allowed for them. 

s Tariff.—A list or tables of goods with the duties or customs to 

be paid for the same, either on importations or exportations. 

Tender.—All offer in writing to supply certain articles, goods, 
ships, or anything that may be required, at prices and conditions 
specified in the tender ; also, an offer, either of money to pay a 
debt, or of services to be performed, in order to save a penalty or 
forfeiture, which would be incurred by non-payment or non-per¬ 
formance ; as the tender of rent due or of the amount of a note 


520 


GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


or bond, with interest. To constitute a legal tender, such money 
must be offered as the law prescribes. So also the tender must be 
at the time and place where the rent or debt ought to be paid, and 
it must be the amount due. 

Time Bargain. —A contract for the sale or purchase of stock, 
&c., at a certain future time. 

Tonnage. —The amount of weight in tons or cubical contents 
that a ship will carry. 

Traveller. —A commercial agent who travels for the purpose 
of receiving orders from merchants, collecting money, and repre¬ 
senting their interests. 

Tret. —An allowance to purchasers, for waste or refuse matter, 
of 4 pounds on every 104 pounds of suttle weight, or weight after 
the tare is deducted. 


Ullage. —What a cask wants of being full. 

Underwriter. —The name given to the individual* marine in¬ 
surers at Lloyd’s and elsewhere; so called because they underwrite 
or sign their names to the policy of insurance, for the purpose of 
becoming answerable for loss or damage, upon certain conditions, 
for a certain premium per cent. 

Usance. —The time which by usage or custom, is allowed in 
certain countries for the payment of a bill of exchange. In New 
York foreign bills are usually drawn at thirty days sight, but the 
banker often accommodates himself to the usance of the place 
upon which he draws. The following arejthe usances at the re¬ 
spective places: 


Amsterdam . 

.. 1 mo. date 

Hamburg . 

Antwerp . 

^ 44 44 

Leghorn . 

Aitona . 

J 4 4 44 

Leipsic . 

Barcelona. 

.. 60 days’ date 

Lisbon. 

Tlerlin ............. 

. . 14 “ sight 

Madrid. 

Tlilhna.. . . 

.. 2 mo. da.tft 

Malta. 

"Rnrdean ... 

. 30 davs’ “ 

Milan . 

Cadiz .. 

. 2 mo. “ 

Naples . 

Dantzic . 

. 14 davs’ sight 

Oporto . 

Frankfort-on-the 

Main 

J14 “ « 

Paris . 

Rotterdam . 

Geneva . 

.30 “ date 

Trieste . 

Genoa . 

. 3 mo. “ 

Venice . 

Gibraltar . . 

. 2 “ sight 

Vienna . 


1 mo. date 
3 “ “ 

14 days’ sight 
60 “ date 

60 “ « 

30 “ “ 

3 mo. “ 

3 “ “ 

6( days* “ 

1 mo. “ 

1 << <i 

14 days’ sight 
3 mo. date 
14 days’ sight 


Usury. —A premium or compensation paid, or stipulation to be 
paid, for the use of money borrowed, or returned, beyond the 
rate of interest established by law. 































WHARFAGE. 


521 


The legal rates of interest in the United States are : 


Maine. 


Louisiana. 


New Hampshire.... 

44 

u 

Tennessee. 


44 

Vermont. 

a 

44 

Kentucky. 

44 

44 

Massachusetts. 

u 

44 

Ohio. 

44 

44 

Rhode Island. 

u 

<k 

Indiana. 

44 

44 

Connecticut. 

New York. 

44 

44 

44 

Illinois.) 

Contract on Loans j 

..Ten 

44 

New Jersey. 


44 

Missouri. 


44 

Pennsylvania. 

a 

44 

Michigan. 


44 

Delaware.... 

u 

44 

Arkansas. 


44 

Maryland. 

u 

44 

Florida. 

44 

44 

Virginia. 

u 

44 

Wisconsin .. 


44 

North Carolina. 

u 

44 

California. 


44 

South Carolina. 


44 

Oregon . 

44 

Georgia. 


44 

Minnesota. 


44 

Alabama. 

u 

44 

Iowa. 


44 

Mississippi. 

44 

44 

Utah. 


44 


Vend or or Vend er. —One who transfers the exclusive right 
of possessing a thing, either his own or that of another as his 
agent, for a price or pecuniary equivalent. The word is spelled 
Vender when applied to ordinary dealers, but takes the legal form 
Vendor', with reference to a Vendee or person to whom the thing 
is sold. Vend is applicable only to wares, merchandise, or other 
small articles, not to lands and tenements. 

Voucher. —A book, paper, or document which serves to vouch 
the truth of accounts, or to confirm and establish facts of any 
kind. 

Warranty. —In modern .aw and law of contracts, an engage¬ 
ment or undertaking, express or implied, that a certain fact re¬ 
garding the subject of a contract is, or shall be, as it is expressly 
or impliedly declared or promised to,be. In sales of goods by per¬ 
sons in possession, there is an implied warranty of title, but, as to 
the quality of goods, the rule of every sale is, “ Caveat emptorf 
“ Let the buyer beware.” 

In insurance law it is a stipulation or engagement by a party in¬ 
sured, that certain things relating to the subject of insurance, or 
affecting the risk, exist, or shall exist, or have been, or shall be 
done; such as the stipulation in a policy of life assurance that the 
declaration as to health, &c., signed by the assured, shall become 
part of the policy; and in marine insurance, the periods of the 
ship’s sailing, or the liability of the insurers for average claims. 
These warranties when express, should appear in the policy; but 
there are certain implied warranties. 

Wharfage.—The fee or duty paid for using a wharf, dock, or 
quay, for loading or unloading goods. 






































GUIDE TO BUSINESS. 


Warehousing. —A system of storing imported goods in public 
warehouses on their being landed from the vessels, pending their 
disposal for home consumption or re-exportation. 

Warrant of Attorney.— A power given by a client to his at¬ 
torney to appear and plead for him, or to suffer judgment to pass 
against him, by confessing the cause of the action to be just. 

Ways and Means. —An expression implying the resources of 
an individual or concern applicable for certain purposes, and the 
mode of applying them. 

BUSINESS LAW. 

1. Ignorance of the law excuses no one. 

2. It is a fraud to conceal a fraud. 

3. The law compels no one to do impossibilities. 

4. An agreement without consideration is null and void. 

5. Signatures made with a lead pencil are good in law. 

6. A receipt for money paid is not legally conclusive. 

7. The acts of one partner bind all the others. 

8. Contracts made on Sunday cannot be enforced. 

9. A contract made with a minor is void. 

10. A contract made with a lunatic is void. 

11. Contracts for advertisements in Sunday newspapers are in¬ 

valid. 

12. Principals are responsible for the acts of their agents. 

13. Agents are responsible to their principals for errors. 

14. Each individual in a partnership is responsible for the whole 

amount of the debts of the firm. 

15. A note given by a minor is void. 

16. Notes bear interest only when so stated. 

17. It is not legally necessary to say on a note “ for value re¬ 

ceived.” 

18. A note drawn on Sunday is void. 

19. A note obtained by fraud, or from a person in a state of in¬ 

toxication cannot be collected. 

20. If a note be lost or stolen, it does not release the maker; he 

must pay it. 

21. An indorser of a note is exempt from liability if not served 

with notice of its dishonor within 24 hours of its non-pay¬ 
ment. 


THE DAY BOOSL 


623 




DAY BOOK. 


Folio in 
Ledger. 

.Lvnunrv L 1874, , . 



1 

Bought of B. M. DeWitt 

75 



Goods, as per their invoice 

10 

2 

Bought of Hurst & Co. 

120 

05 


Goods as per their invoice. 

3 

Bought of Fisher & Dennison 




Goods as per their invoice. 

150 

00 

4 

Bought of Harper Bros. 




Goods as per their invoice. 

62 

30 


9 n d 



5 

Bought of Ackerman & Co. 




Goods as per their Invoice. 

94 

30 


3rd i 

G 

Sold Turpin & Co. 




Half Cash, 

Half Three Months Bill 




60 Hurst & Co. ’s Hand Books. 

12 

00 


40 Novels. 

13 

00 


20 Books, (assorted). 

12 

00 


Forwarded by Union Express 

37 

00 

7 

Sold W. Strange, 




42 Assorted Books. 

25 

40 


-4th. ... 



8 

Sold Boyd & Co. 

36 Elements of Commerce. 

Forwarded per U. S. Express. 

37 

16 

5 

Paid Ackerman & Co. 




Strange’s Acceptance, due April 7. „. 

15 

40 


Boyd & Co. do. due March 7.„ 

37 

16 



53 

56 

9 

Bought of B. Myers, 



100 Beams of Paper. 

85 

00 

9 

Sold B. Myers 




120 Odd Volumes all for. 

41 

IS 

















































































524 


HAND-BOOK OF BUSINESS. 


Dr. 


CASH. 


1874. 

Tan. 1. 


3 . 

4 . 




* 

♦ 

6 

7 

♦ 


To Capital.... 

Cash received for goods (ready money) 
Turpin & Co. received for account of 

their house in Baltimore. 

W. Strange. 

Cash received for goods (ready money) 


1000 

7 

18 

10 

3 


00 

40 

00 

10 

30 


Feb. 1. 


March 1. 


April 1. 

6 . 


♦ 


May 1. 


To Balance 


To Balance 


To Balance. 

Bill Receivable, No. 101, received in 
cash, this day... 


To Balance 


1038 

80 

~827 

~2gT 

827 

20 

807 

"So" 

807 

20 

"742 

~20~ 

19 

12 

761 

02 

— 

==S 

657 

90 


Note.—T he Amounts marked in the folio margin with a star, are not by 
tingle entry, posted in the Ledger; the Cash Book alone, under that system, 
being quite sufficient for their registery. Only accounts With persons are 
kept; not with things as in Double Entry. At the same time they may, if 
wished, be posted under their respective heads as matters of reference, but 
care must be taken not to include them in the Balance, of which they form 



































THE CASH BOOK. 


525 


BOOK. 


Jr. 


1874. 
Jan, 2. 


6 . 


Feb. 5. 


Mar. 5. 


April 5. 
7. 


8. 


1 

2 

3 

4 
* 


* 

7 


• 

By amount paid II. M. DeWitt. 

--Hurst & Co. 

-Fisher & Dennison... 

-Harper Bros. 

By Trade Charges, Expenses and Wages 
to this day... 

Balance to next month. 

By Bill Payable, No. 104, due this day. 
Balance. 


By Bill Payable, No. 101, due this day. 
Do. do. 102, do. 


Balance. 


3S 


By Bill Payable, No. 103, due this day. 
Ackerman & Co. for Strange’s Accep¬ 
tance, due this day returned un¬ 
paid.. 

One month’s rent due this day. 

_Income Taxes. 

__City Taxes 




Balance. 


40 

00 

60 

00 

75 

00 

31 

00 

5 

60 

211 

60 

827 

20 

1038 

80 

~20 

00™ 

807 

20 

827 

20 

20 

lo 

45 

00 

65 

00 

742 

20 

807 

20 

30 

00 

15 

40 

40 

00 

10 

12 

7 

GO 

103 

12 

657 

90 

761 

02 

==* 




















































626 


HAND-BOOK OP BUSINESS. 


THE 


Folio 1. # JDr 


E. M. 


1873. 

Jan. 

2 1 To Cash. 

40 

20 

15 

00 

00 

10 

2 1 To Balance carried down. 

81 To Bills Payable, No. 101. 

Dec. 

75 

10 




Folio 2. 


Dr 

HUEST 

1874. 






Jan. 

2 

1 

To Cash.. .. 

60 

00 


2 

1 

To Bills Payble, No. 102. 

45 

00 

Dec. 

31 


To balance carried down. 

15 

50 





120 

50 


Folio 3. Dr. 


1874. 

Jan. 

2 

1 


9 

1 

Dec. 

31 


To Cash. 

To Bills Payable, No. 103. 

To balance carried down. 


FISHEE 


75 

30 

55 


150 


00 

00 

00 


00 


Folio 4. Dr. 


1874. 




Jan. 

2 

1 

To Cash. 


2 

1 

To Bill Payable, No. 104 

Dec. 

- 

31 


To balance carried down 


HAEPEE 


31 

00 

20 

00 

11 

30 

62 

30 


































































EHE LEDGE#. 


52? 

LEDGER. 

DeWITT. Or. 


1874. 

Jan. 

Dec. 

1 

31 

1 

By Goods.... 

By Balance brought down. 

75 

10 

75 

10 

15 

10 

AND 

Co. 




Cr. 

1874. 






Jan. 

1 

1 

By Goods. 

120 

50 





120 

50 

Dec. 

31 


By Balance brought down.... „ 

15 

50 " 

AND 

DENISON. 


Cr. 

1874. 






Jan. 

1 

1 

V 

By Goods. 

150 

00 





150 

00 

Dec. 

31 


By Balance brought down.. ... 

45 

10 

AND 

BEOS. 



Cr. 

1874. 






Jan. 

1 

1 

By Goods.. 

62 

30 





62 

30 

Dec. 

31 


By Balance brought down. 

11 




























































628 


Sand-book of business. 


Lease of a Farm for a Term of Years. 

THIS INDENTURE made the day of in tlie year 

of Our Lord, one thousand eight hundred and seventy between 

Joseph Salamander of Castana, County of Monona, and State of Iowa, of 
the one part and Jermiah Joskins of the same place of the other part. Wit- 
nosseth that the said Joseph Salamander for and on consideration of the 
yearly rent and covenants hereinafter mentioned and reserved on the part 
and behalf of the said Jermiah Joskins his heirs, executors and administra¬ 
tors to be paid, kept and performed hath demised set and to farm let and by 
these presents dotn demise, set, and to farm let unto the said Jermiah Jos 
kins, his heirs and assigns, all that certain messuage or tenement, tract, 
piece or parcel of land, situate in Castana aforesaid, adjoining lands of 

ana now in the tenure and occupancy of containing 

acres, be the same more or less together with all and singular 
the buildings’ improvements, and other the premises hereby devised 
with the appurtenances. To have and to hold the same unto the said Jer¬ 
miah Joskins, his heirs and assigns, from the day of 

next ensuing the date hereof, for and during the term of years, thence 
next ensuing, and fully to be completed and ended: the said Jermiah Jos¬ 
kins yielding and paying for the same unto the said Salamander his heirs 
and assigns, the yearly rent or sum of on the day of 

on each and every year during the term aforesaid ; the first payment of 
which said yearly rent or sum of is to be made on the day 

of A. D., 18 [If the rent is payable in produce after the words 

[yielding and paying] proceed as follows: Thereunto the said Salaman¬ 
der, his heirs and assigns, for the yearly rent as follows: one-half of all the 
winter grain, &c.] And at the expiration of the said term, he the said 
Joskins, his heirs and assigns, shall and will quietly and peaceably surren¬ 
der and. yield up the said demised premises, with the appurtenances unto 
the said Salamander, his heirs and assigns, in as good order and repair as 
the same now are, reasonable wear tear and casualties which may happen 
by fire or otherwise only excepted. 

‘IN WITNESS whereof, the said parties have hereunto set their hands 
and seals the day and year aforesaid. 

Signed, Sealed and delivered inthe presence of 


ISIAH OLDCRUST. \ Joseph Salamander. 

TIMOTHY HARDSHELL. 5 Jermiah Joskins. 


HOW TO OPEN AND KEEP A BANK ACCOUNT. 

The importance and convenience of keeping a Bank account, 
cannot be over estimated to the man of business. Through it 
he can not only deposit his cash, checks and daily balances, and 
thus relieve himself of care and responsibility, but in the pay¬ 
ment of his debts and bills, it has the same feature of convenience, 
security and safety He draws on the bank and avoids the risk 
of handling money; it is safer, also, for the holder of the check; 
it guards both parties against theft loss and frequently fraud. The 
bank besides assuming the payment of your check, also assumes 
the responsibility of making the payment to the party named in 
your order. The bank also endorses your credit by the means 




HAND-BOOK OF BUSINESS. 


520 


of a certified check to any part of the world. The return of the 
check with the endorsement of the party in whose favor it was 
drawn, is a positive proof that he received the amount. 

To open an account it is generally necessary to give reference 
to some respectable house who will be willing to guarantee the 
applicant’s responsibility. The signature of the dealer is then 
placed in a book called the li Signature Book ,” which is kept and 
refered to in case of any doubt that may arise, regarding the cor¬ 
rectness of the signature attached to checks and thus prevent 
fraud. In the case of a firm opening an account, the person or 
persons who are authorized to sign the firm name, are required 
to sign in the Signature Book. The entry will be as follows: 


Signatures. 


"W. Brown, Brown. Jones & Robinson. 
H. Jones, Brown, Jones & Robinson. 


Business. 

Printers. 


Location. Reference . 
21 Ann st. I Smith & Co. 


Everything being satisfactory, the first deposit is now made to 
the Receiving Teller, w T ho then gives the dealer a Bank Book in 
which the amount deposited is entered, and a Check Book con¬ 
taining blank orders for the repayment of money deposited Each 
check, when properly filled up, the required amount distinctly 
stated in writing and in figures and signed by the dealer is cashed 
at once by the paying teller when presented, providing there be 
sufficient funds standing to the depositor’s account. Checks when 
paid are held by the Bank as vouchers against the depositor’s ac¬ 
count, but when his Bank Book is balanced they are returned to 
him. The Bank Book should be left for this purpose at least 
once a month. Sometimes the Teller may refuse to cash a check 
when presented, either because the person presenting it is not 
satisfactorily identified, or the bank may be short of funds. In 
this case he writes his signature across its face and stamps it with 
the Bank stamp. This is a guarantee that the check is good and 
may pass from hand to hand, or place to place, wherever the 
credit of the Bank is acknowledged before it is finally cashed. 
When a check is certified it is immediately charged as paid against 
the account of the Depositor, because thereafter the Bank assumes 
the responsibility of its payment. Should a certified check not 
be used, it must be redeposited precisely the same as cash. 







SAND-BOOK OF BUSINESS. 


53 d 

Constant care and attention is required by the depositor to keep 
the account correct, and to see that there are alway sufficient 
funds to meet all the checks he may give out. Unless this is at¬ 
tended to, he will be in danger of losing the confidence of tfie 
Bank, and may be deprived of its advantages altogether. 

Book-Keeper's Proof. 

It often happens that an error occurs in a single column of 
figures, and as there may be no other entries wherewith to com- 
pare the product of the sum, it may be a work of difficulty to de¬ 
tect the mistake ; to obviate this and to afford a test for the ac¬ 
curacy of the calculation by a different process, some book-keep¬ 
ers prove a single column in the following manner. Suppose in 
the first instance we have a column, thus:— 

1,728 41 
1,932 53 
7,484 G7 
3,158 51 
6,347 63 

20,651 75 

Now add up each line of figures in the column separately, and 
set the sum of each down in the following manner: 

18 __ 

24 

22 

29 

26 

15 

Add theae together and it wfill give the sum of 

20,651 75 

end in this wise prove the correctness of tk® first computation. 



BANKS. 


531 


Banks. —The word is from the Italian word banco (bench), 
from the custom of the Jews to assemble in the market-place, 
seated upon benches, loaning money at enormous rates of 
interest. The Bank of Venice w T as the first banking institu¬ 
tion of importance. It was founded in 1171, during the 
Crusades. 

The Bank of Amsterdam was established in 1609. 

The Bank of England was chartered in the reign of William 
and Mary, 1693. 

Tiie Bank of France was organized in 1803. In 1781 
Robt. Morris proposed a bank, to be called the Bank of 
North America, which went into operation with a capital of 
$400,000. 

The Bank of flic United States went into operation in 
1791, with a capital of $10,000,000. It was revived several 
times, only to cease to exist in 1836. 

The Bank of New York was opened in the Walton House, 
in 1784. 

In 1799 the Bank of the Manhattan Company was started, 
with Aaron Burr as one of its managers. 

In 1812 there were 89 banks, with an aggregate capital of 
$40,000,000. 

National Banks, as they are now, were organized in 
1864, mainly out of the old State banks. They are banks of 
deposit, discount and circulation. They enjoy peculiar ad¬ 
vantages, having, in addition to the profits of discounting, the 
interest on the bonds deposited with the Treasury Department 
to secure their circulation, andtheuseof their circulation itself. 
There are 2,087 National Banks, with an aggregate capital of 
$500,000,000. The amount of bonds to secure"national notes 
is about $360,000,000. The amount of notes in actual circula¬ 
tion is about $310,000,000, with 675 million of deposits. 

State Banks are banks of deposit and discount only, and 
their business and standing depend mainly upon local causes 
and the individuals who manage them. There are 907 State 
Banks, with a total capital of $164,368,669. 

Savings Banks are banks of deposit, only allowing interest 
on all sums left with them for a certain length of time. It ia 
gaid one was founded in Hamburg in 1778; also at Berne, 
Switzerland, in 1787. The Savings Banks of this country non; 
have on deposit the surplus earnings of the laboring classes, 
amounting to about $1,000,000,000—an immense amount, 
when we consider the short time in which it must have beep 
accumulating. There are 163 Savings Banks and 2,375 Private 
Banks in this country. 

Bank Rules,—The rules of banks vary so in different lo¬ 
calities, it is impossible to put them in positive form. Savings 


532 


BANK LAWS. 


banks usually pay a little less than the regular rates for money 
—usually about 5 per cent. 

Business banks are usually open from 10 A. M. to 3 P. M. 

Make your deposits early in the afternoon. 

List bills and checks separately on your deposit ticket, lay¬ 
ing the former all one way. 

See that your deposit is correctly entered on your book be¬ 
fore leaving the bank. 

Leave your book every thirty days to be balanced. 

Strangers presenting notes, drafts or checks, payable to or¬ 
der, must in all cases be identified by some one who knows 
them and is known at the bank. 

Bank Laws.—Banks may own such real estate only as is 
necessary for transaction of business, but cannot speculate or 
hold real estate as au investment. Banks cannot take usury in 
any form. A bank may reject its bills if stolen, the forging 
of one signature invalidating a bill. The certification of a 
note or check makes the bank liable ; a verbal certification is 
sufficient to hold the bank. The payment of a raised or al¬ 
tered check by a bank is its own loss. A bank must not pay 
a check before its date; ifTt does so, it must take the risk. A 
forged check paid to a bona fide, innocent holder, is the bank’s 
loss, and the amount cannot be recovered. Share-holders are 
liable for all the acts of the bank’s officers to double the par 
value of their stock. A depositor may stop the payment of any 
note or check b} r notifying the bank, which must refuse to pay 
it. A bank is responsible for paper left for collection; and, if 
worthless money or check is received for it, it is the bank’s 
loss. It is the duty of a bank to pay all paper of a depositor 
payable at his bank, when properly presented; the bank is lia¬ 
ble if it fails to do so. The bank-is bound to the strictest se¬ 
crecy, and must not divulge anything to damage its custom¬ 
ers. If an account is not good for a check, and the holder 
will surrender it for the balance of the account, crediting it on 
the check, the bank must pay it; a bank, however, is not 
bound to pay the amount of a check, under any circumstances, 
when not good. Checks payable ‘Ho order” must be paid 
only to the proper person named therein. 

Commercial Paper.—Bills of Exchange and their legiti¬ 
mate offsprings, checks, notes, and drafts, have formed a most 
important factor in the world’s financial history. They origi¬ 
nated among the Jewish money changers on the Mediterranean 
coasts, during the fourteenth century. Negotiable paper may 
be divided into Bills of Exchange (Drafts), the Prommissory 
Note, and Checks. 

The Duty of the Holder of a Draft.— -Immediately after 
receiving a draft, the payee or holder should present it for ao 


THE DUTY OF THE HOLDER 0*F A DRAFT. 533 


ceptance to the drawee, if payable after sight or date, or for 
payment; if drawn at sight, the drawee will, if correct, ac¬ 
cept or pay it, but if he does not, it should be immediately 
protested if a foreign bill; or if a domestic draft, the drawer 
and endorser (if any). If a time draft is accepted, the duties 
of a holder are similar to that of a payee of a note. 

Laws and Decisions in relation to Notes, Drafts, etc. Three 
days’ grace are allowed on prommissory notes. Bills of ex¬ 
change or drafts drawn payable at sight, at any place within 
this State, shall be deemed due and payable on presentation 
without any days of grace being allowed thereon. All checks, 
bills of exchange, or drafts, appearing on their face to have 
been drawn on any bank or individual banker, payable on any 
specific day, or in any number of days after the date or sight 
thereof, shall be due and payable on the day mentioned, with¬ 
out days of grace, and it is not necessary to protest the same 
for non-acceptance. All notes in writing, made and signed 
by any person, whereby he shall promise to pay to any other 
person or his order, or to the order of any other person, or 
unto the bearer, -an.y sum of money therein mentioned, shall 
be due and payable as therein expressed, and shall have the 
same effect, and be negotiable in like manner, as inland bills 
of exchange, according to the custom of merchants. Every 
such note, signed by the agent of any such person, under a 
general or special authority, shall bind such person, and shall 
have the same effect, and be negotiable as above provided. 
The word ‘‘person ” shall be construed to extend to every cor¬ 
poration capable by law of making contracts. The payees 
and endorsees of every such note payable to them or their or¬ 
der, and the holders of every such note payable to bearer, 
may maintain actions for the sums of money therein men¬ 
tioned, against the makers and endorsers of the same respect¬ 
ively, in like manner as in cases of inland bills of exchange, 
and not otherwise. Such notes, made payable to the order of 
the maker thereof, or to the order of a fictitious person, shall, 
if negotiated by the maker, have the same effect and be of 
the same validity as against the maker and all persons having 
knowledge of the facts, as if payable to bearer. Demand of 
payment must be made on the day of payment in Oder to hold 
the endorser liable, and if not paid must be protested, and a 
note of protest served on the endorser. Makers and endorsers 
can be sued in one action. 

Notes or drafts falling due on Sundays, and all legal holi¬ 
days, are payable on the day next preceding. 

Paper of all kinds should, when possible, be made payable 
at a bank or bankers; but when payable at a residence or 


534 


—' -5 


CHECKS. 

place of business, it must be presented there during ordinary 
business hours. 

Banks usually notify drawers or acceptors when not made 
payable at a bank or bankers, when their paper is due, and if 
not attended to before the closing of the bank, it is given to a 
notary, who then presents it, and if it is not paid, protests it. 
In such cases it is much better to attend to it in time, as much 
annoyance, and frequently expense, is saved by promptness. 
The notary’s fees depend upon its being protested; consequent- 
ly, he is not anxious to have it paid after it gets into his hands. 

Notes and Drafts do not draw interest unless the words 
“with interest ” or “ with us# ” is inserted in them. It is not 
necessary to insert “for value received.” 

Banks will accept only certified checks, or the money in 
payment of paper, from strangers. Checks should be drawn 
to the order of the bank, or endorsed by a person known at 
the bank. 

Notes made by a married woman, to be binding, should have 
the words “I hereby charge my private estate,” or “Value re¬ 
ceived for benefit of my private and separate estate,” inserted 
in them. 

Checks, 

New York, March 1st, 1881. - 
Ihe Atlantic National Bank, 

Pay to Geo. Ward.or order (or bearer), 

One Hundred...Dollars. 

$100.00 

Alfred Beers. 

A bank check is a written order to a bank or banker, direct¬ 
ing the payment of a certain sum to a person therein named, 
or to bearer. It differs quite materially from other forms of 
negotiable paper, being due immediately upon presentation. 
The drawer of a check is never entirely released from liability 
through failure, on the part of the holder, to present, except 
in so far as he may be damaged by such negligence. It is not 
customary, in business centers, to protest checks, yet it is 
necessary to notify prior endorsers, within a reasonable time, 
if payment should be refused, the drawer, as I have said, 
being responsible, without notice, unless some special damage 
can be shown to have resulted therefrom. 

Checks drawn on a bank or banker require a two cent rev¬ 
enue stamp; a postage stamp will not due. 

Laws relating to Checks.— There is no legal difference 
between a note or check payable to bearer or a particular per¬ 
son or bearer. A note or check payable to a fictitious person 
is in effect payable to bearer. There is no legal objection to a 
note or check dated on Sunday. When date or amount is left 




WILLS. 


535 


blank, it may be filled up, the amount to correspond with the 
marginal figures; the date should be the day it was drawn. 
Checks are similar to bills of exchange, payable on demand, 
and are not entitled to grace under any circumstances. A 
check should be presented upon the drawee within a reason¬ 
able time; but, if the drawee does not fail, or no damage can 
be shown resulting to drawee by want of diligence in present¬ 
ing, he is in no way released. If the drawee have no f und_ 
the bark, or the bank is restrained by order of the Court from 
doing business, presentment is excused, because the law does 
not require the performance of acts which are merely ceremo¬ 
nial and nugatory, and the drawee is not injured by the omis¬ 
sion. In an action against a drawee of a "check, the holder 
cannot, in general, recover unless he shows that it has been 
presented for payment and dishonored, and that notice of non¬ 
payment has been properly given. If the sum for which a 
check is drawn be fraudulently altered and increased, and the 
bank pay the raised amount, it must itself bear the loss. The 
death of the drawee is generally considered as a revocation 
of the banker’s authority to pay a check; but if it be paid be¬ 
fore notice of such death the payment is good. 

Wills.—A person making a will is the testator; or, if a 
female, testatrix. Real estate is a devise ; personal property a 
legacy. No precise form is essential to the validity of a will, 
but it is important that the wish of the testator be put in clear 
and unmistakable language, and that it he subscribed by at 
least two witnesses. A will is of no effect until the death of 
the testator. The act of one executor is the same as the act 
of all which refers to the delivery or sale of the testator’s goods. 

Commencement of Suits.—In commencing a suit, the 
plaintiff must state in his complaint facts sufficient to estab¬ 
lish a cause of action. The defendant, in his answer, must 
make either a general or specific denial of each material alle¬ 
gation in the complaint. 

Contracts are agreements, upon sufficient consideration, to 
do or not to do a particular thing. Verbal evidence is allowed 
to explain, but not to vary a written agreement. When a per¬ 
son puts in the post office an acceptance of a proposition made 
through mail by another, the contract is complete. To render 
a contract usurious, the interest must be received at the time 
of the agreement. Where no particular time is mentioned, it 
is presumed that the thing to be done, is to be done immedi¬ 
ately. 

Landlord and Tenant.—Leases should be written ; each 
party having an original. The landlord is bound to secure to 
the tenant the quiet enjoyment of the premises leased, and, in 
the absence of an express covenant to the contrary, is bound 


536 


SUMMONS. 


to keep the premises in a habitable condition. If a tenant 
makes an unconditional covenant to repair, he can be com¬ 
pelled to rebuild the premises, if destroyed ; he is bound to 
repair all injuries occasoned by his own negligence. If he as¬ 
signs his lease, he is still responsible for the rent, unless re¬ 
leased by his landlord. The tenant may remove anything he 
may have added to the premises, providing he does not injure 
them in so doing, or it has not been so added as to become a 
portion of the premises itself. 

Summons are served on commencement of suit in Justices’ 
and District Courts. A long summons is the usual process, 
and must be served not less than six or more than twelve days 
before the time for appearance. A short summons, usually 
served upon non-residents, must be served not less than two 
or more than four days before time of appearance mentioned 
therein. 

Attachments may be issued against the real or personal 
property of an absconding, concealed or non-resident debtor. 

A Married Woman is bound by all contracts relating to 
her own private property. The law protects the property 
she owned at the time of her marriage, and its rents, issues 
and profits. 

Her contracts in respect to her property are not binding 
upon her husband. 

Arrests are allowed when a debtor is guilty of fraud in 
obtaining or keeping property, or when he retains stock 
or money with fraudulent intent. But no female shall be 
arrested, in any action, except for a wilful injury to person, 
character or property. 

Lost Time.—-313 working days in a year, 10 hours per day— 





Days. 

Hrs. 

M. 

5 minutes lost each day is. 

in a year .. 

.2 

6 

5 

20 

i i < < 

i c 

_13 

0 

20 

60 

n cc 

i 6 

_39 

1 


An Acre, 

, 20 feet front ; 

and 2,187 feet deep. 




40 

“ 1,089 

< < 




50 

“ 8761 





100 

“ 4351 





A team must travel 81 miles to plough one acre, turning a 
foot slice. 


A Certain Test for (Hold or Silver is a piece of lunar 
caustic. Slightly wet the metal to be tested, and rub it with 
the caustic. If gold or silver, the'mark will be faint; but, if 
an inferior metal, it will be black. 

Interest Rules.—The commercial year consists of 860 day^ 
30 days to the month 





537 


shoemakers'* measure. 

4 per cent . Multiply the principal by number of days, 
divide by nine, and points off. 

6 per cent. Multiply by number of days and divide by 72. 

6* per cent . Multiply by number of days, divide by 6, and 
point off three figures from the right. 

Shoemakers’ Measure.—Shoes are measured by the size 
of the last. No. 1, children’s measure, is 4f inches ; every ad¬ 
ditional number is one barleycorn, or i of an inch longer. 
No. 1, adult’s measure, 8£ inches long ; each size larger is ^of 
an inch longer. No. 9 is lli- inches. 

Size of Nails. 2 penny, 1 inch, 557 nails per pound. 

4 “ 1J inches, 353 “ “ “ 

6 “ 2 “ 167 “ “ " 

8 “ 2 i “ 101 “ “ 

12 “ 3 “ 54 “ “ 

A Cubic Foot of soil weighs 124 pounds ; clay, 135 ; lead, 
708f ; brass, 534£ ; copper, 555 ; wrought iron, 486f ; coal, 
50 T 6 ¥ 6 tf ; charcoal, 18£ ; cork, 15 ; bricks, 125 ; granite, 165 ; 
oak wood, 55 ; pine, 35. 

Bank Discount.—To find it. Cast the interest on the face 
of the note or draft for three days more than the specified time; 
the result will be the discount. The discount subtracted from 
the face of the note will give the present worth of a note dis¬ 
counted at a bank. If you want to find what sum, payable in 
a specified time, will give you a certain amount when dis¬ 
counted, divide the given amount to be raised by the present 
worth of $1, for the time at the rate of discount, and the 
answer will be the sum required. 

Mensuration. —The diameter given to- find the circum¬ 
ference ; multiply the diameter by 22 and divide it by 7. The 
circumference given to find the diameter, multiply the cir¬ 
cumference by 7 and divide by 22. To measure inch boards, 
multiply its breadth in inches by its length in feet, and divide 
the product by 12 ; the answer is its contents in square feet. 
To find the contents (board measure) of boards, planks, etc., 
multiply the thickness in inches by the width in inches and 
that product by the length in feet, which last product divide 
by 12. 

Rapid Multiplication. —When the unit figures added 
equal ten, and the tens are alike, multiply the units and set 
down the result ; add one to either numbers, in ten’s place, 
and multiply by the other, and you have the product. 

To multiply any number by 66f- add 3 ciphers and divide by 15. 

“ “ “ 166|- “ “ “ " 6. 

“ “ “ 125 “ “ “ “ 8. 

The three ciphers increase the number to be multiplied one 

thousand times, or two ciphers one hundred times, and divid 


638 


ODD QUESTIONS. 


ing it by the number of times the multiplier is contained in 
100 or 1,000 gives the product. 

To multiply any number of two figures by 11, write the sum 
of the figures between them. 

Odd Questions.—Q. What is the difference between twenty 
four quart bottles and four and twenty quart-bottles ? 

A. 56 quarts difference. 

Q. If five times 4 are thirty-three, what will the fourth of 
20 be ? 

A. 8|. 

Q. If you cut thirty yards of cloth into one-yard pieces, and 
cut one yard every day, how long will it take ? 

A. Twenty-nine days. 

Q. What is the difference between six dozen dozen and a 
half dozen dozen ? 

A. 792. Six dozen dozen is 864 ; half a dozen dozen is 72. 

Place three sixes together so as to make seven—6f. 

A cheese being put into one of the scales of a false balance 
was found to weigh 16 lbs. ; when put into the other only 9 
pounds ; what was the true weight ? The true weight is the 
mean proportional between the two false ones, and is found by 
extracting the square root of the product. Thus 16 x 9—144; 
and square root, 144—12 lbs., the true weight. 

Counterfeits.—The art of imitating genuine money prob¬ 
ably originated as soon as money was used. Genuine money 
is not much mentioned in ancient history, and we read very 
little of counterfeits. Gold, in modern times, has been very 
successfully counterfeited, and lead and pewter silver pieces 
were often seen in circulation. State bank bills were couter- 
feited, bills issued on banks which never existed, and various 
ways were successfully adopted to defraud people handling 
money previous to the issue of Greenbacks. 

HOW COUNTERFEIT NOTES ARE MADE. 

A party of men, say from three to a dozen, get together and 
hold frequent meetings, and act according to a plan laid down. 
One or two will find out some copper-plate printer in the 
employ of the bank note company—in fact, all such printers 
are known by the party. These men will then manage to 
meet one of the printers in the evening, get acquainted, drink, 
and have a good time generally with him, and so proceed for 
a few evenings. Then they offer him from $50 to $100 to pro¬ 
cure a certain kind of impression. This impression is made 
in this wise : The printer -will take the impression upon tin- 
foil from the plate from which he is printing, which can be 
done in a moment. Thus you see every line, and the size is 
obtained correctly. From this tin-foil an electrotype plate is 
made. They then get some plate printer that can be found 


GREENBACKS. 


539 


about the city, have a good time with him, and engage him at 
twenty dollars a day to do the printing. By thi3 plan thou¬ 
sands of copies are struck off that defy detection, except in 
the quality of the paper, which will differ from the genuine. 

They are also engraved from the bills themselves, but it is a 
strange fact that in no case have they been precisely like the 
genuine. 

Greenbacks. —The latter issues of greenbacks have not been 
counterfeited to any great extent, the patent fibre paper having 
proved an effectual safeguard against imitation. A few very 
good imitations of the old legal tender issues are still circu¬ 
lating. They, like the old genuine bills, are miserably ex- 
executed, compared with the greenbacks now issued. 

Look Out For—all issues of legal tenders prior to 1869, 
particularly the following: 

Is, on U. S. Treasury notes (Greenbacks). The head of 
Chase is poorly engraved; the mouth is crooked. The back is 
light green. 

2s, Greenbacks, issued Aug. 1st, 1862. Examine all 2s care¬ 
fully. 

5s, dated March 10th, 1862, and Feb. 25th, 1862. 

10s, dated March 10th, 1862, letter C. The pink seal is 
badly done, but the general appearance is likely to deceive. 

20s, same issue, are well engraved, the face particularly be¬ 
ing well executed; the back is rather dark and blurred. 

50s. The imitations of the first issues are very nearly as 
good as the genuine, and have deceived many good judges. 
Some very good imitation $500 notes are in circulation * issue 
of 1869. 

50s, on new issue, 1869, are not good imitations, the patent 
fibre paper being but poorly imitated. They are so poor that 
but few of them are in circulation. 

National Notes. —The getters-up of the queer have of late 
concentrated their efforts successfully on national notes. It is 
estimated that over forty million dollars in counterfeit national 
bank notes are in circulation. A complete list of these would 
confuse rather than aid a person in detecting them; we have 
therefore selected a few of the most dangerous. As soon as 
spurious notes are discovered, a circular is issued by the 
Treasury Department to banks, who are authorized to brand 
and destroy them whenever presented. The following are the 
principal counterfeits. Refuse them unless assured of their 
genuineness. 


540 


OFFICIAL LIST OF COUNTERFEIT NOTES, 


Official List of Counterfeit National Notes, 


a 

66 

66 

6* 

66 


Mass. 


ONES. 

National Eagle Rank. ..Boston, 

TWOS. 

Fourftli National Basils..New York, 

Ninth 
Marine 
Market 
St. Nicholas 
Union 
Unto as K 
WestchesterJCo. 

Sixth 
Newport, 

National Union Eauk (No such Bank).Uinden Park., N. Y. 


. SOnderkook, 

. Peekskill, 
.Philadelphia, Pa. 
.Newport, K. I. 


N. Y. 
66 

66 

66 

66 

(t 

66 

66 


FIVES. 


Globe Natioaial Bank.Boston, Mass. 

Merchants’ “ .New Bedford, 44 

Hampden 44 .Westfield, 44 

1st 44 .Northhampton, 44 

1st 44 Aurora, III. 

1st 44 Canton, 44 

1st 44 . Galeaia, 44 

1st 44 .„...Chicago, 44 

3d 44 44 44 

Merchants’ 6 * 44 44 

Traders’ 44 44 44 

1st 44 .Hanover, Pa. 

1st 44 .Tamaqua, 44 

Merchants’ 44 .New York, N. Y. 

Marin© 44 . 44 “ 

Manufacturers’ National Bank....Amsterdam, 44 
Pacific 44 _Boston, Mass. 

TENS. 


Westchester Co. National Bank. 
1st 44 

Farmers’ Sc Manfrs’ 44 
Flour City 44 

City 44 

Farmers’ & Mechanics’ 44 


..Peekskill, N. Y, 
.Poughkeepsie, 44 

66 kt 

..Rochester, tf 

..Auburn, 44 

.. Bufifalo, «« 































COUNTERFEIT NATIONAL NOTES 


541 


1st 

National Bank.... 

Palmyra, N. Y 

Tioga 

«. 

Owego, 44 

1st 

6< 

New York, 44 

9th 

<t 

66 66 

Marine 

66 

66 66 

Mechanics’ 

66 

6t 66 

Tradesmens’ 

66 

66 *6 

Union 

6( 

66 66 

Lafayette 

(6 

Lafayette, Ind. 

Hichmond 

66 

Richmond, 44 

1st 

66 

Paducah, Ky. 

1st 

66 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

3d 

66 

66 66 

1st 

66 

Whitehall, N. Y. 


TWENTIES. 


National City Bank. 

Market National Bank. 

Mechanic: ’ 46 . 

National Bank State of New York. 

National Bank of Commerce. 

Shoe and heather National Bank. 
Tradesmans’ “ 

Utica City 44 

1st 64 

Oneida 44 

1st 44 

1st 44 

1st 44 

1st <4 

1st 44 


New York, 

N. ^ 

6 i 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

(i 

66 

it 

6 6 

66 

66 

66 

Utica, 

66 

66 

6« 

66 

66 


Plainfield, N, J. 
Indianapolis, Ind. 
Chicago, Ill. 
Paducah, Ky, 
Portland, Conn. 


FIFTIES and ONE HUNDREDS. 


1st National Bank. 


City 

66 


City 

66 


1st 

66 

. Elmira, 44 100s. 

1st 

tt 

.Jersey City, N. J. 

Ohio 

66 


4th 

<6 

. 44 44 1 00s. 

4th 

it 

.New York, N. Y. 50s. 

National Exchange Bank. 

.Baltimore, Md. 100s. 


Canada Bills are, if all right, worth nearly the same as 

f old coin. Refuse $4 and $10 bills on Consolidated Bank of 
Montreal, printed from genuine stolen plates, countersigned by 
W. Irwin. 



























FAILED BANKS. 


Failed Hanks. 

Mechanics’ Bank of Montreal. Commercial Bank, New Bruns- 
Bank of Western Canada. wick. 

Colonial Bank, Canada. Bank of Acadia, Nova Scotia. 

Westmoreland Bank, New Zimmerman Bank. 

Brunswick. Bank of Clifton. 

Counterfeits. 

1’s Dominion of Canada. 5’s Bank of Commerce, Tor. 

4’s Dominion Bank, Toronto. 10’s Ontario Bank. 

5’s Dominion Bank, Toronto. 10’s Bank of British North A. 

All the above are poorly done and easily detected by those 
Used to handling money, with the exception of the $1 on 
Dominion of Canada. This bill is somewhat darker than the 
genuine; though by no means a finely-executed counterfeit, is 
Well calculated to deceive the public. 

Four dollar notes of the Canadian Bank of Commerce raised 
to $10’s are in circulation in Toronto. 

Rules for Detecting Counterfeits. A genuine note is 
the result of the combined skill of many superior artists, aided 
by the finest machinery money can procure. Counterfeits are 
usually gotten up by two or three engravers; while some part 
—the vignette, for instance—may be well executed, there is 
always an important defect somewhere. The finest work 
on bills is done by the Geometric Lathe, and cannot be equalled 
by any counterfeiters, that of the latter always having the 
scratched appearance of wood cuts. The ink used in imita¬ 
tions is seldom equal to that used in genuine notes, and when 
examined closely will be found of a dim, lustreless appearance, 
quite in contrast with the beautiful metallic appearing colors 
of the genuine. 

The features of the portraits in counterfeits always have a 
hard, expressionless appearance, while in the genuine they are 
the most natural and life-like. In the historical scenes on the 
backs of national notes the figures and portraits in the counter¬ 
feits are seldom well executed, the eyes particularly being not 
much more than a dot, and hardly distinguishable. In the 
genuine they have a clear and expressive appearance. 

An expert never studies a bad bill, but becoming perfectly 
familiar with good money, at once detects the slightest dis¬ 
crepancy. Counterfeits are never as well engraved or printed 
as genuine notes, and with care can always be detected. The 
following rules will help a person, but expertness can only be 
acquired by long experience and careful study. 

Study carefully good bills of every issue in which there are 
counterfeits. 


CUT BILLS. 


543 


Notice carefully the engraving and printing, the general 
appearance of the bill. A microscope is a great aid in examin¬ 
ing the finer work. 

The paper, especially in issues on the patent fibre paper, is 
an excellent test. 

The backs are not usually as good as the faces. 

Counterfeits are usually darker than the genuine. 

The first impression of a person accustomed to the handling 
of money is usually correct. 

Cut Bills. A number of national notes (usually) are taken,\ 
and a little strip is cut from one, a little larger strip from the 
next, and the strip cut from the first is pasted in the place of 
it, and so on, until by skillful cutting, one extra bill out of 
about every ten is made. Each piece is from separate bills, 
frequently on different banks, so they are easily detected: 

Stolen Bills are the most dangerous of worthless notes, 
and can only be detected by keeping a list of them; and refus¬ 
ing them is always the proper course. 

The following include most of those which have been 
recently stolen: 

Stolen National Bank Blank Bills, 

The National Bank notes described below were stolen before 
signed, the signatures of the Bank officers since forged, and the 
notes put in circulation. They are rejected when presented 
for redemption at the National Bank Redemption Agency. 

The National Bank ofBarre, Vermont.10s and 20s 

(Bank No. lower left hand corner—911 to 936.) 

(Treas. No. upper right hand corner—932,805 to 932,830.) 
National Hide and Leather Hank, Boston, 

Hass.10s and 20s 

(Bank No. lower left hand corner—11,919 to 11,972.) 

(Treas. No. upper right hand corner—22,900 to 22,953.) 

First National Bank, Jersey City, N. J.50s and 100s 

(Bank No. lower left hand corner—671 to 750.) 

(Treas. No. upper right hand corner—19,609 to 19,688.) 

merchants’ National Bank, Albany, N. Y.10s and 20s 

(Bank No. lower left hand corner—759 to 766.) 

(Treas. No. upper right hand corner—45,195 to 45,202.) 

National City Bank, Lynn, Hass.50s and 100s 

(Bank No. lower left hand corner—121 to 150.) 

(Treas. No. upper right hand corner—66,796 to 66,825.) 

Third National Bank, New York, N. Y.10s and 208 

(Bank No. lower left hand corner—9,414 to 9,428.) 

(Treas. No. upper right hand corner—644,416 to 644,430.) 








544 


GOLD. 


Osage National Bank, Osage, Iowa.,..5s 

(Bank No. lower left hand corner—1,751 to 2,200.) 

(Treas. No. upper right hand corner—560,958 to 561,407.) 

Northampton National Bank, Northampton, Mass. ..5s 

(Bank No. lower left hand corner—1 to 128.) 

National Bank of Pontiac, Ills.5s 

(Bank No. lower left hand corner—741 to 765.) 

(Treas. No. upper right hand corner—252,111 to 252,135.) 

Gold.—The detection of spurious gold is no easy matter. 
Experts can usually detect it by the dull thud it makes when 
thrown upon the counter. Its size and weight is also con¬ 
sidered a good test. The real acid test, however, is the only 
reliable one, and should be resorted to in all uncertain cases. 

Smooth Gold is worth only its weight, and as gold, by very 
little wear, becomes smooth and subject to a discount, it is 
well to be careful in taking such pieces. Holes drilled in or 
pieces filed out of gold coin, or anything which lessens their 
weight, decreases their value proportionately. Gold Certifi¬ 
cates are not counterfeited. 

Silver is now being extensively counterfeited. Half dollars 
are more frequently imitated than Quarters and Dimes. 
“ Jingling ” them is quite a good test, but some are so minted 
that they give forth a dull, leaden sound, and still are genuine. 
In such cases nitric acid is the best test, and in some cases the 
only reliable one. 

Five Cent Pieces (nickel) have been extensively counter¬ 
feited. They are usually easily detected, being made of pew- 
ler or some poor composition. 

Counterfeit United States Bonds and Interest- 

Bearing Notes. 

$ 50 . Compound-Interest Note, series of 1864, dated July 
15, ’64. Issued under act June 30, ’64, payable 
3 years after date. Signatures, L. E. Chittenden, 
Register ; F. E. Spinner, Treasurer. “ Com¬ 
pound-Interest Treasury Note ” printed on face 
in gold letters. 

$ 50 . Compound-Interest Note, series of 1865, dated May 
15, 1865. Same description as above. 

$ 50 . 7. 30 Note, dated July 15,1865 ; issued under act of 
March 3, 1865. S. B. Colby, Register ; F. E. 
Spinner, Treasurer ; payable 3 years after date 
and convertible into 5.20 U. S. bonds. 

$ 100 . Compound-Interest Note, series of 1865; dated 
May 15, 1865 ; issued under act June 30, ’64; 
payable 3 years after date. Vignette of Geo. 




PENALTY FOR MUTILATING U. S. COIN. 545 

Washington. The words “Compound-Interest 
Treasury Note ” appear on face printed in gold 
letters. 

§ 1000 . 7.30 Note. S. B. Colby, Register; F. E. Spinner 
Treasurer. Dated June 15, 1865. A very dan¬ 
gerous counterfeit. 

§ 1000 . 5.20 U. S. Coupon Bond ; consol ’67; 4th series- 
act Feb. 25, ’62. Date May 1, 1862. 

§1000. U. S. Coupon Bond, 6’s of 1881. Acts of July 17 
and August 5, 1861. Mature June 30, 1881. 

Penalty for Mutilating U. S. Coin. 

We give below the law on this subject. Section 5459, Re¬ 
vised Statutes reads : “ Every person who fraudulently, by 
any art, way, or means, defaces, mutilates, impairs, dimin¬ 
ishes, falsifies, scales, or lightens the gold or silver coins which 
have been, or which may hereafter be, coined at the mints of 
the United States, or any foreign gold or silver coins which 
are by law made current or are in actual use and circulation 
as money within the United States, shall be imprisoned not 
more than two years and fined not more than two thousand 
dollars.” 

ISSUE AND REDEMPTION OF SIEVED AND 

NICKEL. 

Issue and Redemption of Fractional Silver Coins. 

Issue of Fractionnal Silver Coins. 

1. The Treasurer and Assistant Treasurers of the United 
States will exchange Fractional Silver Coins in sums of twenty 
dollars, or any multiple thereof, for lawful money of the 
United States, on demand of any holder thereof. 

2. The Treasurer will forward Fractional Silver Coins, at 
the expense of the Government, in return for remittances of 
Fractional Currency in sums of $500 or more. 

3. The Treasurer wdll forward Fractional Silver Coins, de¬ 
ducting express charges at the rate of three mills per mile for 
each $500 or multiple thereof— 

I. Upon the receipt at this Office from any person of an origi¬ 
nal (duplicate will not do) certificate issued by an Assistant 
Treasurer or National Bank Depositary, that a deposit of Cur¬ 
rency has been made to the credit of the Treasurer in general 
account. Deposits with the Assistant Treasurer in New York 
may be made by checks payable to his order, forwarded di¬ 
rectly to him, with instructions to deposit the amounts on ac¬ 
count of Fractional Silver Coins, and to forward the certificate^ 
therefor to the Treasurer, 




546 ISSUE AND REDEMPTION OF MINOR COINS. 

II. Upon the receipt at this Office of United States Notes or 
National Bank Notes. 

III. Upon the receipt and collection of a check on New 
York, payable to the order of the Treasurer of the United 
States. 


Redemption of Fractional Silver Coins. 

1. The holder of any of the silver coins of the United States 
of smaller denominations than one dollar may, on presentation 
of the same in sums of twenty dollars, or any multiple thereof, 
at the office of the Treasurer or any Assistant Treasurer of the 
United States, receive therefor lawful money of the United 
States. 

2. The coins for exchange should be put up by denomina¬ 
tions, and each package marked with the amount it contains. 

8. No coins mutilated so as to be unfit for circulation will 
be received. 

4. When the coins are forwarded to the Treasury by ex¬ 
press, they should be addressed to the Treasurer U. S., Wash¬ 
ington, D. C. 

Issue and Redemption of Minor Coins. 

Issue of Minor Coins. 

1. The Minor Coins of the United States of the denomina¬ 
tions of one cent, three cents, and five cents, are issued and 
forwarded free of expense, upon application to the Superin¬ 
tendent of the Mint at Philadelphia, for lawful money of the 
United States in sums of $20, or multiples thereof. Remit¬ 
tances may be made by post office money orders or sight drafts 
to the order of said Superintendent, payable in New York or 
Philadelphia. 

2. The Treasurer and Assistant Treasurers are authorized to 
pay out, for United States Notes, any Minor Coins not needed 
in the current business of their offices. 

Redemption of Minor Coins. 

1. Coins of copper, bronze, and copper nickel may be pre 
sented in sums of $20, or multiples thereof, assorted by de¬ 
nominations and issues, at the Mint in Philadelphia, or to the 
Treasurer or any Assistant Treasurer, for redemption in law¬ 
ful money. 

2. A letter of advice should accompany the package, stating 
the amount and kind of coins, and the name of the owner. 

3. Mutilated Minor Coins will not be redeemed or exchanged. 



O-OIjB 



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548 


HOW TO CONDUCT PUBLIC MEETINGS. 


HOW TO ORGANIZE AND CONDUCT PUB- 

EIC MEETINGS. 

Every American believes that it is an inherent right in citi¬ 
zens to meet, organize, and then discuss any subject that they 
may deem fit to direct their attention to. To conduct such 
meetings so as to avoid confusion, and consequent disturb¬ 
ance, there is an unwritten law which every sensible man is 
willing to obey, and expects every other man to bow to. 
These rules are not enforced by any statute, but are the wise 
precedents worked out from time to time by our ancestors 
either in the old world or in the new. The British Parliament 
and the American Congress follow the same rules, with such 
slight deviations as the different forms of government demand. 
It matters not whether the persons meet to form a church or 
elect a president, the first requirement for success is that all 
should be done decently and in order. Any member can call 
a meeting to order by nominating a temporary chairman, who, 
if elected by an unquestioned majority, thanks the assembly, 
and asks what is their further order. Some one rises, and 
nominates a permanent chairman. Upon his election, the tem¬ 
porary chairman welcomes his successor to his seat. The 
chairman then addresses the meeting, thanking them in a 
speech, brief and to the purpose. No man should accept this 
position unless he is at least tolerably versed in the duties of 
his office. He should be sure in his decisions on points of 
order, and firmly maintain his findings as suavely as possible, 
but maintain them at all hazards. The meeting can now 
either vote for a secretary or direct the chair to select a proper 
person. The officers, having now the management of the 
meeting, proceed to business in the following order: The ob¬ 
ject of the meeting is stated; resolutions are to be handed in; 
votes taken on all motions duly seconded, and result stated: 
members debating questions to be kept in order; to receive 
communications, and have them read aloud; unless the meet¬ 
ing does so, it is for the chair to name committees; and gener¬ 
ally to act as the personification of the good sense of the as¬ 
sembly. 

The secretary records all transactions at chairman’s desire; 
reads all papers; calls roll of members; reads record of pre¬ 
vious meetings; calls the “yeas” and “nays;” notifies com¬ 
mittees, and. gives them needed papers; authenticates, at bid¬ 
ding of chair, all official papers; attends to correspondence, 
and makes reports. 

A meeting is initiated by two or more people addressing & 


HOW TO OKGANIZE PUBLIC MEETINGS. 


549 


circular, or by advertisement, stating object and asking attend¬ 
ance of all interested, at certain place and date. 

At the hour appointed the meeting is organized in the man¬ 
ner already described. When a motion is made and seconded, 
debate is then in order. Usually the one presenting the reso¬ 
lution speaks, explaining its object. The chairman will then 
give the floor to the first person who rises and catches his eye. 
In the first two or three speeches the speakers may be allowed 
a little latitude ; but it is well, as soon as possible, to keep 
them in the traces, and confine the debate pretty close to the 
matter in hand. Always have a Written resolution before the 
meeting, so that everything may proceed ship-shape. The 
chairman should scan the whole house, so that he may give 
every one a chance to attract his eye, whether the persons arc 
near the platform or at a distance. In this, as in every other 
action of life, the true rule is to do as you would like to be 
done by. But it is not only the chairman who has duties. 
The audience has much to do with keeping order. After you 
have appointed a presiding officer, do*not attempt to do his 
duty for him, by shouting “order,” “ order,” and thus mak¬ 
ing confusion worse confounded. Where would a regiment 
be if every private was to give the w r ord of command ? When 
a person has the floor and proceeds to speak, it is to be remem¬ 
bered that no one has a right to interrupt him, but by 
appealing to the chair, and asking that the speaker be called 
to order. On the other hand, no speaker is justified in making 
personal allusion to or questioning the motives of any other 
person in the meeting. Should any person so offend, the 
chairman owes it to the dignity of the assemblage to instantly 
call the offender to order, and insist that he be obeyed. 

A caucus is an assemblage of members of any political 
party to adopt a course of action, or nominate a person for a 
certain office. The proceedings, with slight variations, as in 
the meeting already described. 

Political conventions are composed of persons elected by 
their party to nominate suitable persons to represent such 
party. 

Almost every class of persons, religious, scientific, etc., hold 
conventions, and the same rules apply to them all, with minor 
changes, that speak for themselves. 

Resolutions may be presented either spoken or written—the 
latter way is preferable. Simple motions are usually spoken, 
as “ Mr. Chairman, I move that we take a recess for half an 
hour,” or any similar motion. A resolution duly offered, 
seconded and spoken to, can only be withdrawn by leave of 
the meeting. If during the debate a motion to adjourn ia 
carried, the resolution goes into the unfinished business de- 


550 


HOW TO ORGANIZE PUBLIC MEETINGS. 


partment, and can only be further acted upon when it comet 
up in due course at a following meeting. 

Amendments may be proposed to add to the resolution, to 
explain or to alter. Amendments cannot be introduced to 
suit a whim ; they must have a plain bearing on the matter ol 
the resolution. The limit is reached at the second amend¬ 
ment or third proposition. An amendment can be offered to 
strike out some terms and insert others. No proposition once 
rejected can be offered again in different words. 

Division may mean to divide on a vote, or to divide a ques¬ 
tion into two or more parts. A vote on a question being 
given, the chairman says: “The ayes have it,” or “the 
noes have it. ” Any person can then call for a count. The 
meeting itself decides what number can demand the yeas and 
nays. A bare majority of both Houses of Congress make a 
quorum for business. When appeal is taken from ruling of 
chairman, if it is seconded, it may be debated. The chair¬ 
man and any member may speak once on the subject. A 
second appeal cannot be made until the first is settled. The 
chairman may call any one to preside, and go upon the floor 
to speak ; but this is only done on important matters. No 
person has a right to speak twice on the same subject. 

_ Privileged questions are the motion to adjourn, the motion to 
lie on the table, and the motion for the previous question, and 
the motion to postpone. 

Motions to reconsider are usually regulated by the sense of 
the meeting. 

In legislative bodies the house is sometimes formed into the 
Committee of the Whole, when much latitude is given to debate, 
formality is less observed, and bills are got into shape. 

During a discussion any person may raise the point, “no 
quorum present,” and a call of the house follows. No mem¬ 
ber can come in, or leave, until the roll is called and the ques¬ 
tion decided. 

“No more business before the meeting,” says the chairman, 
and the motion to simply adjourn, or to adjourn sine die , must 
be at once decided, without discussion. The announcement 
must be formally made by the chairm&a, and that closes the 
meeting. 


&0 Vt TO OBGAKTZE PtXBLIO MEETINGS. 


A PARMER'S CLUB. 

In a Farmer’s Club, which has for its object social inter- 
coure and the acquisition of knowledge, there need be few 
arbitrary rules of order enforced, but, instead, the discussions 
may be more or less conversational. But, as all business is 
facilitated by good regulations, the officers of the club ought 
to be armed with by-laws, and empowered to enforce their 
provisions whenever necessary. 

CONSTITUTION. 

Art. 1. —This association shall be known as the Castana 
Farmer’s Club. Its object shall be to promote a knowledge 
of practical Farming and Gardening among its members and 
the community, in connection with social enjoyments by the 
members and their families. 

Art. 2.—The members of the club are those who frame this 
constitution and conform to its requirements, and others who 
may be invited to join by the executive committee, all of 
whom shall pay $00—annually in September (or monthly) into 
the treasury. 

Art. 3.—The officers of the Club shall be a President, a 
Secretary, who shall be the Treasurer, and three members, 
who, with the President and Secretary, shall constitute the 
Executive Committee. The Secretary shall keep records of 
transactions, and be custodian of the funds and other property 
of the Club, being accountable at all times to the Executive 
Committee, giving bonds, if required, and shall prepare and 
present a full report to the Club at the annual meeting. The 
Executive Committee, three members of which shall be a 
quorum, shall have general charge of the interests of the Club 
and the carrying oui of its objects. It shall fill vacancies 
among its officers, make rules, invite new members to join, 
regulate expenditures, manage exhibitions or fairs, publish 
offers of prizes and the awards, be responsible for the welfare 
of the Club, and report at the annual meeting through its 
Clerk. 

Art. 4. —The meeting of the Club shall take place on the 
first Tuesday of each month ; the meeting in January being 
known as the ‘‘Annual Meeting.” 

Art. 5. —This Constitution may be amended by a vote of 
two-thirds of the members present at any regular meeting, 
notice having been given at the preceding regular meeting. 






552 HOW TO ORGANIZE PUBLIC MEETINGS 

INSURANCE CLUB. 

It is a wise practice in some social organizations, among the 
industrial classes, to agree upon a mutual guaranty of help in 
cases of sickness and decease. A portion of the Society dues 
is set apart as a Benefit Fund, for members who are in need 
of assistance and support. One form of benefit is presented 
by a guaranty of the expenses of a deceased member’s funeral, 
and the form of an insurance article to that effect, in the By* 
Laws, may be as follows : 

Sec. 1. On the decease of any member of this Society in 
good standing, each member shall pay one dollar and ten cents 
to the Treasurer, who shall pay one dollar of the same to the 
widow of the deceased member, or the nearest relative, and 
any member failing to pay when notified, the same shall be 
charged as dues ; and no member who shall be in arrears for 
three months will be entitled to receive the above. 

Sec. 2. All officers and members of the Society shall attend 
the funeral of deceased members, and for non-attendance the 
officers shall be fined $1.00, and the members shall be fined 
25 cts. Officers shall wear at all funerals a white rosette, and 
members a white ribbon, on the left lappel of their coats. The 
funeral arrangements shall be under the charge of a marshal, 
appointed by the President for that purpose. 

Sec. 3. There shall be elected a chaplain, whose duty shall 
be to attend the funerals of the deceased members, and he may 
adopt such services as he shall think proper. 

Sec. 4. —No member will lose his right in the above sec 
tions, except at his own request, on his taking his cards ; but 
he must keep at all times his residence registered in the books 
of the Society, and for neglect of so doing, or failure to pay 
his dollar and ten cents, after sixty days’ notice, his name shall 
be dropped from the roll, and he shall cease to be a member of 
the Insurance. The ten cents shall be held to pay expenses, 
and the Treasurer shall, on the death of a member, report all 
money collected, with the expense thereof. 




HOW TO ORGANIZE PUBLIC MEETINGS. 553 
BY-LAWS FOR A SOCIAL CLUB. 

ARTICLE I. 

This Association shall "be known as the Onawa Social Union 

ARTICLE II.—OFFICERS. 

Sec. 1. The Officers of the Union shall consist of a President, 
Vice-President, Recording Secretary, Treasurer and Marshal, 
who shall be elected at the first meeting in the month of 
October, and shall hold office one year. 

Sec. 2. The President shall preside at all meetings, and in 
his absence the Vice-President shall perform his duties. 

Sec. 3. The Secretary shall keep a true record of the pro¬ 
ceedings of the Union. 

Sec. 4. The Treasurer shall keep all property and moneys, 
and hold the same to the order of the Union, and keep a book 
with a correct account of all receipts and disbursements. 

Sec. 5. The Marshal shall obey all official orders of the Pres¬ 
ident. 

ARTICLE III.—MEMBERSHIP. 

Propositions for membership must be made in writing, and 
presented at least one meeting prior to the time of election, 
and a majority of all the votes, on the payment of one dollar 
by the applicant, shall be necessary to admit to membership. 

ARTICLE IV.—COMMITTEES. 

Sec. 1. The President shall, with the consent of the Union, 
appoint a committee of five, to be known as the Executive 
Committee, who shall hold office one year. 

Sec. 2. The Executive Committee shall have charge of all 
Excursions, Balls, Parties, and all amusements. 

Sec. 3. The officers of the Union shall be members of the 
Executive Committee. 

ARTICLE V.—ASSESSMENTS. 

Sec. 1. No Assessment shall at any one time exceed one 
dollar. 

Sec. 2. The name of any member failing to pay his assess¬ 
ment within thirty days after having been notified by the 
Treasurer, shall be dropped from the roll, and he shall cease 
to be a member. 

Sec. 3. The By-Laws shall not be altered or amended un¬ 
less notice shall have been given of the same at least two 
meetings previous, and then only by a two-third vote. 


1)54 ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA, 


/DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS OF AMERICA. 


NAME. 

PLACE. 

TIME 

NAME. 

TLACE. 

TIME 

Chris. Columbus, 

San Salvador, 

1492 

Jacques Cartier, 

Gulf of St. L. 

1534 

John & S. Cabot, 

Labrador, 

1497 

Hernan. Cortes, 

California, 

1536 

Gaspar Cortereal 

Canada, 

1501 

Ferd. de Soto, 

Mississippi B 

1541 

Ponce de Leon, 

Florida, 

1512 

Sam. Champlain, 

B. St. John, 

1604 

Juan Yerrazani, 

Coast of N.C. 

1524 

Henry Hudson, 

Hudson Biv. 

1604 


ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


NAME OP TRIBE. RESIDENCE. NO. 

Apaches.New Mexico . .7,300 

Arapahoes.Upper Platte B. 720 

Arapahoes.U.ArkansasB. 3,000 

Arricarees.U.Missouri B. 1,080 

Assinaboines.... “ “ 3,280 

Blackfeet. “ “ 2,080 

Bloods. “ “ 2,400 

Brules. “ “ 1,120 

California Tribes, California_33,590 

Camanches.U. Arkansas B.l,800 

Cayugas,Senecas,New York.147 

Cherokees.W Arkansas B.17,530 

.Cheyennes.U. Platte Biv. 1,800 

“ .U. Arkansas B.l,600 

Cbickasaws.W. Arkansas B.4,787 

Chippewas of Lake Superior, 1 
Michigan, Wisconsin, and > 4,940 
Minnesota, ) 

Ch.of the Miss..-Minnesota_4,028 

Ch. and Ottawas,Michigan.5,006 

Ch. of Saginaw & 

Swan Creek.. .Michigan.1,629 

Chippewas, with 

Pottawatomies Michigan .... 247 

Choctaws.W.of Arkansas, 16,000 

Christian, or 

Munses.Kansas. 90 

Creeks.W.of Arkansas,25,000 

Crows.U. Missouri It. 3,900 

Delawares.Kansas. 1,071 

Gros Ventres ...U.MissouriB.. 1,000 

Iowas.Nebraska_ 291 

Kansas Kaws,&c. Kansas. 741 

Kaskaskias, Weas 
Peories, W. Mi- 
amies,and Pian- 

keshaws. 

Kickapoos.Kansas. 340 

Kiaways.U. Arkansas B. 1,800 

Mandans.U.Arkansasll. 120 

Menomonees_Wisconsin ... 1,724 

Miainies.Indiana. 384 

Missouris and Ot- 

toes.Nebraska_ 470 

Minnecongonx, .U.Missouri B. 1,280 


NAME OF TRIBE. RESIDENCE. NO. 
Mukuache Utaks,New Mexico, 566 
Navajoes & Mo- 

quis.NewMexico. .15,000 

Omakas.Nebraska_ 953 

Onondagas.New York 422 

Oneidas. “ “ .... 160 

“ with Onon¬ 
dagas. “ “ 70 

“ with Stock- 

bridge, &c.Wisconsin ... 323 

Oregon Tribes... Oregon.13,000 

Osages.W. of Arkansas, 4,093 

Pawnees(4bands)Nebraska ... 3,414 
Primos Mescale- 

ros, <5cc.New Mexico . 400 

Poncas.Nebraska... 864 

Pottawatomies, 

with Kickapoos,Kansas. 69 

Do. of Huron_Michigan_ 50 

Do.at Agency pro.Kansas.•- 2.259 

Pueblos.NewMexico.. 10,000 

Quapaws.W.of Arkansas, 314 

Sacs and Foxes 

(Miss.).Kansas. 1,280 

Sacs and Foxes 

(Mo.).Nebraska_ 96 

Sans Arcs.U. Missouri B. 1,600 

Senecas.New York ... 2,988 

Do., with Skaw- 

nees.W.of Arkansas 159 

Seminoles.W.of Arkansas 2,500 

Sliawnees.Kansas. 830 

Sioux of the Miss.U.Missouri B. 8.686 
SiouxoftheMo.-U.Platte B... 6,000 
Stockbridge.with 

Munsees.Wisconsin... 323 

Tuscaroras.New York_ 305 

Two Kettles_U.Missouri B. 960 

Utah Tribes_Utah.1,200 

Utahs (N. Mex.),New Mexico, 2,500 

Uncopapas.U.MissouriB. 2,680 

Wash.Ter.Tribes,Wash. Ter.. .14.000 
Winnebagoes ...U.MissouriB, 2,256 

Wyandots.Kansas. 435 

Yanctonnais(Mo.)U.MissouriR 3,840 


1 Kansas .... 384 


Total 


, 260,079 


















































































FIRST SETTLERS.-THE REVOLUTION, 


555 

EARLY SETTLERS AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


STATE. 

SETTLERS. 

TIME 

Maine. 

English. 

1625’ 

N. Hampshire.. 


1623 

"Vermont. 

U 

1724 

Massachusetts. 

Puritans. 

1620 

Rhode Island .. 

4l 

1634 

Connecticut.... 

u 

1631 

New York. 

Dutch. 

1614 

New Jersey- 

Swedes. 

1607 

Pennsylvania.. 

English. 

1631 

Delaware. 

Swedes. 

1627 

Maryland. 


1634 

Virginia. 

English. 

1607 

North Carolina. 

English. 

1650 

South Carolina 

44 

1689 

Georgia. 

it 

1733 

Florida. 

Spanish.,. 

1580 

Alabama. 

French. 

1713 


STATE. 

SETTLERS. 

TIME 

Mississippi.... 
Louisiana. 

French. 

4i 

1716 

1699 

Texas. 

Spanish .... 

1697 

Arkansas. 

French. 

1836 

Tennessee .... 

Yir. & N. Car., 

1765 

Kentucky. 

Virginia. 

1775 

Ohio. 

Yir. <fc N. Eng., 

1788 

Michigan. 

French. 

1670 

Indiana. 

1 i 

1750 

Illinois. 

U 

1749 

Wisconsin .... 

U 

1670 

Iowa. 

N. & E. States. 

1832 

Minnesota . - -. 

Fr. & States... 

1845 

Missouri . 

French . 

1763 

California. 

All Nations ... 

1769 

Oregon. 

u u 

1840 

Kansas. 

Mass., Ct., Mo., 

1854 


TROOPS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 


STATES. 

reg’l’s. 

MILITIA. 

New Hampshire ... 

12,496 

2.093 

Massachusetts. 

68,007 

15,145 

Rhode Island. 

5,093 

4,284 

Connecticut. 

32,029 

7,702 

New York. 

18,331 

3,304 

New Jersey. 

10,726 

6,055 

Pennsylvania. 

25,322 

7,327 

Total in Free States, 

172,819 

45,910 


STATES. 

reg’l’s. 

MILITIA. 

Delaware. 

Maryland. 

Virginia. 

North Carolina ... 
South Carolina.... 
Geortria. 

2,317 

13,912 

25,668 

7,263 

6,417 

2,679 

58,256 

376 

4.127 

5,620 

Tot’l^Slave States. 

10,123 

Grand Total. 

231,075 

56,033 


BATTLES AND LOSSES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 


BRIT. AMER. 

Lexington, April 19,1775, 273 84 

Bunker Hill, June 17,1775, 1,054 456 

Flatbush, Aug. 12, 1776, 400 280 

White Pl’ns, Aug.26,1776, 400 400 

Trenton, Dec. 25, 1776, 1,000 9 

Princeton, Jan. 5,1777, 400 100 

Hubbardstown,Aug.7, ’77, 800 800 

Bennington, Aug. 16,1777, 800 100 

Brandywine, Sept. 11,1777, 500 1,000 
Stillwater, Sept. 17, 1777, 600 350 

Germantown, Oct. 5,1777, 600 1,250 

Saratoga, Oct.l7,1777(8ur) 5,752 .... 


BRIT. AMER. 

Bed Hook, Oct. 22, 1777, 500 32 

Monmouth, June 25,1778, 400 130 

E. Island, Aug. 27, 1778, 260 114 

Briar Creek, Mar. 30,1779, 13 400 

Stony Pt., July 15, 1779, 600 100 

Camden, Aug. 16, 1779, 375 610 

King’s Mt., Oct, 1, 1780, 950 96 

Cowpens, Jan. 17, 1781, 800 72 

Guilford, March 15, 1781, 531 400 

Hobkirk Hills, Ap.25,’81, 400 460 

Eutaw Spr’gs, Sept. 1781, 1,000 550 

Yorkt’n, Oct., 1781 (sur.), 7,072 













































































































556 


DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 


DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

"When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and 
equal station to which the laws of Nature and Nature’s God entitle them, 
a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should de¬ 
clare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; 
that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; 
that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to 
secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their 
just powers from the consent of the governed: that whenever any form of 
government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right oftiie people 
to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foun¬ 
dation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form as to 
them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, 
indeed,will dictate that governments long established should not bfc changed 
for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown 
that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than 
to right themselves, by*abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. 
But when a long train or abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the 
same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it 
is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide 
new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance 
of these colonies, and such is now*the necessitywhicli constrains them to 
alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king 
of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having 
in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. 
To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world: 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for 
the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing 
importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be 
obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to 
them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the-right of repre¬ 
sentation in the legislature—a right inestimable to them, and formidable to 
tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfort¬ 
able, and distant from the repository of the public records, for the sole 
purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing, with 
manly firmness, his invasions on the right: of the people. 

He has refused for a long time after such dissolution to cause others to 
be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have 
returned to the people at large for their exercise, the State remaining, in 
the mean time, exposed to ail the dangers of invasion from without and 
convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that 
purpose obstructing the laws of naturalization of foreigners; refusing to 
pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions 
of new appropriations of lands. 

Heffias obstructed the administration of*justice by refusing his assent to 
laws ior establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their 
offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of 
officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the 
consent oi our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to 
the civil power. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 


55 \ 


Ho has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to 
our Constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to 
their acts of pretended legislation: 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: 

For protecting them by a mock trial from punishment for any murders 
which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States: 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent: 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: 

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences: 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, 
establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, 
eo as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the 
same absolute rule into these colonies: 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and 
altering, fundamentally, the forms of our government: 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested 
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protection, 
and waging war against us. 

ne has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to 
complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny already begun, with 
circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most bar. 
barons ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized ration. 

He lias constrained "our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, 
to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their 
friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and has endeavored to 
bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, 
whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, 
sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in 
the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only 
by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every 
act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free peopie. 

Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. "We 
have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to 
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction overuse We have reminded them 
of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have 
appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured 
them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, 
which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 
They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We 
must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, 
and hold them, as wo hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace 
friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in 
General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of 
the good people of those colonies, solemnly publish and declare, that these 
United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States; 
that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all 
political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and 
ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent States, 
they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, estab¬ 
lish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States 
may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm 
reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to 
each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 


558 


DECLakATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 


SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 


NAMES AND PLACE OF BIRTH. 


John Hancock, Mass. 

Josiah Bartlett, Mass. 

William Whipple, Me. 

Matthew Thornton, Ireland.. 

Samuel Adams, Mass. 

John Adams, Mass. 

Robert Treat Paine, Mass... 

Elbridge Gerry, Mass. 

Stephen Hopkins, R. I. 

William Ellery, R. I. 

Roger Sherman, Mass. 

Samuel Huntington, Conn... 

William Williams, Conn. 

Oliver Wolcott, Conn. 

William Floyd, N. Y. 

Philip Livingston, N. Y. 

Francis Lewis, England. 

Lewis Morris, N. Y. 

Richard Stockton, N. J. 

John Witherspoon, Scotland. 

Francis Hopkinson, Pa. 

John Hart, 1ST. J. 

Francis L. Lee, Ya. 

Carter Braxton, Va. 

William Hooper, Mass. 

Joseph Hewes, N. J. 

John Penn, Ya. 

Edward Rutledge, S. C. 


DIED. 

AGE. 

NAMES AND PLACE OF BIRTH. 

DIED. 

W 

O 

◄ 

1793 

56 

Abraham Clarke, N. J. 

1794 

68 

1795 

65 

Robert Morris, England. 

1806 

73 

1785 

55 

Beniamin Rush, Pa.. . 

1813 

68 

1803 

89 

Benjamin Franklin, Mass.... 

1790 

84 

1803 

81 

John Morton, Pa. 

1777 

53 

1826 

91 

George Clymer, Pa. 

1813 

74 

1814 

83 

•James Smith, Ireland. 

1806 

86 

1814 

70 

George Taylor, \ reland. 

1781 

65 

1785 

78 

James Wilson, Scotland. 

1798 

56 

1820 

93 

George Ross, Del. 

1780 

50 

1793 

72 

Caesar Rodney, Del. 

1783 

53 

1796 

64 

George Reed, Aid. 

1798 

64 

1811 

80 

Thomas McKean, Pa. 

1817 

83 

1797 

71 

Samuel Chase, Md. 

1811 

70 

1821 

87 

William Paca, Md. 

1799 

59 

1776 

62 

Thomas Stone. Md. 

1787 

44 

1803 

90 

Charles Carroll. Aid. 

1832 

95 

1798 

72 

George Wythe, Ya. 

1800 

74 

1781 

51 

Richard H. Lee Va, .. _ 

1794 

62 

1794 

72 

Thomas Jefferson, Ya. 

1826 

83 

1791 

54 

Benjamin Harrison, Ya. 

1797 

55 

1780 

66 

Thomas Nelson, Ya. 

1789 

51 

1797 

63 

Thomas Heyward,jr.,S.C ... 

1809 

63 

1797 

61 

Thomas Lvnch, S. C. 

1777 

30 

1790 

48 

Arthur Middleton, S. C. 

1788 

45 

1779 

49 

Button Gwinnet, England ... 

1777 

45 

1788 

47 

Lyman Hall, Conn. 

1784 

63 

1800 

51 

George Walton, Ya. 

1804 

64 


PRESIDENTS OF THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. 


Peyton Randolph, Virginia.1774 

Henry Middleton, S. Carolina.. .1774 

Peyton Randolph, Virginia.1775 

John Hancock, Massachusetts..1776 

Henry Laurens, S. Carolina.1777 

John Jay, New York.1778 

Samuel Huntington, Conn.1779 

Thomas McKean, 


John Hanson, Maryland. 1781 

Elias Boudinot, New Jersey. ...1782 
Thomas Mifflin, Pennsylvania. .1783 
Richard Henry Lee, Virginia.. .1784 

Nathaniel Gorham, Mass.1786 

Arthur St. Clair, Pennsylvania. 1787 

Cyrus Griffin, Virginia. 1788 

Delaware.1781 


ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

The Articles of Confederation were adopted November 15, 1777, and 
were ratified by all the States March 1, 1781. A form of Constitution waa 
agreed upon September 17, 1787, which was adopted March 4,1789. 














































































Constitution of the united states* 1>S9 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

PREAMBLE. 

"We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
nnion, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the com¬ 
mon defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of 
liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Consti¬ 
tution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I. 

TIIE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 

SECTION I. — All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a 
Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House 
of Representatives. 

Section II. — 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen every second year by the people of the several States; 
and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for 
electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. 

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the 
age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in 
which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the sev¬ 
eral States which may be included within this Union, according to their 
respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole 
number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of 
vears, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons. 
The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first 
meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent 
term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number 
of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each 
State shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration 
shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose 
three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 
one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, 
eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; 
South Carolina, five; and Georgia, three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the 
executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such va¬ 
cancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other 
officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Section ILL—1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
two Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof for six 
years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first 
election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The 
seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of 
the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, 
and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third 
may bo chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen, by resignation 
or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive 
thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the 
legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of 
thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who 
shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall 
be chosen. 

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the 
Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro 
tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the 
office of President of the United States, 


m 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 'When 
sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the 
President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: and 
no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the 
members present. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of 
honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted 
shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and 
punishment, according to law. 

Section IV.— 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for 
Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the 
legislature thereof; but the Congress may at anytime, bylaw, make or 
alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year; and such 
meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
law appoint a different day. 

Section V.— 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, 
and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall consti¬ 
tute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day 
to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, 
in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two thirds, 
expel a member. 

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to 
time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment 
require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on 
any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered 
on the journal. 

4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 
consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

Section VI.—1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a com¬ 
pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the 
treasury of the United States. They shall, in' all cases, except treason, 
felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their 
attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house 
they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was 
elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United 
States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall 
have been increased, during such time; and no person holding any office 
under the United States shall be a member of either house during his con¬ 
tinuance in office. 

Section VII.— 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with 
amendments, as on other bills. ‘ • 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and 
the Senate, shall, before it become a law, bo presented to the President of 
the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return 
it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated; who 
shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reoon- 
sider it. If, after such reconsideration, two thirds of that house shall agree 
to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other 
house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered; anil if approved by two 
thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes 
of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the 
persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of 
each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President 
within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


561 

hira^ the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless 
the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it 
shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a ques¬ 
tion of adjournment), shall be presented' to the President of the United 
States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him; 
or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate 
and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations pre¬ 
scribed in the case of a bill. 

Section YIII. — The Congress shall have power— 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises; to pay the debts, 
and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United 
States; but all duties, imposts,.and excises shall be uniform throughout 
the United States: 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States: 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian tribes: 

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the 
subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States: 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin, and to 
fix the standard of weights and measures: 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current coin of the United States: 

7. To establish post-offices and post-roads: 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for 
limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respec¬ 
tive writings and discoveries: 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court: 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
seas, and offences against the law of nations: 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules 
concerning captures on land and water: 

12. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that 
use shall be for a longer term than two years: 

13. To provide and maintain a navy: 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
naval forces: 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions: 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and 
for governing such parts of them as may be employed in the service of the 
United States; reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the 
officers and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline 
prescribed by Congress: 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such 
district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular 
States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of 
the United States; and to exercise like authority over all places purchased, 
by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, 
for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockjmrds, and other needful 
buildings:—and 

18. Tcf make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this 
Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department 
or officer thereof. 

Section IX.—1. The immigration or importation of such persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro¬ 
hibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
eight; biit a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation not exceeding 
ten dollars for each persoUt 


682 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


2. The privilege of tlie writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may 
require it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to 
the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No 
preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the 
ports of one State over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to or from 
one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of 
appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the 
receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from 
time to time. 

7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no 

person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the 
consent of Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any 
kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. , 

Section X.— 1. No S^ate shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confed¬ 
eration; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of 
credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing tlie 
obligation of contracts; or grant any title of nobility. 

2. No State shall, without tlie consent of Congress, lay any imposts or 
duties on imports or exports, exceyit what may be absolutely necessary for 
executing its inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts 
laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury 
of the United States, and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and 
control of Congress. 

3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, 
keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or 
compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, un¬ 
less actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 

Section I.—1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the 
United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four 
years; and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, bo 
elected as follows: 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of Senators 
and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in Congress: but 
no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit 
under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

3. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot 
for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same 
State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted 
for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and 
certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United 
States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate 
shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all 
the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having 
the greatest number of votes shall be President, if such number be a ma¬ 
jority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than 
one who have such a majority, and have an equal number of votes, then 
the House of Representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, oue of 
them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then, from the five 
highest on the list, the said House shall, in like manner, choose a President. 
But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the rep¬ 
resentation fron each State having one vote: a quorum for this purpose 
eh all consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and a 
majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


56 $ 

after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number 
of votes of the electors shall be Vice-President. But if there should remain 
two or more who have equal votes, the Seuate shall choose from them, by 
ballot, the Vice-President. 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
the day ou which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same 
throughout the United States. 

5. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible t« 
the office of President: neither shall any person bo eligible to that office 
who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been four¬ 
teen years a resident within the United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, 
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
office, the same shall devolve ou the Vice-President; and the Congress may, 
by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, 
both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then 
act as President; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability 
be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

7. The President shall, at stated.times, receive for his services a com¬ 
pensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the 
period for which he shall have been elected; and he shall not receive within 
that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

8. Before he enters on the execution of his office, he shall take the fol¬ 
lowing oath or affirmation: 

“ I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office 
of President of the United States: and will, to the best of my ability, pre¬ 
serve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.” 

Section II.— 1. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the army 
and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when 
called into the actual service of the United States. He may require the 
opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive depart¬ 
ments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices; 
and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against 
the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, 
to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and 
he shall nominate, and. by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, 
shall appoint ambassadors and other public ministers and consuls, judges 
of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States whose 
appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be 
established by law. But the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment 
of such inferior officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the 
courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen 
during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall 
expire at the end of their next session. 

Section III.— He shall, from time to time, give to Congress information 
of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such meas¬ 
ures as he shall judge necessary and expedient. He may, on extraordinary 
occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagree¬ 
ment between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may ad¬ 
journ them to such time as he shall think proper. He shall receive ambas¬ 
sadors aud other public ministers, ne shall take care that the laws bo 
faithfully executed; and shall commission all officers of the United States. 

Section IV.—The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the 
United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for. and con¬ 
viction of, ti’eason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors 

ARTICLE III. 

THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 

Section T. — The judicial power of the United States shall be vested hi 
one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as Congress may. from tim# 


564 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior 
courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior; and shall, at stated 
times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be dimin¬ 
ished during their continuance in office. 

Section II.— 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and 
equity arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and 
treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases 
affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of 
admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United 
States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States; be¬ 
tween a State and citizens of another State; between citizens of different 
States; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of 
different States; and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign 
states, citizens, or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, 
and those in which a State shall b a party, the Supreme Court shall have 
original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme 
Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such 
exceptions and under such regulations as Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
jury, and such trial shall be held in the State wheie the said crimes shall 
nave been committ d; but when not committed within any State, the trial 
shall be at such place or places as Congr ess may by law have directed. 

Section III.— 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in 
levying war against them, or in angering to their enemies, giving them'aid 
and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testi¬ 
mony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

2. Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but 
no attainder of treason shall wor k corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except 
during the life of the person attainted. 

AUTICLE IV. 

MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS. 

Section I.— Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the 
public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State; and 
Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, 
records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Section II.—1. The^citizens of each State shall be entitled to all the 
privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, 
who shall flee from justice, and he found in another State, shall, on demand 
of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, 
to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, 
escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, 
be discharged from such service or labor; but shall be delivered up on 
claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

Section III.—1. New States may be admitted by Congress into this 
Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within tlie jurisdiction 
of any other State, nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more 
States, or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the 
States concerned, as well as of Congress. 

2. Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all needful rules 
and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the 
United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to 
prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 

Section IV.— The United States shall guarantee to every State in this 
Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 
against invasion: and, on application of the legislature, or of the executive 
(when the legislature can not he convened), against domestic violence. 

AUTICLE V. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it neces* 
sary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution; or, on the application 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


565 


of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a conven¬ 
tion for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid, to all 
intents and purposes, as parts of this Constitution, when ratified by the 
legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by conventions in 
three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be 
proposed by Congress; provided that no amendment which maybe made 
prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner 
atfect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; 
and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage 
in the Senate. 

ARTICLE YI. 

1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adop¬ 
tion of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under 
this Constitution as under the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be 
made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, 
under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the 
land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the 
constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members 
of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both 
of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or 
affirmation to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be 
required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United 
States. 

ARTICLE VII. 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for 
the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the 
same. 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the 
seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United 
States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto 
subscribed our names. 

George Washington. 

President , and Deputy f rom, Virginia. 

Amendments to the Constitution of the United States. 

Article I.—Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of 
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom 
of speech or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, 
and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

Article II.— A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security 
of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be 
infringed. 

Article III.— No soldier shall, in time of peace, bo quartered in any 
bouse without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a man¬ 
ner to be prescribed by law. 

Article IY.— The right of the people to be secure in their persons, 
houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, 
shall not be violated; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, 
supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

Article Y.— No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, w hen 
In actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be 
subject for the same offence to be put twice in jeopardy of life or limb; nor 
shall be compelled in any criminal case to be witness against himself; nor 
be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor 
shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. 
Article YI.—la all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the 


566 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


tight to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and 
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall 
have been previously ascertained by law; and to be informed of the nature 
and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against 
him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and 
to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. 

Article YII.— In suits at common law, where the value in controversy 
shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; 
and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of 
the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. 

Article VIII.—Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines 
imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Article IX.— The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights 
shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

Article X.— The powers not delegated to the United States by the 
Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States 
respectively, or to the people. 

Article* XI.—The judicial power of the United States shall not be con¬ 
strued to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted 
against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens 
or subjects of any foreign state. 

Article XII.— 1. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and 
vote by ballot for President and Yioe-President, one of whom, at least, 
shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. They shall 
name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct bal¬ 
lots the person voted for as Yice-President; and they shall make distinct 
lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as 
Yice-President, and of the number of votes for each; which lists they shall 
sign and Gertify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the 
United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of 
the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representa¬ 
tives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The 
person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed: and if no person have such majority, then from the persons 
having the highest numbers, not exceeding three* on the list of those voted 
for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose-immediately, 
bj ballot, the President. But, in choosing the President, the votes slnill 
be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote: a 
quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two 
thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a 
choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, 
whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth 
day of March next following, then the Yice-President shall act as President, 
as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. 

2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Yice-President 
shall be the Yice-President. if such number be a majority of the whole 
number of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then from 
the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Yice- 
President. A quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the 
whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be 
necessary to a choice. 

3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall 
be eligible to that of Vice-President of tiie United States. 

Article XIII.— Section I.—Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, 
except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly 
convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their 
jurisdiction. 

Section II.— Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro¬ 
priate legislation. 

Article XIV.— Section T.—All persons born or naturalized in theUnited 
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FLAG. 


567 


States, and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce 
any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the 
United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or 
property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its 
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Section II.— Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number 
of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right 
to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- 
President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive 
and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is 
denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years 
of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except 
fof participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation 
therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male 
citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years 
of age in such State.. 

Section III.—No person shall he a Senator or Representative in Congress, 
or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, ciyil or mili¬ 
tary, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously 
taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, 
or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer 
of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have 
engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or com¬ 
fort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of 
each house, remove such disability. 

Section IV.— The validity of the public debt of the United States, au¬ 
thorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and 
bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be 
questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or 
pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any 
slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and 
void. 

Section V.— The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this Article. 

Akticle XV.— Section I.— The right of citizens of the United States 
to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any 
State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section II.— The Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by 
appropriate legislation. 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FLAG. 

The idea of Standards originated with the Egyptians, at an early age. 
The Crusaders added the cross to their banners. The union of the three 
crosses of St. George, St. Andrew, and St. Patrick, marks, first the union 
of England and Scotland, into the Kingdom of Great Britain; and then, 
this Kingdom with Ireland. This is termed the Great Union Flag of Great 
Britain, and was brought by the colonists to America. When the thirteen 
colonies began to feel ""the pressure of British rule, they placed upon their 
banners a rattlesnake, cut in thirteen pieces, representing the thirteen 
colonies, with the motto, “ Join , or die." When these colonies became more 
united in their purposes of resistance to British tyranny, they placed upon 
their flag a well-formed rattlesnake, in the attitude of about to strike, with 
the motto, “ Don't tread on me." 

Dr. Franklin, seeing this emblem on one of the drums of that day, writes 
as follows: “On inquiry, and from study, I learned that the ancients con¬ 
sidered the serpent an emblem of wisdom; and, in some attitudes, of endless 
duration. Also, that countries are often represented by animals peculiar 
%o that oouutry, The rattlesnake is found nowhere but in America. Her 



568 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FLAG. 


eye is exceedingly bright, and without eyelids,— emblem of vigilance. Sh* 
never begins an attack, and she never surrenders,— emblem of magnanimity 
and courage. She never wounds even her enemies, till she generously gives 
them warning not to tread on her,—which is emblematical of the spirit of 
the people who inhabit her country. She appears apparently weak and 
defenceless, but her weapons are nevertheless formidable. Her poison is 
the necessary means for the digestion of her food, but certain destruction 
to her enemies,—showing the pdwer of American resources. Her thirteen 
rattles, the only part which increases in number, are distinct from each 
other, and yet so united that they can not be disconnected without breaking 
them to pieces,— showing the impossibility of an American Republic with¬ 
out a Union of States. A single rattle will give no sound alone, but the 
ringing of the thirteen together is sufficient to startle the boldest man 
alive. She is beautiful in' youth, which increaseth with her age. Her 
tongue is forked, as the lightning; and her abode is among the impen. 
etrable rocks.” 



The next form of the United States Flag was the Stars and Stripes. Its 
proportions are perfect, when properly made,— the first and last stripe 
being red, with alternate stripes of white. The blue field, for the stars, is 
the square of the width of seven stripes. 

On the 14th of June, 1777, the Continental Congress resolved, “that the 
flag of the United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white, and 
that the Union be thirteen white stars on a blue field, representing a new 
Constellation.” Previous to this, our national banner was the Union flag, 
combining the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew. 

The Stars and Stripes were unfurled, for the first time, at the battle of 
Saratoga, on the occasion of the surrender of General Burgoyne. 

The Stars of the flag represent the idea taken from the Constellation 
Lyra, which signifies harmony. The blue of the field was taken from the 
banner of the Covenanters of Scotland, likewise significant of the league 
and covenant of the United Colonies against oppression, and incidentally 
involving vigilance, perseverance, and justice. The stars were disposed 
in a circle, symbolizing the perpetuity of the Union, the circle being the 
sign of eternity. Both the thirteen stripes and the stars showed the nunu 
her of the United Colonies, and denoted the subordination of the States to, 
and their dependence upon, the Union, as well as equality among them¬ 
selves. The whole was a blending of the previous banners, namely, the 
red flag of the army and white one of the navy. The red color, which in 
the days of Roman glory was the signal of defiance, denoted daring, and 
the white purity. 

On the 13th of January, 1794, by an act of Congress, the flag was altered 
to fifteen red and white stripes, and fifteen stars. On the 4th of April, 1818, 
Congress again altered the flag by returning to the original thirteen stripes 
and fifteen stars, as the adding of a new stripe for each additional State 
would soon make the flag too unwieldy. The new star is added to the flag 
«m the ttb of July following the admission of each State into the Union. 







NAy? OP THE REVOLUTION, 


569 


THE NAVY OF THE REVOLUTION. 

In December, 1775, Congress passed an Act ordering the building of thir¬ 
teen vessels, three of 24 guns, five of 28, and five of 32, with Ezekiel Hopkins 
as Commander-m-Chief, as follows: 


Name. 

No. OF 
GUNS. 

• 

History. 

Hancock. 

32 

Captured by the British in 1777. 

Congress ___ 

28 

Destroyed in the Hudson River to avoid cap¬ 
ture in 1777, never having been to sea. 

Montgomery .. 

28 

Do., do., do. 

Delaware . 

24 

Captured in the Delaware River, 1777. 

Randolph. 

32 

Blown up in action with the British ship Yar¬ 
mouth, 64 guns, in 1778. 

Washington.... 

32 

Destroyed in the Delaware by the British, be¬ 
fore getting to sea, in 1778. 

Effingham. 

28 

Do., do., do. 

Raleigh. 

32 

Captured by the British in 1778. 

Virginia .. 

28 

Captured by the British in 1778, off the capes of 
the Delaware, before getting to sea. 

Warren. 

32 

Burned in the Penobscot River in 1779, to pre¬ 
vent falling into the enemy’s hands. 

Providence .... 

28 

Seized by the British at the capture of Charles¬ 
ton, S. C., in 1780. 

Boston . 

24 

Do., do., do. 

Trumbull. 

28 

Captured by the British ship Watt, in 1781. 


Such is the story in brief of the “original thirteen” vessels. Not one 
survived in the possession of the Colonies to the close of the war. About 
ten vessels of a force ranging from 24 guns down to 10, and two even smaller, 
were purchased and fitted out as cruisers, while the “thirteen” were 
building. 

The navy of the Revolution was disbanded at the close of the war; the offi • 
cers gave up their commissions; the few public vessels that remained were 
sold, Several of the States maintained small cruisers, with the consent of 
Congress. During the last year or two of the war, it had dwindled almost to 
nothing. This was in part due to the fact that its place was taken by the 
French. The assertion of sovereignty on the seas was not yet thought of, 
while independence on the land was not secured. 

The most remarkable naval engagement of the Revolution was fought off 
the coast of Scotland on the evening of September 23d, 1779, between the 
Bon Homme Richard, of 40 guns, commanded by Paul Jones, and the Sera- 
pis, a British frigate of 44 guns, under Capt. Pearson. The Serapis surren¬ 
dered with a loss of 160. The Richard lost 300 in killed and wounded } aocl 
while sinking the crew was transferred to the Serapis, 























PBINCIPAL LAND BATTLES OF THE WAIL OF 1812, 


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PRINCIPAL NAVAL BATTLES OF THE WAR OF 1812. 





BATTLES OF THE MEXICAN WAiL 


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172 


Principal battles or the Mexican war. 


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The only naval engagements of importance during the war with Mexico was the bombardment of Vera Cruz, Commodore 
Ooaaor, which lasted four days, and the city compelled to surrender: and the bombardment of Monterey by Commodoro Sloat. 


























































PUBLIC DEBT.-PAPER MONET. 573 

PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNITED STATES, FROM 1791 TO 1880. 


1791... 

—$75,463,476 

52 

1792... 

... 77,227,924 

66 

1793... 

... 80,352,634 

04 

1794... 

... 78,427,404 

77 

1795... 

... 80,747,587 

39 

1796... 

... 83,762,172 

07 

1797... 

... 82,064,479 

33 

1798... 

... 79,228,529 

12 

1799... 

... 78,408,669 

77 

1800... 

... 82,976,294 

35 

1801... 

... 83,038,050 

80 

1802... 

... 86,711,632 

25 

1803... 

... 77,054,686 

30 

1804... 

... 86,427,120 

88 

1805... 

... 82,312,150 

50 

1806... 

... 75,723,270 

66 

1807... 

... 69,218,398 

64 

1808... 

... 65,196,317 

97 

1909... 

... 57,023,192 

09 

1810... 

... 53,173,217 

52 

1811... 

... 48.005,587 

76 

1812... 

... 45,209,737 

90 

1813... 

... 55,962,827 

57 

1814... 

... 81,487,846 

24 

1815... 

... 99,833,660 

15 

1816... 

...127,334.933 

74 

3817... 

...123,491,965 

16 

1818... 

...103,466,633 

83 

1819... 

... 95,529,648 

28 

1820... 

... 91,015,566 

15 


1821... 

—$89,987,427 

66 

1822... 

... 93,546,676 

98 

1823... 

... 90,875,877 

28 

1824... 

... 90,269,777 

77 

1825... 

... 83,788.432 

71 

1826... 

... 81,054,059 

99 

1827... 

... 73,987,357 

20 

1828... 

... 67,475,043 

87 

1829... 

... 58,421,413 

67 

1830... 

... 48,565,406 

50 

1831... 

... 39,123,191 

68 

1832... 

... 24,322,235 

18 

1833... 

... 7,001,698 

83 

1834... 

... 4,760,082 

08 

1835... 

37,513 

05 

1836... 

336,957 

83 

1837... 

... 3,308,124 

07 

1838... 

... 10,434,221 

14 

1839... 

... 3,573.343 

82 

1840... 

... 5,250,875 

54 

1841... 

... 13,594,480 

73 

1842.*. 

... 20,601,226 

28 

1843... 

... 32,742,922 

00 

1844... 

... 23,461,652 

50 

1845... 

... 15,925,303 

01 

1846... 

... 15,550,202 

97 

1847... 

... 38,826,534 

77 

1848... 

... 47,044,862 

23 

1849... 

... 63,061,858 

69 

1850... 

... 63,452,773 

55 


1851.. 


02 

1852.. 

.... 66,199,341 

71 

1853.. 

.... 59,803,117 

70 

1854.. 

.... 42,242,222 

42 

1855.. 


56 

1856.. 

.... 31,972,537 

90 

1857.. 

.... 28,699,831 

85 

1858.. 

.... 44,911,881 

03 

1859.. 

.... 58,496,837 

88 

I860.. 

.... 64,842,287 

88 

1861.. 

.... 90,580,873 

72 

1862.. 

....524,176,412 

13 

1863.. 

..1,119,772,138 

63 

1864.. 

.. 1,815,784,370 

57 

1865.. 

..2,680,647,869 

74 

1866.. 

-.2,773,236,173 

69 

1867.. 

..2,678,126,103 

87 

1868.. 

..2,611,687,851 

19 

1869.. 

..2,588,452,213 

94 

1870.. 

.. 2,480,672,427 

81 

1871.. 

..2,353,211,332 

32 

1872.. 

.. 2,253.251,078 

78 

1873.. 


20 

1874.. 

.. 2.251,690,218 

43 

1875.. 

.. 2,232,284,281 

95 

1876.. 

..2,180,394,817 

15 

1877.. 

..2,060,158,223 

26 

1878.. 

.. 2,256,205,892 

53 

1879.. 

..2,245.495,072 

04 

1880.. 

..2,120,415,370 

63 

1881.. 

..2,069,013,569 

58 


AMOUNT OF PAPER MONEY IN THE UNITED STATES, 

Outstanding on November 1, 1878. 


Denominations. 

national-bank 

notes. 

legal-tender 

notes. 

Total. 

Ones.. 

$ 4,284,219 
2,582,146 
92,539,275 
102,981,440 
68,219.780 
20,967,800 
27,104,400 
657,500 
304,000 

11,561 

$20,368,531 

20,332,920 

55,576,740 

65,926,631 

63,565,929 

26,691,195 

31,227,070 

30.501.500 

33.490.500 

$ 24,652,750 
22,915.066 
148,116,015 
168,908,071 
131,785,709 
47,658,995 
58,331,470 
31,159,000 
33,794,500 

11,561 

Twos. 

Fives . 

Tens .... 

Twenties.. 

Fifties. 

One hundreds... 

Five hundreds. 

One thousands. 

Fractions of notes not presented, 
or destroyed .. 

Totals. 


$319,652,121 * 

347,681,016 

1,000,000 

$667,333,137 

1,000,000 

Deduct for legal-tenders destroyed 
in Chicago fire.. 

Balances. 


$319,652,121 

346.681,016 

$666,383,137 


The printing of one and two dollar notes was discontinued Nov. 1,1878, 
and it is not intended to issue any notes of these denominations hereafter* 




























































































































674 


POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 


' AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 


States and Territories 


Area in 
Sq. Miles. 


Alabama. 

Arizona. 

Arkansas. 

California. 

Colorado. 

Connecticut. 

Dakota. 

Delaware. 

District of Columbia. 

Florida. 

Georgia. 

Idaho. 

Illinois. 

Indiana. 

Iowa. 

Kansas. 

Kentucky. 

Louisiana. 

Maine. 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan. 

Minnesota. 

Mississippi. 

Missouri. 

Montana. 

N ebraska. 

Nevada. 

New Hampshire. 

New Jersey. 

New Mexico. 

New York. 

North. Carolina. 

Ohio. 


50,722 
113,910 
52,198 
188,981 
104,500 
4,750 
150,932 
2,120 
64 
59,268 
58,000 
86,294 
55,410 
33,809 
55,045 
81,318 
37,680 
41.346 
35,000 
11,124 
7,800 
56,451 
T , 83,531 
47,156 
65,530 
143,776 
75,995 
112,090 
9,280 
8.320 
121,201 
47,000 
50,704 
39.960 


Oregon . 

Pennsylvania. 
Rhode Island . 
South Carolina 
Tennessee .... 

Texas. 

Utah. 

Vermont. 

Virginia . 

Washington .. 
West Virginia 
Wisconsin .... 
Wyoming _ 


95,274 

46,000 

1,306 

34.000 

45,600 

274,356 

84,476 

10,212 

38,348 

69,994 

23.000 

53.924 

97,883 


1790. 


237,946 

59,096 


82,548 


73,677 


96,540 

319,728 

378,787 


141,885 

184,139 


340,120 

393,751 


434,373 

68,825 

249,073 

35,691 


85,425 

747,610 


2,965,644 


3,929,214 


1800. 


251,002 


64.273 

14,093 


162,686 


5,641 


220,955 


151,719 

341.548 

422,845 


8,850 


183,858 

211,149 


589,051 

478,103 

45,365 


602,365 

69,122 

345,591 

105,602 


154,465 

880,200 


5,308,483 


1810. 


261,942 


72,674 

24,023 


252,433 


12,282 

24,520 


406,511 

76,556 

228,705 

380.546 

472,040 

4,762 


40,352 

20,845 


214.460 

245,562 


959.049 

555,500 

230,760 


810,091 

76,931 

415,115 

261,727 


217,895 

974,600 


7,239,881 


1820 . 


127,901 


14,255 


275,148 


72,749 

33,039 


340,985 


55,162 

147,178 


564,135 

152,923 

298.269 

407.350 

523.159 

8,765 


75,448 

66,557 


244,022 

277,420 


1,372,111 

638.829 

581,295 


1,047,507 

83,015 

502,741 

422,771 


235.966 

1,065,116 


Grand Totals 


9,633,822 








































































































































































POPULATION OP THE UNITED STATES. 


57 $ 


AT EACH CENSUS PK0M 1790 TO 1880 


States and 
Territories. 

1830. 

1840. 

1350. 

1860. 

1870. 

Alabama. 

309,527 

590,756 

771,623 

964,201 

996,992 

Arizona.. 





9 058 

Arkansas. 

30,388 

97,574 

209,897 

435,450 

484,471 

California_ 



92,597 

379,994 

560,247 

Colorado. 



34^27°' 

39*864 

Connecticut.... 

297,675 

309,978 

370,792 

4G0J47 

537^454 

Dakota. 




4,837 

14,181 

Delaware. 

76,748 

78,085 

91,532 

112;216 

125,015 

Dist. Columbia 

39,834 

43,712 

51,C87 

75,080 

131,700 

Florida. 

34,730 

54,477 

87.445 

140,424 

187,748 

Georgia. 

516,823 

691,392 

906,185 

1,057,286 

1,184.109 

Idaho. 





14,99Q 

Illinois. 

157,445 

476,183 

851,470 

1,711,951 

2.539,891 

Indiana. 

343,031 

685,866 

988,41G 

1,350,428 

1.C80.637 

Iowa. 


43,112 

192,214 

674,913 

1,194,020 

Kansas. 


107'206 

364*399 

Kentucky. 

687,917 

779.828 

982,405 

1,155,684 

1,321,011 

Louisiana. 

215,739 

352,411 

517,762 

708,002 

726,915 

Maine. 

399,455 

501,793 

583,169 

628,279 

626,915 

Maryland. 

447,040 

470,019 

583,034 

687,049 

780,894 

Massachusetts. 

610,408 

737,699 

994,514 

1,231,066 

1.457,351 

Michigan . 

31,639 

212,267 

397,654 

749,113 

1,184,059 

Minnesota. 



6,077 

172,023 

439.706 

Mississippi .... 

136,621 

375,651 

606*526 

791,305 

827,922 

Missouri. 

140,455 

383,702 

682,044 

1,183,012 

1,721,295 

Montana_ 





20,595 

"Nebraska,_ 




28,841 

122*993 

Nevada,. 




6'857 

42'491 

NewHampshire 

269,328 

284,574 

317,976 

326'073 

318,300 

New Jersey.... 

320,823 

373,306 

489,555 

672,035 

906,096 

New Mexico_ 



61,547 

93,516 

91,874 

New York. 

1,918,608 

2,428,921 

3,097^394 

3,880,735 

4,382,759 

North Carolina. 

737,987 

753,419 

869,039 

992,622 

1.071.3G1 

Ohio. 

937,903 

1,519,467 

1,980,329 

2,339,511 

2,665.260 

flrpcmn __ 



13,294 

52,465 

90,923 

Pennsylvania .. 

1,348,233 

1,724,033 

2,311,'786 

2,906,215 

3.521*951 

Khode^Island .. 

97,199 

108,830 

147,545 

174,620 

217,353 

South Carolina. 

581,185 

594,398 

668,507 

703,708 

705,606 

Tennessee . 

681,904 

829,210 

1,002,717 

1,109,801 

1,258,520 

Texas 



212,592 

604.215 

818,579 

fTtnb . 



11,380 

40,273 

86,786 

Vermont. 

280,652 

291,948 

314,120 

315,098 

330,551 

Virginia. 

1,211,405 

1,239,797 

1,421,661 

l,53ft318 

1,225,163 

W/ n h i n crfnn 




ft,594 

23,955 

"VV eat Virginia. 





442.014 

Wisconsin_ 


30,945 

305,391 

775,881 

1,054,070 



9,118 






Grand Totals .. 

12,866,020 

17,069,453 

23,191,876 

31,443,321 

38,558.371 

i 


1880. 


1,262,794 
40,441 
802,564 
864.6S6 
194,649 
622,683 
135,180 
146,654 
177,638 
267,351 
1.539,048 
32,611 
3,078,769 
1,978,362 
1,624.620 
955,966; 
1,648,708 
910,103 
648,945 
934,632 
1,783.012 
1.636,331 
780,806 
1,131,692 
2,168,804 
39,157 
452,433 
62,265 
346,984 
1,130,983 
118,430 
6,083,810 
1,400,047 
3,198,239 
174,767 
4,282,786 
276,528 
995,622 
1,642,463 
1,592,574 
143,906 
332,286 
1,512,806 
75,120 
618,443 
L316 480 
20,788 


50,152,866 



















































































































ANALYSIS OF THE PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNITED STATES, FKOK JULY 1, i860, TO JULY 1, 1883. 

Ovhcial Statement from the Warrant Division, Treasury Department, Washington. 


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578 


POPULATION OP CITIES OF 10,000 AND UPWARDS, 


Population of the Towns and Cities of the United States 
having a Population of 10,000 and upward, according 
to the United States Census of 1800. 


Akron, O.... 

16,512 

Albany p N• Y«••••••••••••••••• 

90.903 

Alexandria, Va. 

13,658 

Allegheny, Pa. 

78.681 

Allentown, Pa. 

18,063 

Amsterdam. N. Y. 

11,711 

Atchison, Kan. 

15,106 

Altoona, Pa. 

19,716 

Atlanta, Ga. 

37.421 

Attleborough, Mass. 

11,111 

Auburn, N. Y. 

21.924 

Augusta, Ga. 

23.023 

Aurora, Ill. 

11,825 

Austin, Tex. . 

10,960 

Baltimore, Md. 

S32.190 

Bangor, Me. 

16,857 

Bay Citv, Mich. 

20.693 

Belleville, III. 

10,682 

Bidde^ord, Me. 

12,852 

Binghampton, N. Y.. 

17,315 

Bloomington, Ill. .. 

17.184 

Boston, Mass. 

362 535 

Brockton, Mass. 

13,608 

Bridgeport, Conn. 

29,148 

Brookhaven, N. Y. 

11,544 

Brooklyn, N. Y. 

666,689 

Buffalo, N.Y . 

155,137 

Burlington, Iowa. 

19,450 

Burlington, Yt.. .. 

11,364 

Cambridge, Mass. .. 

52,740 

CtUndcn p N • J «•••••••••*• •••• 

41.658 

Canton, O . 

12,258 

Castleton, ]S • \ ••••••••«••••#« 

12,679 

Cedar Rapids, Iowa . 

10,104 

(thattanooga, Tenn . 

32.892 

Charleston, S. C. 

49 999 

Chicago, Ill. 

603,304 

Chester, Pa. 

14,996 

Chelsea, Mass. 

21,785 

C iicopee, Mass. . . 

11,325 

Chilicothe, O. 

10,938 

Cleveland, O. 

360,142 

Cincinnati, O ... 

255,708 

Cohoes i ht • Y •»*•••«•••••••«»•» 

19,417 

Columbus, O . 

51,665 

Columbia, S« O • •••••••• 

10,040 

Concord , N . H <••••••••0 

13,838 

Cortlandt, N . Y •••••• •••• • • • • • 

12,664 

Council Bluffs. Iowa .. 

18.059 

Covington, Ky ... 

29,720 

Dallas. Tex . 

30,35.1 

Danbury, Conn . 

11,669 

Davenport, Iowa, 

21,834 


Dayton, O. 38,677 

Denver, Col. 35,630 

Derby, Conn. 31,649 

Detroit, Mich . 116,342 

Dea Moines, Iowa. 22,408 

Dover, N. H. 11,687 

Dubuque, Iowa.. 22,254 

Easton, Pa.. 1*,924 

East Saginaw, Mich. 19,016 

i au Claire. Wis. 10,118 

Elizabeth, N. J. 28,229 

Elinira, N. Y. 20,541 

Erie, Pa. 27.730 

Evansville, Ind.. 29,280 

Fall River, Mass. 49,006 

Flushing, N. Y. 15,919 

Fishkill, N. Y. 10.7S2 

Fitchburg, Mass. 12,405 

Fond du-Lac, Wis. 13,091 

Fort Wayne. Ind. 26,880 

Galesburg, Ill. 11,446 

Galveston, Tex. 22,253 

Georgetown, D. C. 12,678 

Gloucester. Mass. 19,329 

irand Rapids, Mich. 32,015 

Hamilton,© . 12,122 

Hannibal, Mo. 11,074 

Hartford, Conn. 42,553 

Harrisburgh, Pa. 30,762 

Haverhill, Mass. 18,475 

Hempstead, N. Y. 18,100 

Hoboken, N. J. 30,999 

Holyoke, Mass. 21,851 

Houston, Tex.. 18,646 

Hyde Park, Ill. 15,716 

Indianapolis, Ind. 75 074 

Jackson, Mich. 16,105 

Jacksonville, lil. 10,927 

Jamaica, N. Y. 10,089 

Jeffersonville, Ind. 10,422 

Jersey City, N. J. 120.728 

Johnstown, N. Y. 16 626 

Joliet, Ill. 16,145 

Kaiamaaoo, Mich. 11.937 

Kansas City, Mo. 65,813 

Keokuk, Iowa. 12,117 

Kingston, N.Y. 18,312 

La Crosse, Wis. 14.505 

Lafayette, Ind. 14,800 

Lake Township, Ill. 18.396 

Lancaster, Pa. 25.769 

Lawrence, Mass. 39,178 

Beadville, Col,14,820 


























































































POPULALION OP CITIES OP 10,000 AND UPWARDS. 


Leavenworth, Kan.. IS,550 

Lenox, N. Y. 10,249 

Lewiston, Me.... 19,083 

Lexington, Ky. 16.656 

Lincoln, Neb. 13,004 

LittleItock, Ark.;... 13,185 

Lincoln, R. I. 13,765 

Lockport, N. Y. 13,522 

Logansport, Ind. 11,198 

Long Island City, N. Y. 17,117 

Los Angeles, Cal. 11,311 

Louisville, Ky. 123.645 

Lowell, Mass... £9.485 

Lynckburgh, Va. 15,959 

Lynn, Mass. 38,284 

Macon, Ga. 12,748 

Madison, Wis. 10,325 

Malden, Mass . 12,017 

Manchester, N. H. 32,630 

Marlborough, Mass. 10,126 

Memphis, Tenn. 33.593 

Meriden, Conn . 18,340 

Middletown. Conn. 11,731 

Milwaukee, Wis. 115 578 

Minneapolis, Minn. 4 5,887 

Mobile, Ala. 31,205 

Montgomery. Ala. 16,714 

Muskegon, Mich. 11,262 

Nashua, N. H. 13.397 

Nashville, Tenn. 43 461 

Newark, N. J. 136 40t) 

New Albany, Ind. 16,4"2 

New Bedford, Mass. 26 875 

New Britain, Conn. 13,978 

New Bruswick, N. J. 17,167 

Newburgh, N, Y.. 18.050 

Newburyport, Mass. 13 537 

New Haven, Conn. G2 882 

New London, Conn. 10,529, 

New Lots, N. Y. 13 681 

Newton, Ma38 . 16,095 

Newport, R. I...-. 15 693 

New Orleans, La. 216.140 

Newport, Ky. 20,433 

Norfolk. Ya. 21,966 

North Adams, Mass. 10,192 

Northampton, Mass. 12,172 

Norwalk, Conn. 13,956 

Norwich, Conn. 21,141 

Norristown, Pa. 13,064 

New York, N. Y. 1,208,590 

Oakland, Cal. 34.556 

Ogdensburgh, N. Y . 10,340 

Omaha, Neb. 30,518 

Oshkosh, Wis. 15,749 

Oswego, N. Y. 21,117 

Orange, N*J,«••«.*.13,206 
Oyster, Bay. 11,923 


Paterson, N .J.. ...... 50,887 

Pawtucket, R. 1. 19,030 

Petersburgh, Ya,,.,,,,,. 21,050 


Peoria, Ill. 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

Pittsburg, Pa.. 

Pittsfield, Mass. 

Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 

Portland, Me. 

Portsmouth, O ... 

Portsmouth, Ya. 

Pottsville, Pa. 

Providence, R. I. 

Quincy, Mass. 

Quincy, 111. 

I iiacine, Wis. 

Reading, Pa..... 

Richmond, Ind. 

Richmond, Va . 

Rochester, N. Y. 

Rockford, Ill. 

Rock Island, Ill. 

! Rome, N. Y. 

Rutland, Vt. 

j Sacramento, Cal. 

iSan Antonio, Tex. 

i San Francisco, Cal. 

Saginaw, Mich. 

Salem, Mas*. 

Salt Lake City, Utah. 

andusky, O. 

Saratoga Springs, N. Y.... 

Saugerties. N. Y .. 

San Jose, Cal. 

Savannah. Ga. 

Schenectady, N. Y. 

Scranton, Pa. 

Shenandoah’ Pa. 

Shereveport, La. 

Somerville, Mass. 

South Bend, Ind. 

Springfield, Ill. 

Springfield, Mass. 

Springfield, O. 

Stamford, Conn. 

Steubenville, O. 

St. Louis, Mo. 

Stockton, Cal. 

St. Joseph. Mo. 

St. Paul, Minn ...: . 

Syracuse, N. Y. 

Taunton, Mass. 

Topeka, Kan. 

Toledo, O. 

Trenton, N. J. 

Troy, N. Y. 

Terre Haute, Ind. 

Utica, N. Y . 

Vicksburg, Miss 

Virgiuia City, Nev. 

Wallkill, N. Y.. 

Waltham, Mass. 

Warwick, R. I . 

Washington, D. C. 


579 


29,315 
846,984 
156,381 
13,367 
20,207 
33,810 
11,314 
11,388 
13,253 
104,850 
10,529 
27,275 
16,031 
43,280 
12,743 
63,803 
89,363 
13,135 
11,660 
12,045 
12,149 
21,420 
20,561 
233,955 
10,525 
27,598 
20,768 
15 838 
10,822 
10,375 
12,667 
30,681 
13,675 
45 850 
10,118 
11,017 
24,985 
13,279 

19.746 
33,340 
20,729 
11,298 
12,093 

350,522 

10,287 

32,484 

41,498 

61,791 

21,213 

15,451 

60,143 

29,910 

66.747 
26,040 
33 913 
11,814 
33,705 
11,483 
11,711 
12,163 

147,370 



















































































































580 SALARIES OF UNITED STATES OFFICERS, 


"Waterbary, Conn.20,269 

Watertown, N. Y.10,697 

Watervliet, N. Y.22,220 

Weymouth, Mass.10,571 

Wheeling, W. Ya.31,266 

Williamsport, Pa..18,934 

Wilkesbarre, Pa.23,339 

Wilmington, Del.42,499 

Wilmington, N. C.17,361 


Winona, Minn.10,208 

Woburn, Mass.10,938 

Worcester, Mass.58,295 

Woonsocket, R. 1.16,053 

Yonkers. N. Y.18,892 

York, Pa.13,940 

Youngstown, O.15,431 

Zanesville, O.18.120 


ANNUAL SALARIES OF THE PRINCIPAL CIVIL OFFICERS OF 

THE UNITED STATES. 


LEGISLATIVE. 


President.$50,000 

Vice-President. 8,000 

Secretary of State. 8,000 

Secretary of the Treasury.... 8,000 

Secretary of the Interior. 8,000 

Secretary of the Navy. 8,000 


Secretary of War.$8,000 

Postmaster-General.8,000 

Attorney-General. 8,000 

Speaker House of Represents, 8,000 

United States Senators. 5,000 

Representatives in Congress.. 5.000 


England . 
France... 
Germany 
Russia... 
Spain 
China.... 
Japan.... 
Mexico .. 
Brazil.... 

Chili_ 

Peru_ 


UNITED STATES MINISTER TO 

.$17,500 Central America_ 

. 17,500 Venezuela. 

. 17,500 Turkey. 

. 17.500 Sweden and Norway 

. 12,000 Netherlands. 

. 12,000 Denmark. 

. 12,000 Greece. 

. 12,000 Uruguay. 

. 12,000 Portugal. 

. 10,000 Switzerland. 

. 10,000 Liberia. 


$ 10,000 
7,500 
7,500 
7,500 
7,500 
5,000 
5.000 
. 5.000 
5.000 
5.000 
4,000 


JUDGES. 

Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court.$10,500 

Associate Judges. 10.000 

United States Circuit Judges. 6.000 

United States District Judges, from $3,500 to. 5,000 

Judge of the United States Court of Claims. 4,500 


Director of Geological Surveys, $6,000 
Auditor of Railroad Accounts, 5,000 


Superintendent of Census.5.000 

Superin’t Naval Observatory.. 5,000 

Commissioner of Patents.4,500 

Director of the Mint.4.500 


Commis’r General Land Office, 4,000 


Superintend’! Signal Service. .$4,000 

Commissioner of Pensions.3,600 

Superin’t Nautical Almanac .. 3.500 
Commander of Marine Corps.. 3,500 
Commissioner of Agriculture.. 3.000 

Commis’r of Indian Affairs_3.000 

Commissioner of Education ... 3,001? 


HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS. 


ESTIMATED POPULATION OF THE EARTH, 

CLASSIFIED BY RACES AND RELIGIONS. 


RACES. 

Caucasian, or White.600,000,000 

Mongolian.600,000.000 

African, or Black.250.000,000 

Copper-Colored . 12,000.000 


RELIGIONS. 

Pa gan s.676.000.000 

Christians.320,000,000 

Mohammedans.140,000.000 

Jews. 14,000,000 


All these collectively are estimated to speak 3,064 languages, and to 
profess about 1000 different forms of religion. 

The Christians are divided as follows;— 

Church of Rome. Protestants. 

170,000,000 90,000,000 


Greek and East Church. 
60,000,000 









































































UNITED STATES PUBLIC LANDS. 


581 


UNITED STATES PUBLIC LANDS_WHERE THEY LIE. 


Land' States 

AND 

Territories. 

Areas of Lands in 
29 States and Ter¬ 
ritories in which 
Public Lands have 
been situated. 

Acres. 

Square 

Miles. 

Alabama. 

32,462,080 

50,722 

Alaska. 

369 529 600 

577,390 

Arizona. 

72,906,304 

113,916 

Arkansas. 

33,406,720 

52,198 

California. 

100 992 640 

157,801 

Colorado. 

66,880,000 

104,500 

Dakota. 

96,595,840 

150,932 

Florida. 

37,931,520 

59,268 

Idaho . 

55,228,160 

86,294 

Illinois. 

35,462,400 

55,410 

Indian Terr’y- 

44,154,240 

68,991 

Indiana. 

21,637,760 

33,809 

Iowa. 

35,228,800 

55,045 

Kansas. 

51,769,976 

80,801 

Louisiana. 

26,461,440 

41,346 

Michigan. 

36,128,640 

56,451 

Minnesota .... 

53,459,840 

83,531 

Mississippi.... 

30,179,840 

47,156 

Missouri. 

41,824,000 

65,350 

Montana. 

92,016,640 

143,776 

Nebraska. 

48,636,800 

75,995 

Nevada. 

71,737,741 

112,090 

New Mexico .. 

77,568,640 

121,201 

Ohio. 

25,576,960 

39,964 

Oregon. 

60,975,360 

95,274 

Utah. 

54,065,075 

84,476 

"Washington... 

44,796,160 

69,994 

Wisconsin .... 

34,511,360 

53,924 

Wyoming. 

62,645,120 

97,883 

Total.1, 

814,769,656 

2 835,578 


Lands Surveyed. 


Prior to 
June 30, 
1877, not 
hereto¬ 
fore re¬ 
ported. 

Within 
the Fis¬ 
cal Year 
ending 
June 30, 
1878. 

Acres 
Surveyed 
up to 
June 30, 
1878. 

surveyed & 
unoffered, 
to June 30, 
1878. 
Acres. 


35 

32,462,115 




196,479 

418,375 

5,281,737 

33,406,720 

46,347,402 

67,624,503 

172,534 

1202,619 

54,645,238 

69,364 

1113,613 

939,198 

2 

22,182,899 

21,459,412 

30,103,796 

44,697,101 

75,137,068 

7,827,724 

86 

202,690 

438,306 

2,692 

6,834,009 

35,405,093 

27,003,990 

21,637,760 

35,228,800 

51,770,240 

25,232,044 

36,128,640 

39,172,415 

48,394,151 


17,150,250 











1,229,396 



48,792 

357,914 

14,287,425 

30,179,840 

41,824,000 

10,543,827 




147 

624,694 

81,472,813 

72,240 

630,164 

39,936,807 

8,099,993 

96,147 

188,656 

11,538,890 

60,198,710 

9,701 

541,429 

8,471,880 

25,576,960 

21,127,862 

69,096,760 

592,556 

611,490 

39,847,498 

322,624 

263.227 

8,960,385 

45,104,255 

679,661 

573,317 

13,821,545 

34,511,360 

8,101,049 

30,974,615 

234,705 

135,281 

54,544,071 

2697,727 

8041,012 

724311,477 

*720,931,571 


Total Area 
of Public 
and Indian 
Lands re¬ 
maining un- 


* Or, adding Alaska, 1,090,461,171 acres, 



























































































582 


PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The public lands of the United States -which are still undisposed of and 
open to settlement lie in nineteen States and eight Territories. In each 
case,— except Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois,—land offices are established, in 
charge of an officer known as Register of the Land Office, where the records 
of all surveyed lands are kept, and all applications concerning lands in each 
district are filed and inquiries answered. The public lands are divided into 
two great classes. The one class has a dollar and a quarter an acre desig¬ 
nated as the minimum price, and the other two dollars and a half an aero. 
Titles to these lands may be acquired by private entry or location under 
the homestead, pre-emption, and timber-culture laws; or, as to some classes, 
by purchase for cash, in the case of lands which may be purchased at pri¬ 
vate sale, or such as have not been reserved under any law. Such tracts 
are sold on application to the Land Register, who issues a certificate of pur¬ 
chase, the Receiver giving a Receipt for the money paid, subject to the issue 
of a patent, or complete title, if the proceedings are found regular, by the 
Commissioner of the General Land Office at Washington. 

Entries under land warrants (given mostly for military services, under 
acts of Congress,) have fallen off very largely by the absorption of such 
warrants, there having been no military bounty land warrants provided for 
on account of services in the late civil war. 

Entries under the pre-empti©n law are restricted to heads of families, or 
citizens over iwenty-one, who may settle upon any quarter-section (or ICO 
acres), and have the right of prior claim to purchase, on complying with 
certain regulations. 

The homestead laws give the right to one hundred and sixty acres of a 
dollar and a quarter lands, or to eighty acres of two dollar and a! half lands, 
to any citizen or applicant for citizenship over twenty-one who will actually 
settle upon and cultivate the land. This privilege extends only to the sur¬ 
veyed lands, and the title is perfected by the issue of a patent after five 
years of actual settlement. The only charges in the case of homestead 
entries are fees and commissions, varying from a minimum of §7 to a max¬ 
imum of $22 for the whole tract entered, according to the size, value, or 
place of record. 

Another large class of free entries of public lands is that provided for 
under the timber-culture acts of 1873-78. The purpose of these laws is to 
promote the growth of forest trees on the public lands. They give the right 
to any settler who has cultivated for two 3 -ears as much as five acres in 
trees, to an eighty-acre homestead; or if ten acres, to a homestead of one 
hundred and sixty acres; and a free patent for his land is given him at the 
end of three years, instead of five. The limitation of the homestead laws 
to one hundred and sixty acres for each settler is extended in the case of 
timber-culture, so as to grant as many quarter-sections of one hundred and 
sixty acres each as have been improved by the culture for ten years of forty 
acres of timber thereon, hut the quarter-sections must not lie"immediately 
contiguous. The following is the complete list of United States land 
offices:— 

Alabama. —Mobile, Huntsville. Montgomery. 

Arkansas. — Little Rock, Camden, Harrison, Dardanelle. 

Arizona Territory. —Prescott, Florence. 

California. — San Francisco, Marysville, Humboldt, Stockton, Visalia, 
Sacramento, Los Angelos, Shasta, Susanville, Bodie. 

Colorado. — Denver City, Fair Play, Central City, Pueblo, Del Norte,' 
Lake City. 

Dakota Territory. — Sioux Falls, Springfield, Fargo, Yankton, Bismarck, 
Dead wood. 

Florida .— Gainesville. 

Idaho Territory .—Boise City, Lewiston. 

Iowa. — Fort Des Moines. 

Kansas.— Topeka, Salina, Independence, Wichita, Hirwin, Concordia, 
Earned, Hays City, 


583 


FREE HOMESTEADS ON THE PUBLIC LANDS. 


Louisiana. — New Orleans, Monroe, Natchitoches. 

Michigan. —Detroit, East Saginaw, Iteed City, Marquette. 

Minnesota. — Taylor’s Falls, Saint Cloud, Duluth, Fergus Falls, "Worth¬ 
ington, New Ulni, Benson, Detroit, Redwood Falls. 

Mississippi. — Jackson. 

Missouri. —Boonville, Ironton, Springfield. 

Montana Territory. — Helena, Bozeman. 

Nebraska. — Norfolk, Beatrice, Lincoln, Niobrara, Grand Island, North 
Platte, Bloomington. 

Nevada. — Carson City, Eureka. 

Nevj Mexico Territory'. — Santa Fe, La Mesilla. 

Oregon. —Oregon City, Roseburg, Le Grand, Lakeview, The Dalles. 
Utah Territory. — Salt Lake City. 

Washington Territory. — Olympia, Vancouver, Walla Walla, Colfax. 
Wisconsin.— ALenasha, Falls of St. Croix, Wausau, La Crosse, Bayfield, 
Eau Claire. 

Wyoming Territory. — Cheyenne, Evanston. 


FREE HOMESTEADS OH THE PUBLIC LANDS. 

Tun fact is not so widely known as it should ho, that any one willing to 
work can secure a farm on the public domain of the United States, free of 
cost. 

By our present laws, any citizen or applicant for citizenship, over 
twenty-one years of age, may enter one quarter-section (that is, ICO acres) 
of any unappropriated public lands, which are subject to pre-emption at 
$1.25 per acre. Or he may enter by pre-emption eighty acres of such unap¬ 
propriated lands, valued and classed at £2.50 per acre 5y the Government. 

This privilege extends to women who may be the heads of families; and 
each person availing himself or herself of its benefits must make affidavit 
before the Register of the Land Office of the district in which the entry is 
to be made, that he or she is the head of a family, or else twenty-one years 
of age.' The affidavit must also set forth that the land entered is for the 
exclusive use and benefit of the applicant, and for the purpose of actual 
settlement and cultivation, aud not either directly or indirectly for the uso 
or benefit of any other person. 

The applicant under the Homestead Law must pay the sum of ten dollars 
on filing his affidavit with the Register, and is thereupon permitted to enter 
the ICO acres, or 80 acres on payment of five dollars, as the case may be. 
But no certificate is given or patent issued for the land until the expiration 
of five years from the date of the entry above provided for. If, at the ex¬ 
piration of five years, or at any timo within two years thereafter, the person 
making such entry, or his direct heirs, shall prove by two credible witnesses 
that lie, she, or they have resided upon and cultivated the land for five 
years immediately following the date of its original entry, and shall make 
affidavit that no part of the land has been alienated, then the settler is en- 
tled to the issue of a patent for the land, without further delay. This patent 
is a valid title from the United States; and those who have earned it by 
actual residence and cultivation of the land during the full term of five 
years have nothing to pay, except the original ten dollars for 160 acres, or 
five dollars for an 80-acre homestead. Anyone who chooses to complete 
his title before the expiration of the five years, with a view to sell or re¬ 
move, can do so only by payment to the United States of the valuation-price 
of the land, at $1.25 or’$2.50 per acre, as the case may be. But he has at all 
times the prior right to do this, and so become full owner of the land he 
has settled., as against any other person. 

There is a proviso in the law that no lands acquired under the provisions 
of the Homestead Act shall be liable for any debts of the settler, contracted 
prior to the issuing of the patent for his homestead. 

There is another proviso, intended to guard the interests of the Govern¬ 
ment, aud compel all pi e-emptors of public lands to act in good faith, which 



684 


THE CANALS OB THE UNITED STATES, ETC. 


declares tliat if, at any time after the filing of the required affidavit, and. 
before the expiration ’ of the five years’ probationary residence, the pre- 
emptor shall change his residence, or abandon the land for more than six 
months at any time, then the land shall revert to the United States Gov¬ 
ernment. No individual is permitted to acquire more than 160 acres under 
the provisions of the Homestead Act; but there is no limit to the quantity 
of laud which may be purchased by individuals. All existing pre-emption 
rights are maintained unimpaired by the provisions of the act. 

The five years’ residence required of all other settlers under the Home¬ 
stead Law is waived in favor of all soldiers or sailors who served ninety 
days or longer in the United States army or navy during the war of 1861-65, 
and were honorably discharged. Every such soldier (or his widow, or chil¬ 
dren, in case of his decease,) is entitled to free entry of 160 acres of the 
public lands on condition of actual residence and cultivation of the same 
for one year only. 

Any settler on the public lands who has set out and cultivated for two 
years as much as five acres of trees on an 80-acre homestead, or ten acres 
on a homestead of 160 acres, is entitled to receive a free patent for his land 
at the end of three years, instead of five. And any person who has planted 
and cultivated for ten years forty acres of timber on any quarter-section of 
the public lands is entitled to a patent for each 160 acres so improved, on 
payment of $10, provided that only one quarter in any section shall be thus 
granted. This is the only exception to the limitation of free homesteads to 
160 acres to any one person, unless in the case of a settler under the army 
provision, who is not debarred, through having occupied a homestead 
under the law previously, from acquiring a second 160 acres through hia 
service in the army. 


THE CANALS OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC. 


Names. 

Connecting Points. 

Miles 

Locks 

* Cost. 

Delaware Canal. 





Chesapeake & Delaware 

Delaware City to Ches. City_ 

12.6 

3 

$3,547,561 

Maryland Canal. 





Chesapeake & Ohio.... 

Georgetown to Cumberland, Md 

184§ 

74 

11,375,000 

Illinois Canal. 





Illinois & Michigan.... 

Chicago to La Salle, Ill. 

96 

17 

6,170,226 

Indiana Canal. 





■Wabash & Erie. 

Evansville to Ohio State Line.. 

374 

64 

6,000,000 

New Jersey Canals. 





Delaware & llaritan ... 

New Brunswick to Borden town 

43 

14 

3,935,287 

Morris & Essex. 

Jersey City to Phillipsburg .... 

101 

29 

2,825,997 

New York Canals. 





Baldwinsville. 



1 

23 556 

Black It. (canal & feeder) 


50 

109 


Black Itiv. improvement 


42 

1 

3,224,7*9 

Cayuga & Seneca enlarg 


23 

11 

1,520,542 

Champlain. 


66 

20 


Champlain, Glens Falls 

feeder. 

12 

12 


Chemung (canal & feed) 


39 

53 

1.273,261 

Chenango. 


97 

116 

2,782,124 


-—_- 





































THE CANALS OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC. 


585 


THE CANALS OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC.— ( Continued.) 


Names. 


New York Canals. 

Crooked Lake. 

Erie (original). 

Erie (enlargement).... 

Genesee Valley. 

Oneida Lake. 

Oneida Riv. improvem’t 
Oswego (enlargement) . 

Ohio Canals. 

Hocking. 

Miami. 

Muskingum improve’nt 

Ohio. 

Walhonding. 


Pennsylvania Canals. 
Delaware and Hudson . 

Delaware Division. 

East Division. 

Juniata Division. 

North Branch Division. 
West Branch Division . 
Susquehanna Division . 

Junction. 

Lehigh Coal and Nav .. 

Monongahela Nav. 

Schuylkill Coal and Nav 

Susquehanna . 

Union. 

Wiconisco. 


Virginia Canals. 
Albemarle & Chesapeak 
Alexandria & Georget’n 

Dismal Swamp. 

James Riv. & Kanawha 

Ship Canals. 
Beauharnois, Canada. 
Cornwall, Canada .... 

Lachine, Canada. 

Galop’s, Farran’s Point, 

Welland, Canada. 

Michigan Ship Canal... 
♦Louisville & Portland.. 
Caledonia, Scotland.... 

Crinan, Scotland. 

North Clyde, Scotland . 

North Holland. 

North Sea, Holland .... 
Suez. 


Connecting Points. 


Buffalo to Albany. 
Buffalo to Albany. 


Carroll to Athens. 

Cincinnati to Toledo. 

Dresden to Marietta. 

Cleveland to Portsmouth. 
Branch of the Ohio. 


.Y... 


Honesdale to Bondout, N. 

Easton to Bristol. 

Duncan’s Island to Columbia . 


State line to Elmira, N. Y_ 

Easton to Coalport. 

Pittsburg to North Geneva .. 
Mill Creek to Philadelphia... 
Columbia to Havre de Grace... 
Middletown to Reading. 
Millersburg to Clark’s F 


ferry. 


Alexandria to Georgetown. 


Richmond to Buchanan. 


Around rapids above Montreal 

and Rapide Plat, Canada. 

Lake Ontatio to Lake Erie.... 

Around St. Mary’s Falls. 

Round Falls of Ohio. 

Moray Frith to Loch Linnhe.. 
Loch Gilp to Jura Sound. 


Amsterdam to Zuyder Zee. 


Port Said to Suez, about. 


TO 

© 

r* 


O 

* 


8 

27 

363 

83 

350$ 

72 

124 1 

112 

7 

7 

20 

2 

38 

18 

56 

26 

291 

105 

91 

12 

332 

152 

25 

11 

108 

106 

60 

32 

46 

11 

127 

66 

64 

80$ 

43 

41 

44 

18 

11 

48 

53 

85 

8 

108 

71 

45 

30 

77* 

132 

12 

7 

8 $ 


7 


33 

. 

196$ 

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7 

8$ 

5 

12$ 

6 

27 

27 

1 

2 

2 

3 

60 


9 

. . 

35 

39 

51 

2 

Hi 

• . 

100 

• - 


Cost. 


$ 333,287 

46,018,234 

5,827,813 

64,837 

146,944 

3,490,949 


975,481 

7,454,727 

1,627,318 

4,695,204 

607,269 


6,317,653 


7,731,750 


4,455,000 

1,132,452 

13,207,752 

4,857,105 

5,907,000 

512,000 


170,000 

1,068,762 

1,151,000 

6,139,280 


1,611,424 

1,933,153 

2,587,533 

1,320,656 

7,638,240 

4,250,000 

5,118,140 


81,000,000 







































































586 


THE AHMY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


THE ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The Army of the United States on the 15th of October, 1878, consisted 
of the following forces in officers and men:— 

Enlisted 
Officers. Men. 


Ten cavalry regiments. 430 7,829 

Five artillery regiments. 281 2,G30 

Twenty-five infantry regiments. 868 11,205 

Engineer battalion, recruiting parties, ordnance depart¬ 
ment, hospital service, Indian scouts, West Point, 
and general service. 574 3,097 


Total.2153 24,761 


For convenience, and to fix responsibility, the country is divided into 
three military divisions, each with several departments, as follows:— 

1. Military Division of the Missouri, commanded by Lieut.-Gen. P. H. 
Sheridan, headquarters Chicago. Comprehends the Departments of the 
Missouri (Gen. Pope); Dakota (Gen. Terry); Texas (Gen. Old); and tho 
Platte (Gen. Crook). There are eight regiments of cavalry and eighteen 
of infantry in this division. 

2. Military Division of the Pacific, commanded by Major-General Irvin 
McDowell, headquarters San Francisco. Includes Departments of Cali¬ 
fornia (Gen. McDowell); the Columbia (Gen. O. O. Howard); Arizona (Gen. 
O. B. Willcox). Comprises one regiment of artillery, two of cavalry, and 
four of infantry. 

3. Military Division of tho Atlantic, commanded by Major-General W. 
S. Hancock, headquarters New York. Includes Department of the East 
(Gen. Hancock); Department of tho South (Gen. C. C. Augur, Newport 
Barracks, Ky.) There is also the Department of West Point, commanded 
by Major-General Schofield. This division includes four regiments of 
artillery and three of infantry. 

The maximum military force allowed under existing laws is 2.153 com¬ 
missioned officers and 25,000 enlisted men. Tho report of the General of 
the Army exhibits the actual number in service as 2,153 officers and 24,761 
enlisted men, October 15, 1878. The following table exhibits the number 
in each rank of the army:— 

Colonels, 69; lieutenant-colonels, 85; majors, 244; captains. 585; adju¬ 
tants, 38; regimental quartermasters, 38; first lieutenants, 583; second 
lieutenants, 437; chaplains, 34; storekeepers, 21; total. 2.153. The enlisted 
men embrace 40 serjeant-majors, 39 quartermaster serjeants, 632 musicians, 
296 trumpeters, 9 saddler serjeants, 104 ordnance serjeants, 185 hospitnl 
stewards, 148 commissary sergeants, 427 first serjeants. 1851 serjeants. 1451 
corporals, 221 farriers, 74 artificers, 115 saddlers, 46 wagoners, and 17,604 
privates; total. 23,242. Besides these, there are employed in the Signal 
Corps, 411; Military Academy, 9 professors, 45 officers, 282 cadets, and 280 
enlisted men ; total, 616. 

The number of retired army officers is 331; number of privates dis¬ 
charged during the fiscal year 1878,3,607; number died during same period, 
273; number deserted, 1,678; number enlisted and re-enlisted, 6.630. 

Entered Army. 

General of the Army.William T. Sherman.1840 

Lieutenant-General..Philip H. Sheridan.1853 

Major-Generals (limited by law to three)...Winfield S. Hancock.1644 

John M. Schofield.1853 

Irvin McDowell.1838 

Brigadier-Generals (limited by law to six)..John Pope.1842 

Oliver O. Howard.1854 

Alfred H. Terry.1865 

Edward O. C. Qrd.....1839 

Christopher C. Augur.1843 

George Crook.1859 





















PAY OF THE ARMY OF THE UHITED STATES. 


PAY OP THE ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


581 


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588 


THE NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


THE NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

There were in active service December 1,1878,29 steam cruising vessels, 

5 sailing vessels, 15 ironclad monitors, and 2 torpedo-boats. There were 
also 19 vessels, temporarily out of repair, which added, make the effective 
fighting force of the United States Navy 51 cruising ships, 15 monitors, and 
2 torpedo-boats, or 68 vessels in all. Besides these, there are 32 steam and 
sailing vessels unfit for use, with 4 ironclads, and 11 unfinished steam ves¬ 
sels of war. The whole number of naval steam vessels of all grades, in¬ 
cluding tugs, is 121, and of sailing vessels 22. The number of guns is 1125. 

The active list of the navy is composed of 1 admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 11 
rear-admirals, 25 commodores, 50 captains, 89 commanders, 81 lieutenant- 
commanders, 280 lieutenants, 100 masters, 85 ensigns, 44 midshipmen, 79 
cadet-midshipmen, and 237 cadet-midshipmen on probation at the Naval 
Academy, all of whom are officers of the line. 

Of the staff, there are 1 surgeon-general, 14 medical directors, 15 medical 
inspectors, 50 surgeons, 59 passed assistant-surgeons, 39 assistant-surgeons, 
1 paymaster-general, 13 pay-directors, 13 pay-inspectors, 50 paymasters, 30 
passed assistant-paymasters, 18 assistant-paymasters; 1 engineer-in-cliief, 
69 chief-engineers, 96 passed assistant-engineers, 38 assistant-engineers, 26 
cadet-engineers, and 73 cadet-engineers on probation at the Naval Academy; 
24 chaplains, 12 professors of mathematics, 1 secretary for the admiral, and 
1 for the vice-admiral; 1 chief-instructor, 10 naval constructors, 5 assistant- 
constructors, and 9 civil engineers. 

The warrant-officers consist of 53 boatswains, 59 gunners, 50 carpenters, 
40 sailmakers, and 43 mates. 

There were, July, 1878, in the service, provided for by the Naval Appro¬ 
priation Act for the fiscal year 1878-79, 7,500 enlisted men and boys. 

The retired list is composed of 45 rear-admirals, 25 commodores, 16 cap¬ 
tains, 13 commanders, 14 lieutenant-commanders, 6 lieutenants, 13 masters, 

6 ensigns, 2 midshipmen, 3 surgeons-general, 17 medical directors, 1 medical 
inspector, 2 surgeons, 2 passed assistant-surgeons, 5 assistant-surgeons, 3 
paymasters-general, 4 pay-directors, 3 paymasters, 2 passed assistant-pay¬ 
masters, 2 assistant-paymasters, 4 chief-engineers, 16 passed assistant- 
engineers, 24 assistant-engineers, 1 chief-constructor, 4 naval constructors, 

7 chaplains, 6 professors of mathematics, 8 boatswains, 5 gunners, 13 car¬ 
penters, and 13 sailmakers. 

The active list is therefore composed of 1081 officers of the line, 670 officers 
of the staff, and 245 warrant-officers. Total, 1996 officers of all grades. 

The retired list is composed of 140 officers of the line, 100 officers of the 
etaff, 39 warrant-officers, and 6 professors of mathematics. 


NAVY-YARDS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

1. Brooklyn Navy-Yard, Brooklyn, N. Y. 

2. Charlestown Navy-Yard, Charlestown, Mass. 

3. Gosport Navy-Yard, near Norfolk, Ya. 

4. Buttery Navy-Yard, opposite Portsmouth, N. H. 

5. League Island Navy-Yard, seven miles below Philadelphia. 

6. Mare Island Navy-Yard, near San Francisco, Cal. 

7. New London Naval Station (unfinished), New London, Co nn. 

8. Pensacola Navy-Yard, Pensacola, Florida. 

9. Washington City Navy-Yard, Washington, D. C. 



PAY OF THE NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES, 


589 


PAY OF THE NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


At Sea. 

On 

Shore 

Duty. 

On 

Leave, 

waiting 

orders. 

$13,000 

$13,000 

$13,000 

9,000 

8,000 

6,000 

6,000 

5,000 

4.000 

5.000 

4,000 

3.000 

4,500 

3,500 

2.800 

3,500 

3,000 

2,300 

2,800 

2,400 

2.000 

3,000 

2,600 

2,200 

2,400 

2,000 

1.600 

2,600 

2,200 

1,800 

1,800 

1,500 

1,200 

2,000 

1,700 

1,400 

1.200 

1,000 

800 

1,400 

1,200 

1,000 

1,000 

800 

600 

500 

500 

500 

900 

700 

500 

4,400 



4,400 



2,800 

2.400 

2,000 

3,200 

2.800 

2,400 

3,500 

3.200 

2,600 

3,700 

3.600 

2,800 

4,200 

4,000 

3,000 

2,000 

1.800 

1.500 

2,200 

2,000 

1,700 

1,700 

1,400 

1.000 

1,900 

1,600 

1,200 

2,500 

2,000 

1.600 

2,800 

2,300 

1,600 

1.200 

900 

700 

1,300 

1,000 

800 

1,400 

1,300 

900 

1,600 

1,300 

1.000 

1,800 

1,600 

1,200 

1,000 

800 

600 


Admiral... 

Vice-Admiral. 

Rear-Admirals.. 

Commodores. 

Captains . 

Cojmnanders. 

Lieutenan t-Commanders— 

First four years after date of commission- 

After four years from date of commission.... 
Lieutenants— 

First five years .-. 

After five years. 

Masters— 

First five years. 

After five years. 

Ensigns— 

First five years. 

After five years. 

Midshipmen. 

Cadet Midshipmen .. 

Mates.1. 

Medical and Pay Directors and Medical and Pay 
Inspectors and Chief Engineers, having the 

same rank at sea.-. 

Fleet Surgeons, Fleet Paymasters, and Fleet En¬ 
gineers .,. 

Surgeons, Paymasters, and Chief Engineers— 

First five years after date of commission- 

Second five years. 

Third five years. 

Fourth five years .. 

After twenty years .-. 

Passed Assistant Surgeons, Passed Assistant 
Paymasters, and Passed Assistant Engineers- 
First five years after date of appointment .. 

After five years. 

Assistant Surgeons, Assistant Paymasters, and 
Assistant Engineers— 

First five years after date of appointment ... 

After five years.-. 

Chaplains— 

First five years. 

After fiveVears.. 


First three years. 

Second three years. 

Third three years. 

Fourth three years. 

After twelve years. 

Cadet Engineers (after examination). 

















































590 MILITARY STRENGTH OF THE UNITED STATES, 


THE MILITARY STRENGTH OF THE UNITED STATES DURING 

THE REBELLION. 


Number of Men furnished by 
each State and Territory, 
from April 15, 1861, to June 
30, 1865. 


Number of Men called for, Periods 
of Service, and Number of Men ob¬ 
tained, UNDER EACH CALL, TO JUNE 
30, 1865. 


States and Terri¬ 
tories. 

Men fur 
nisked. 

Paid 

com¬ 

muta¬ 

tion. 

Maine. 

69.738 

2,007 

New Hampshire. 

33,913 

692 

Vermont. 

33.272 

1.974 

Massachusetts... 

146,467 

5,318 

Rhode Island .... 

23,248 

463 

Connecticut. 

55,755 

1.515 

New York. 

445,959 

18.197 

New Jersey. 

75,315 

4,196 

Pennsylvania_ 

338,155 28,171 

Delaware. 

12,265 

1,386 

Maryland. 

46.053 

3,678 

"West Virginia ... 

32.003 

Dist. of Columbia. 

16,534 

333 

Ohio. 

310,654 

6,479 

Indiana. 

194,363 

784 

Illinois.? 

258,162 

55 

'Michigan. 

88,111 

2.008 

Wisconsin. 

91.021 

5.097 

Minnesota. 

24,002 

1,032 

Iowa. 

75.793 

67 

Missouri. 

108.773 


Kentucky. 

75.275 

3,265 

Kansas. 

20.095 

o 

Tennessee. 

31.092 


Arkansas. 

8,289 

3,156 


North Carolina .. 


California. 

15,725 

1,080 

1,810 

964 


Nevada. 


Oregon . 


Washington Ter. 


Nebraska Terr’v. 

3.157 

! . 

Colorado Terr’y.. 

4,903 


Dakota Territory 

206 


New Mexico Ter. 

6.561 


Alabama. 

2.576 


Florida. 

1.290 


Louisiana. 

5.224 


Mississippi. 

545 


Texas. 

1.965 


Indian Nations .. 

3,530 

I . 

Totals. 

2666 999 

86,724 


Date of Call. 

number 

called 

for. 

periods 

of 

service. 

number 

obtain’d 

April 15. 1861. 

75.000 

3 raos. 

93,326 

May 3. 1861 .. 
J ul v 22&25, "61 

82.748 

500,000 

3 yr3. 

714,231 

May, June, ’62 

3 mos. 

15.007 

July 2.1862.. 

300.000 

3 vrs. 

431.958" 

August 4.1862 

300.000 

9 mos. 

87.588 

June 15,1863 

100.000 

6 mos. 

16,361 

374,807 

October 17, ’63 

300.000 

3 yrs. 

Febru’y 1 ’64 

200.000 

March 14.1864 

200.000 

3 vrs. 

284.021 

April 23,1864, 

85.000 

100 davs 

83,652 

July 18. 1864 . 

500.000 

1.2,3 yrs 

384,882 

Dec’r 19,1864. 

300,000 

1,2,3 yrs 

204,568 

Totals. 

2 942,748 


2 690,401 


The calls of October 17.1863, and Feb¬ 
ruary 1, 1864. were combined, and the 
product of the draft of July, 1863, was 
credited thereon. 

In addition to the above number, 
63,322 men were obtained, chiefly from 
the territories and the rebellious States, 
under different calls, and for various 
periods of service. 

The whole number of men obtained by 
draft was 168,649. The whole number 
of colored troops obtained was 186,097. 


Strength of the United States Army 

AT VARIOUS DATES. 


Date. 

Present 

Absent. 

Total. 

January 

1. 

’61, 

14,663 

1.704 

16.367 

July 1, 1861 .. 

183.588 

3.163 

186.751 

January 

1. 

’62, 

527,204 

48,713 

575.917 

January 

1 , 

’63, 

698.802 

219.389 

918.191 

January 

1, 

’64, 

611.250 

249,487 

860.737 

January 

1. 

"65, 

620.924 

338.536 

959.466 

May 1, 1865 .. 

797,807 

202.709 

1 000,516 

































































































TROOPS FURNISHED THE UNION ARMY. 591 


AGGREGATE OF TROOPS FURNISHED THE UNION ARMY EY STATES, 1861-65. 


States and 
Territories. 

Popula¬ 
tion in 
1860. 

Troops 

furnished 

1861-65. 

Color'd 
T toons 
1861-65 

Number of men drafted. 

Bounties 
paid by 
States. 

« o« 

a ° 

o 

c. 

Num. 

drawn. 

Failed 

to 

report. 

Ex¬ 

empted 

Fum’d! Weld 

sub. or lor 
cum'n.! serv. 

Connectlc’t 

Maine 
Massachu's 
NewH&mp. 
B. Island 
Vermont 

N. England 
States 

460,147 

628.279 

1,231,066 

326,073 

174,620 

315,096 

57,379 

72,114 

152,048 

34,629 

23,699 

35,262 

1,764 

101 

3,966 

125 

1,837 

120 

12,031 

27,324 

41,582 

10,806 

4,321 

7,743 

1,014 

3,760 

5,167 

464 

249 

429 

6,804 

12,997 

27,070 

5,478 

2,809 

4,096 

3,842 

4,946 

8,383 

3,651 

1,142 

2,646 

202 

1,991 

912 

210 

117 

437 

$6,837,554 

7,837,644 

22,965,550 

9,636,313 

829,709 

4,528,775 

12.4 

11.5 
12.3 

10.6 
13.6 
11 2 

3,135,233 

375,131 

7,9 IC| 103,807 

11,083 

59,254 

24,613 

3,869 

52,676,605 

12.7 

New Jersey 
New York. 
Pennsyl’ia 

Mid. States 

672,035 

3,880,735 

2,906,215 

81,010 

467,047 

356,107 

1,185 

4,125 

8,612 

32,325 

151,488 

178,873 

"ft, 205 

31.745 

31,309 

8,224 

63.006 

70,913 

9,650 

31,529 

40,807 

95! 

3,210 

8,015 

23.808,967 

80,629,228 

43,151,987 

12.0 

12.0 

12.5 

7,458,985 

914,161 

13.922 

362.686 

69,259 

i 47,143 

81,986 

12.776 

153.653.182 

12.2 


Col. Ter. 

34,277 

4,903 

95 







14.3 

Dakota T. 

4,837 

205 


. , 






4.2 

Illinois 

1,711,951 

259,147 

1,811 

83,085 

9,519 

9,555 

5,459 

3,538 

17,296,205 

15.1 

Indiana 

1,350,428 

197,147 

1,537 

41,158 

6,235 

15,478 

5,966 

7,597 

9,182,354 

14.6 

Iowa 

674,913 

76,309 

440 

7,548 

702 

2,146 

1,264 

1,862 

1,615,171 

il.3 

Kansas 

107,206 

20,151 

2,080 

1,420 

419 

287 

2i0 

119 

57.407 

1.8.8 

Michigan 

749,113 

89,372 

1,387 

22.122 

4,201 

7,130 

3,773 

1,809 

9,664,855 

11.9 

Minnesota 

172.023 

25,052 

104 

10.796 

2,058 

4,4-19 

1,291 

662 

2,000,464 

14.5 

Nebraska T 

23,811 

3.157 





. . . • 

.... 


10.9 

N. Mexico T 

93.516 

6,56i 








7.0 

Ohio 

2,339,511 

319,659 

5,092 

50,400 

9,36.8 

19,751 

10,988 

4,21! 

23,557,373 

13.6 

Wisconsin 

775,881 

96,424 

165 

38,395 

11,742 

14,732 

6,718 

3,722 

5,855,356 

12.4 

A Ter. 

8,042,497 

1,098,088 

12,711 

203,924 

44,337 

73,828 

35.669 

23.750 

69,229,185 

13.6 


California 

379.994 

15,725 




.... 


.... 


4.1 

Nevada 

6,857 

1,030 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 


.... 


45.7 

Oregon 

52,465 

1,810 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 


3.4 

Wash. Ter. 

11,594 

964 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 


8.3 

Pacific Sts. 

450,910 

19,579 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 


4.3 

Delaware 

H2,2i6 

13,670 

954 

8,635 

1,443 

4,170 

2,534 

425 

1,136,599 

i2.2 

Dist. of Col. 

75,080 

16,872 

3,269 

14,338 

5,954 

5,665 

1,751 

968 

134,010 

22.4 

Kentucky 

1,155,684 

79,025 

23,703 

29,421 

9,503 

8,088 

5,787 

1,860 

692,577 

6.8 

M try land 

687,049 

50,316 

8,718 

29,319 

9,207 

11,011 

6,134 

1.426 

6,271,992 

7.3 

Missouri 

1,182,012 

109,111 

8,344 

21,519 

9,444 

5,781 

1,638 

1,031 

1,282,149 

9.2 

W. -Virg'ian 

393,234 

32,068 

196 

3,180 

1,014 

569 

219 

242 

864,737 

8.1 

Border Sts. 

3,605,275 

301,062 

45,184 

106,412 

36,565 

35,284 

18,063 

5,952 

10,382,064 

8.3 


A abama 

964,201 

2,576 

4,939 





.... 


.2 

Arkansas 

435,450 

8,289 

5,526 




.... 

.... 


1.9 

Florida 

140,424 

1,290 

1,044 

.... 

...» 

.... 

.... 

.... 


.9 

Georgia 

1,057,286 

«... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 


.0 

Louisiana 

708,002 

5,224 

3,486 

.... 

.... 


.... 

.... 


.7 

Mi-siss ppi 

791,305 

545 

17,869 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

• • • • 


.0 

N Carolina 

992,622 

3,156 

5,035 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 


.3 

S. Carolina 

703,708 

.... 

5,462 

.... 

.... 


.... 

.... 

.. 

.0 

Tennessee 

1,109,801 

31,092 

20,133 

.... 

.... 


.... 

.... 


2.8 

Texas 

604,215 

1,965 

47 

.... 

.... 


.... 

.... 


.3 

Virgin ia3 

1,203,034 

.... 

.... 

.... 


.... 

.... 


.0 

Sonth’nSts. 

8,740,098 

54,137 

03,571 

.... 

.... 

• • . • 

.... 

.... 


.6 

led. Nation 

3,530 



.... 

.... 

.... 


. 

. . 

C’dTroopsi 

.... 

93,441 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 


• • 

Grand Tot. 
At large 
Notac’dfor 
Officers 

.... 

22,859,132 

173,079 

733 

5,083 

7,122 

186,017 

776,829 

161,244 

315,509 

73,607 

46,347 

285,941,036 

9.1 


1. Thi 3 gives colored troops enlisted in the States in rebellion; besides this, there were 92,576 
colored, included (with the white soldiers) in the quotas of the several States; the 3d column 
gives the aggregate of colored, but many enlisted South were credited to Northern States. 

2. This is the aggregate of troops furnished for all periods of service—from a months to 3 year* 
time. Reduced to a uniform 3 years’ standard, the whole number of troops enlisted was 2,320.272. 

3. Virginia and West Virginia populations by census of I860, as divided by counties in 18C3. 

























































































































































592 


CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY. 


CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

1492. America discovered by Christopher Colnmbus.Oct. 1% 

1497. Labrador discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot.July 3. 

1498. Coast of North America explored by Sebastian Cabot. 

Continent of South America discovered by Columbus.Aug. 10. 

1499. South America visited by Amerigo Vespucci. 

1512. Florida discovered by Juan Ponce do Leon.April 6. 

1513. The Pacific Ocean discovered by Vasco Nunez de Balboa-Sept. 29. 

1520. Carolina visited by Lucas Vasquez de Ay lion. 

1521. Mexico conquered by Fernando Cortez. 

1524. Coast of North America explored by John Verrazani. 

1534. The St. Lawrence River discovered" by Jacques Cartier.June. 

1541. The Mississippi River discovered by De Soto. 

1562. Colony of Huguenots settled at Port Royal entrance. 

1564. Colony of Huguenots settled in Florida. 

1565. St. Augustine, Florida, founded by the Spaniards.Sept. 18. 

Huguenot colony in Florida destroyed by the Spaniards.Oct. 1. 

1583. Newfoundland taken possession of by Sir H. Gilbert. 

1584. Amidas and Barlow explored the coast of North Carolina. 

1585. First attempt to form a settlement at Roanoko, by Sir W. Raleigh. 
1587. Second attempt to form a settlement at Roanoke. 

1602. Cape Cod discovered by Bartholomew Gosnold.May 24. 

1605. Port Royal, in Nova Scotia, settled by the French. 

1C08. London and Plymouth Companies received charters.April 20. 

1607. Jamestown settled by the London Company.May 23. 

Plymouth Company began a settlement on Kennebec River, Aug. 21. 

1608. Quebec settled by the French, under Champlain.July 3. 

1609. Virginia received its second charter.June 2. 

The Hudson River discovered by Henry Hudson.Sept. 21. 

1610. “The Starving Time” in Virginia. 

1612. Virginia received its third charter.March 22. 

1613. Pocahontas married to Rolfe.April. 

1614. The coast of New England explored by John Smith. 

New York settled by the Dutch. 

1616. The culture of tobacco commenced in Virginia. 

1620. Commencement of Negro slavery in the English colonies, Aug. 

Charter granted to “The Council of Plymouth,”.Nov. 3. 

Massachusetts settled, at Plymouth.. 1.Dec. 21. 

1621. Treaty with Massasoit made.April 1. 

1622. First Indian massacre in Virginia.April 1. 

1623. New Hampshire settled, at Little Harbor and Dover. 

1633. Connecticut settled, at Windsor.Oct. 

1634. Maryland settled, at St. Mary’s.April 6. 

1636. Rhode Island settled, at Providence. 

Harvard College founded. 
g637. The Pequod War. 

4638. Delaware settled, near Wilmington.April. 

*1641. New Hampshire settlements united to Massachusetts. 

1643. Union of New England colonies formed.May 29. 

1644. Second Indian massacre in Virginia.April. 

1645. Clayborne’s Rebellion in Maryland. 

1650. North Carolina settled, on the Chowan River. 

1651. The “Navigation Act” passed by the British Parliament. 

1652. The Maine settlements united to Massachusetts. 

1655. Civil War in Maryland. 

New Sweden conquered by the Dutch.Get. 

1663, Carolina granted to Clarendon and others. 

1664. New York became an English province. Sept. 8. 

New Jersey settled, at Elizabethtown. 

1670. South Carolina settled, on the Ashley River. 

1673, Virginia granted to Culpepper and Arlington. 

r 




























CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY. 


593 


3675. 

367(3. 

1680. 

1682. 

1686. 

1689. 

1690. 
t 

1692. 

1697. 

1702. 

1710. 

1713. 

1729. 

1732. 

1733. 
1741. 

1744. 

1745. 
1748. 

1753. 

1754. 


1755. 


1756. 


1757. 

1758. 


1759. 


1760. 

1763. 

1765. 

1766. 

1767. 

1768. 
1770. 

1773. 

1774. 

1775. 


King Philip's 'War begun, by an attack upon Swanzey.July 4. 

Bacon's Rebellion. 

Charleston founded. 

New Hampshire made a Royal Province...Sept. 2a 

Pennsylvania settled. 

Delaware granted by the Duke of York to ‘William Penn... .Aug. 31. 

Andros arrived at Boston as Governor of New England.Dec. 30. 

King William's War commenced. Attack upon Dover.July 7. 

Schenectady burned by the French and Indians.Feb. 8. 

Port Royal taken by the English, under Phipps..May. 

“Salem Witchcraft” delusion prevailed. 

King William’s War terminated.Sept. 20. 

Queen Anne’s War commenced. 

Port Royal, Nova Scotia, captured by the English.Oct. 13. 

Queen Anne’s War terminated.April 11. 

North and South Carolina became separate provinces.July. 

Washington born, in Westmoreland County, Virginia.Feb. 22. 

Georgia settled, at Savannah.Feb. 12. 

“The Negro Plot,” in New York. 

King George’s War begun. 

Louisburg captured by the English.June 28. 

King George’s War ended.Oct. 18. 

Washington sent with a letter from Dinwiddie.Oct. 31. 

Washington delivered St. Pierre’s reply to Dinwiddie.Dec. 11. 

The battle of Great Meadows.May 28. 

Congress of Commissioners met at Albany.June. 

The battle of Fort Necessity.July 4. 

French expelled from Nova Scotia by Moncton.June. 

Braddock’s defeat at the battle of Monongakela.July 9. 

The British defeat by Dieskau, near Lake George.Sept. 8. 

Dieskau defeated by the British, at Lake George.Sept. 8. 

Great Britain declared war against France.May 17. 

France declared war against Great Britain.June 9. 

The French, under Montcalm, captured Oswego.Aug. 14. 

Indians defeated at Kittaning.Sept. 8. 

Fort William Henry surrendered to Montcalm.Aug. 9. 

The massacre at Fort William Henry.Aug. 10. 

Lord Howe killed in a skirmish at Ticonderoga.July 6. 

Abercrombie repulsed by Montcalm at Ticonderoga.July 8. 

Louisburg taken by Amherst and Wolfe.July 86. 

Fort Frontenac surrendered to the English.Aug. 27. 

Grant defeated by Aubry, near Fort Duquesne.Sept. 21. 

Ticonderoga and Crown Point abandoned by the French. 

Niagara surrendered to the English, under Johnson.July 25. 

Battle of Montmorenci.July 31. 

Battle of the Plains of Abraham.Sept. 13. 

Quebec surrendered to the English..Sept. 18. , 

The French attempted the recovery of Quebec..April 28. | 

Montreal and the whole of Canada surrendered to the English, Sept. 8. 

The Peace of Paris between Great Britain and France.Feb. 10. 

Florida ceded to Great Britain By Spain. Feb. 10. 

The Stamp Act passed by the British Parliament.March 8. 

A Colonial Congress met at New York.Oct. 7. 

The Stamp Act repealed by the British Parliament.March 18. 

A bill imposing duties on glass, paper, &c., passed.June 29. 

A body of British troops arrived at Boston.Sept. 27. 

“The Boston Massacre”.March 5. 

All duties, except on tea. repealed by Parliament.April 12. 

The cargoes of tea at Boston thrown overboard.Dec. 16. 

“Boston Port Bill ” passed by Parliament.March. 

“The First Continental Congress’’met at Philadelphia.Sept. 5. 

The battle of Lexingtoa.... .April 1& 






















































£34 CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY. 

1775. Ticonderoga, New York, captured by Allen and Arnold.May 10. 

Crown Point, New York, captured bv the Americans.May 12. 

Washington elected commander-in-chief.June 15. 

‘ The battle of Hunker Hill.June 17. 

Washington took command of the army.July 12. 

Montreal surrendered to Montgomery.Nov. 13. 

Battle of Quebec.Dec. 31. 

1776. Norfolk, Virginia, destroyed by Lord Dunmore.Jan. 1. 

Boston evacuated by the British troops.March 17. 

The battle of Fort Moultrie, South Carolina.June 28. 

The Declaration of Independence.July 4. 

The battle of Long Island, New York.-Aug. 27. 

The city of New York abandoned b\- the Americans.Sept. 15. 

The battle of White Plains, New York.Oct. 28. 

The battle of Fort Washington, New York.Nov. 16. 

Fort Lee, New Jersey, taken by the British.Nov. 18. 

Gen. Lee surprised and taken prisoner.Dec. 13. 

The battle of’ Trenton, New Jersey.Dec. 26. 

1777. The battle of Princeton, New Jersey.Jan. 3. 

Tryon’s first expedition against Connecticut.. .April. 

Meigs's expedition against the British at Sag Harbor.May 23. 

Invasion of New York by Burgoyne.June. 

Tieomleroga abandoned by the Americans.July 5. 

The battle of Hubbardton", Vermont.July 7. 

Gen. Prescott captured by Colonel Barton.July 10. 

Murder of Miss Jane McCrea, near Fort Edward.July 27. 

Fort Schuyler, New York, besieged by St. Leger.-Aug. 

The battle of Oriskany, near Fort Schuyler.Aug. 6. 

The battle of Fort Schuyler. X .Aug. 6. 

The battle of Bennington, Vermont.Aug. 16. 

The battle of Brandywine, Pennsylvania.Sept. 11. 

The battle of Bemis Heights, or first of Stillwater.Sept. 10. 

The battle of Paoli, Pennsylvania.Sept. 20. 

Philadelphia entered by the British.Sept. 26. 

The battle of Germantown, Pennsylvania.Oct. 4. 

Forts Clinton and Montgomery taken by the British.Oct. 6. 

The battle of Saratoga, second of Stillwater.Oct. 7. 

The surrender of Burgoyne.Oct. 17. 

The British repulsed at Fort Mercer, New Jersey.Oct. 22. 

The British repulsed at Fort Mifflin, Pennsylvania.Oct. 22. 

Articles of Confederation adopted by Congress.Nov. 15. 

Fort Mifflin abandoned by the Americans.Nov. 16. 

Washington encamped at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania.Dec. 11. 

1778. American Independence acknowledged by France.Feb. 6. 

Treaty of Alliance with France.Feb. 6. 

British commissioners 3ent to America. 

Philadelphia evacuated by the British.Juno 18. 

The battle of Monmouth. New Jersey...Juno 28. 

The battle of Wyoming, Pennsylvania, and massacre... .July 3. 

The French fleet, under D’Estaing, arrived.July 11. 

The battle of Rhode Island.Aug. 29. 

Grey’s ravaging expedition to the eastward.Sept. 

Ferguson’s expedition against Egg Harbor.Oet. 

The massacre at Cherry Valley, New York.Nov. 11,12. 

The battle of Savannah. Georgia.Dec. 29. 

1779. Sunbury, Georgia, captured by the British.Jan. 9. 

The battle of Kettle Creek. Georgia.Feb. 14. 

The battle of Brier Creek. Georgia.March 3. 

Tryon’s second expedition against Connecticut.March. 

Stony Point, New York, captured by the British.May 31. 

Verplanck’s Point. New York, captured by tlie British.June 1. 

War declared agaiust Great Britain by Spain.June 20L 































































CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY. 


595 


1779. The battle of Stono Ferry., South Carolina.June 20. 

Tryou’s thud expedition against Connecticut.Julv. 

The battle of Stony Point, New York.July 15. 

British garrison at Paulus Hook surprised by Lee.July 10. 

The battle of the Penobscot, Maine.^.Aug. 13. 

Sullivan's expedition against the Indians. 

“The battle of the Cheuiung," New York.Aug. 20. 

Savannah besieged by the French and Americans.Sept-fOct. 

Paul Jones’s naval battle off the coast of England.Sept. 23. 

, D’Estaing and Lincoln repulsed at Savannah.Oct. 9. 

1780. Charleston besieged by the British.April, May. 

The battle of Monk’s Corner. South Carolina....April 14. 

Charleston surrendered to the British.May 12. 

The battle of Waxhaw, South Carolina.May 29. 

The battle of Springfield, New Jersey.Juno 23. 

French fleet arrived at Newport, Rhode Island.July 10. 

The battle of Rocky Mount, South Carolina.July 30. 

The battle of Hanging Rock, South Carolina.Atig. C. 

The battle of Sanders Creek, South Carolina.Aug. 16. 

The battle of Fishing Creek, South Carolina.Aug. 18. 

Arnold's treason. 

Andre executed as a spy at Tappan, New York.Oct. 2. 

Tire battle of King’s Mountain. South Carolina.Oct. 7. 

The battle of Fishdam Ford, South Carolina.Nov. 12. 

The battle of Blackstocks, South Carolina....Nov. 20. 

1781. Revolt of the Pennsylvania troops...Jan. 1. 

The battle of the Cowpens, South Carolina.Jan. 17. 

The revolt of New Jersey troops. Jan. 18. 

Arnold s depredation in Virginia. >.Jan. 

Cornwallis’s pursuit of Morgan and Greene. .Jan., Feb. 

Articles of Confederation ratified by the States. 

The battle of Guilford Court-House, North Carolina.March 15. 

The battle of Hobkirk’s Hill. South Carolina.April 25. 

Siege of Ninety-Six by General Greene.May, June. 

The battle of Ninety-Six. South Carolina.jure 18. 

Colonel Hayne executed by the British, at Charleston.July 31. 

Arnold s expedition against Connecticut.Stft. 

The battle of Fort Griswold, Connecticut.Sept. 3. 

The battle of Eutaw Springs. South Carolina.Sept. 8. 

The siege of Yorktown, Virginia ...Oct. 

The surrender of Cornwallis, at Yorktown.Oct. 19. 

1782. Preliminary articles of peace signed at Paris.Nov. 30. 

1783. Cessation of hostilities proclaimed in the American army...April 19. 

Savannah, Georgia, evacuated by the British.July 11. 

Definitive treaty of peace signed at Paris.Sept. 3. 

American army disbanded by orders of Congress..Nov. 3. 

New York evacuated by the British.Nov. 25. 

Charleston South Carolina, evacuated by the British.Dec. 14. 

"Washington resigns Ins commission.Dec. 23. 

1787. Shay's Rebellion, in Massachusetts. 

Constitution of the United States agreed on by the convention 

of delegates at Philadelphia.Sept. 17. 

1789. The first Congress under the Constitution met at New York. March 4. 

Washington inaugurated President of the United States-April 30. 

1790. HarmarVlefeated by tlie Indians, m Indiana.Oct. 17, 22. 

1791. United States bank established at Philadelphia. 

Vermont admitted into the Union.March 4. 

St. Clair defeated by the Indians, m Ohio.Nov. 4. 

3792. Kentucky admitted into the Union.Juno L 

1793. The difficulties with France. 

1794. Wayne defeated by the Indians, on the Maumee.Aug. 20, 

“Whiskey Insurrection ” in Pennsylvania. 





















































598 


CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY. 


1795. "Jay’s Treaty’’with Great Britain ratified.June 24. 

Treaties with the Western Indians, Spain, and Algiers. 

1796. Tennessee admitted into the Union.June 1. 

1797. John Adams inaugurated President of the United States .. .March 4. 

1799. The death of Washington.Dec. 14. 

2800. The seat of government removed to Washington. 

Treaty of peace concluded with France.Sept. 30. 

1801. Thomas Jefferson inaugurated President.March 4. 

War declared against tbe United States by Tripoli.June 10. 

1802. Ohio admitted into the Union.Nov. 29. 

1803. Louisiana purchased of France...April 30. 

Commodore Preble sent against Tripoli. 

1804. The frigate Philadelphia destroyed by Decatur.Feb. 15. 

The duel between Hamilton and Burr.„.July 11. 

1805. Derne, a Tripolitan city, captured by Eaton.April 27. 

Treaty of peace concluded with Tripoli.June 3. 

1806. British blockade from the Elbe to Brest declared.May 16. 

Bonaparte issued his "Berlin Decree".Nov. 21. 

1807. British "Orders in Council” prohibited coast trade with France, Jan. 7. 

American frigate Chesapeake attacked by the Leopard.June 22. 

British armed vessels ordered to leave the United States.July. 

British "Orders in Council” prohibited all trade with France 

and her allies.:Nov. 11. 

Aaron Burr tried for treason, and acquitted.Sept. 

Bonaparte issued bis "Milan Decree”.Dec. 17. 

Embargo on American ships laid by Congress.Dec. 22. 

1809. Commerce with Britain and France interdicted by Congress, March 1. 
James Madison inaugurated President."..March 4. 

1811. Action between the frigate President and Little Belt.May 16. 

Battle of Tippecanoe, Indiana.Nov. 7. 

1812. Louisiana admitted into the Union.April 8. 

War against Great Britain proclaimed by the United States. .June 19. 

Invasion of Canada by Gen. Hull...July 12. 

Surrender of Fort Mackinaw, Michigan.H.July 17. 

The first battle of Brownstown, Michigan.Aug. 5. 

The second battle of Brownstown.Aug. 9. 

Surrender of Detroit, Michigan, by Gen. null.Aug. 16. 

British sloop Alert taken by the frigate Essex.Aug. 13. 

British frigate Guerriere taken by tho Constitution.Aug. 19. 

The battle of Queenstown, Canada.Oct. 13. 

British brig Frolic taken by the Wasp.Oct. 18. 

British frigate Macedonian taken by the United States.Oct. 25. 

British frigate Java taken by the Constitution.Dec. 29. 

1813. The battle of Frenchtown, Michigan.Jan. 22. 

British brig Peacock taken by the Hornet.Feb. 24. 

Madison commenced a second presidential term.March 4. 

The battle of York, Canada.April 27. 

Fort Meigs, on tho Maumee, besieged by Proctor.May 1. 

Tho battle of Fort Meigs, Ohio.May 5. 

Fort George, Canada, taken by tho Americana.May 27. 

The battle of Sackett's Harbor, New York.May 29. 

American frigate Chesapeake taken by the Shannon.June 1. 

The battle of Fort Stephenson, Ohio.Aug. 2. 

American brig Argus taken by the Pelican.Aug. 14. 

Creek War commenced by the massacre at Fort Mims.Aug. 30. 

British brig Boxer taken by the Enterprise...Sept. 5. 

Perry’s victory on Lake Erie...Sept. 10. 

The battle of the Thames, Canada.Oct. 5. 

The battle of Chrysler’s Field, Canada.Nov. 11. 

1814. The battle of Tohopeka, the last of tho Creek War.March 27. 

American frigate Essex taken by the Phcebe and Cherub..March 28. 
The battle of La Colle Mill, Canada.March 30. 























































CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY. 597 

1 British brig Epervier taken by the Peacock.April 29. 

British sloop Reindeer taken by the American sloop Wasp. ..June 23. 

Fort Erie captured by the Americans....July 3. 

The battle of Chippewa, Canada.July 5. 

The battle of Lundy's Lane, or Bridgewater, Canada.July 25. 

The first battle of Fort Erie, Canada.;.Aug. 15. 

The battle of Bladensburg, Maryland.Aug. 24. 

The city of Washington taken by the British.Aug. 24. 

British sloop Avon taken by the American sloop Wasp.Sept. 1. 

McDonough’s victory on Lake Champlain.Sept. 11. 

The battle of Plattsburg, New Tork.Sept. 11. 

The battle of North Point, Maryland.Sept. 12. 

The battle of Fort McHenry, Maryland.Sept. 13. 

The battle of Fort Bowyer, Alabama.Sept. 15. 

The second battle of Fort Erie, Canada.Sept. 17. 

The British driven from Pensacola by Gen. Jackson.Nov. 7. 

The battle on Lake Borgne, Louisiana.Dec. 14. 

Hartford Convention.Dec. 

The battle nine miles from New Orleans.Dec. 23. 

Treaty of peace between the United States and Gt. Britain.. .Dec. 24. 

1815. The battle of New Orleans.Jan. 8. 

American frigate President captured by a British squadron. .Jan. 15. 

The Cyanne and Levant taken by the Constitution.Feb. 20. 

The British brig Penguin taken by the Hornet.March 23. 

War with Algiers declared by Congress.March. 

Commodore Decatur sent against Algiers.May. 

1816. Bank of United States re-chartered for twenty years.April 10. 

Indiana admitted into the Union.Dec. 11. 

1817. James Monroe inaugurated President.March 4. 

Mississippi admitted into the Union.Dec. 10. 

The Seminoles and Creeks commenced depredations. 

1818. General Jackson went against the hostile Indians.March. 

Pensacola seized by General Jackson.May 24. 

Illinois admitted into the Union.Dec. 3. 

1819. Alabama admitted into the Union. Dec. 14. 

1820. Maine admitted into the Union.March 15. 

Florida ceded to the United States by Spain.Oct. 

1821. Missouri admitted into the Union.Aug. 10. 

1824. Lafayette visited the United States.Aug. 

1825. John Quincy Adams inaugurated President.March 4. 

1826. Death of the two ex-presidents, Adams and Jefferson.July 4. 

1829. Andrew Jackson inaugurated President.March 4. 

1831. Death of ex-president Monroe.July 4. 

1832. ‘‘The Black Hawk War.” 

“Nullification” in South Carolina. 

1833. Removal of the government funds from the United States Bank, Oct. 

1835. War with the Seminoles commenced. 

Gen. Thompson and friends massacred by the Seminoles.Dec. 28. 

Major Dade and party massacred by the Seminoles.Dec. 28. 

1836. Arkansas admitted into the Union.June 15. 

1837. Michigan admitted into the Union.Jan£2G. 

Martin Van Buren inaugurated President.March 4. 

The battle of Okechobee, Florida.Dec. 25. 

1841. William Henry Harrison inaugurated President.March 4. 

Death of William Henry Harrison.April 4. 

John Tyler inaugurated President.April 6. 

1842. The War with the Seminoles terminated. 

The “Dorr Rebellion” in Rhode Island. 

1845. Joint resolutions for the annexation of Texas signed.March 1. 

James K. Polk inaugurated President.March 4, 

Florida admitted into the Union.March 3. 

Texas admitted into the Union. ,Dec, 29. 






















































698 


CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY. 


1846. Thornton’s party captured by the Mexicans, Texas.April 28. 

Fort Brown bombarded by the Mexicans.May. 

The battle of Palo Alto, Texas.May 8. 

The battle of Resaca de la Palma, Texas....May 9. 

Congress declared “war existed by the act of Mexico".May 11. 

Taylor crossed the Rio Grande and took Matamoras.May 18. 

Monterey, Mexico, surrendered to Gen. Taylor.Sept, 24. 

The battle of Bracito, Mexico.Dec. 25. 

Iowa admitted into the Union.Dec. 23. 

1847. The battle of Buena Vista, Mexico.Feb. 23. 

The battle of Sacramento, Mexico.Feb. 28. 

The surrender of Vera Cruz to General Scott.March 27. 

The battle of Cerro Gordo, Mexico..A|)ril 13. 

The battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Mexico.Aug. 20. 

The battle of Molina del Rey, Mexico.Sept. 8. 

The battle of Chapultepec, Mexico.Sept. 13. 

City of Mexico entered by the Americans, under Scott.Sept. 14. 

The battle of Huamantla, Mexico.Oct. 9. 

1843. Treaty of peace signed at Gaudaloupe, Ilidalgo.Feb. 2. 

Wisconsin admitted into the Union.May 29. 

1819. Zachary Taylor inaugurated President.March 5. 

1850. The death of President Taylor.July 9. 

Millard Fillmore inaugurated President.July 10. 

California admitted into the Union.Sept. 9. 

1833. Franklin Pierce inaugurated President.March 4. 

1854. “Kansas-Ncbraska Bill” passed.June. 

2857. James Buchanan inaugurated President.March 4. 

1853. Minnesota admitted into the Union.May 11. 

1859. Oregon admitted into the Union.Feb. 14. 

John Brown's raid into Virginia.....Oct. 16. 

1860. Secession Ordinance passed by South Carolina.Dec. 20. 

1861. Secession of Mississippi. Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, 

Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, and North Carolina declared. 

Steamer Star of the West, off Charleston, fired into.Jan. 9. 

Kansas admitted into the Union.Jan. 29. 

“Southern Confederacy ”formed at Montgomery, Alabama_Feb. 4. 

Jefferson Davis inaugurated President of the Confederacy.. .Feb. 18. 
Abraham Lincoln inaugurated President of the United States. Mar. 4. 

Fort Sumter attacked by the Confederates.April 12,13. 

President Lincoln calls for 75.000 troops.April 15. 

Volunteer troops attacked in Baltimore.April 19. 

The President issues a second call for troops.May 4. 

Confederate victory at Big Bethel, Virginia.June 10. 

Union victory at Romney, Virginia.June 11. 

Union victory at Booneville, Missouri.June 17. 

Meeting of Congress in extra session.July 4. 

Battle of Carthage, Missouri.July 5. 

Battle of Rich Mountain, Virginia.July 11. 

Battle near Centreville, Virginia.July 18. 

Confederate Congress meets at Richmond.July 20. 

Battle of Bidl Run, Virginia.July 21. 

Battle of Dug Spring, Missouri.Aug. 2. 

Battle of Wilson’s Creek, Missouri.Aug. 10. 

Forts Hatteras and Clark. North Carolina, captured.Ang. 29. 

Confederates take Lexington, Missouri.Sept. 20. 

Battle of Edwards' Ferry, or Ball’s Bluff, Virginia.Oct. 21. 

Capture of Port Royal entrance by Union fleet.Nov. 7. 

Battle of Belmont, Missouri.Nov. 7. 

Mason and Slidell taken from English steamer.Nov. 8. 

1862. Battle of Mill Spring, Kentucky.Jan. 19. 

Fort Henry captured by Union fleet.Feb. (\ 

Roanoke Island captured by Union forces...Feb. 8. 


























































CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY. 


699 


1862. 


v 


1863. 


1864. 


Fort Honelson captured by Union forces.Fob. 16. 

Battle of Pea Ridge. Arkansas.March 6, 8. 

U.S.vessels Congress and Cumberland sunk bv the Merrimac. Mar. 8. 

Engagement between the Monitor and Merrimac.March 9. 

Kewbern, North Carolina, captured by Union troops.March 14. 

Battle at Winchester. Virginia.March 23. 

Battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, Tennesseo.April 6. 7. 

Capture of Island No. 10. Mississippi Iliver.April 7. 

Fort Pulaski,Georgia, captured by Union fleet.April 11. 

New Orleans captured by Union forces.April 25. 

Battlo of Williamsburg. Virginia.May 5, 

Norfolk. Virginia, surrendered to the Unionists.May 10. 

Confederates retreat from Corinth, Mississippi.May 28,29. 

Battle of Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks.May 31. June 1. 

Memphis. Tennessee, surrendered to the Unionists.June 6. 

Soven days'contest on the Virginia peninsula.June 25 to July 1. 

The President calls for 300.000 more troops.July 1. 

Battle of Cedar Mountain, Virginia...Aug. 9. 

Pope's battles between Manassas and Washington.Aug. 23?30. 

Battle near Richmond, Kentucky.Aug. 30. 

Invasion of Maryland by Lee's army.Sept. 5. 

Battle of South Mountain, Maryland.Sept. 14. 

Harper s Ferry surrendered to’the Con federates.Sept. 15. 

Battle of Antietam. Maryland ...Sept. 17. 

Battle of Munfordsville, Kentucky.Sept. 17. 

Battle of Iuka, Mississippi.Sept. 19. 

Battle of Corinth, Mississippi.Oct. 4. 

Battle of Perry ville, Kentucky.Oct. 8. 

Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia.Dec. 13. 

Union repulse at Vicksburg. Mississippi.Dec. 29. 

Battlo of Stone River, or Murfreesboro’. Tennessee.Dec. 31. 

The President’s Emancipation Proclamation issued.Jan. 1. 

Battle of Murfreesboro’ resumed and ended.Jan. 2. 

Arkansas Post captured by Union forces.Jan. 11. 

Bombardment of Fort Sumter. South Carolina.April 7. 

Union cavalry raid, under Grierson, in Mississippi.April. 

Battle at Port Gibson, Mississippi.May 1. 

Battle of Chancellors ville, Virginia.May 2. 3. 

Battle of Raymond, Mississippi.May 12. 

Union victory near Jackson.*Mississippi.May 14. 

Battle of Champion Hill, Mississippi.May 16. 

Battle at Big Black River, Mississippi.May 17. 

Second invasion of Maryland by Lee’s army.June. 

West Virginia admitted into the Union.June 20. 

Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.July 1-3. 

Vicksburg surrendered by the Confederates.July 4. 

Port Hudson sin-rendered by the Confederates.July 8. 

Great riot in New York.July 13-16. 

Morgan defeated near Kyger s Creek. Olno.July 21. 

Morgan captured near Hew Lisbon, Olno.July 26. 

Fort Wagner. South Carolina, captured by Union troops.Sept. 6. 

Battle of Cliickamauga, Georgia ..Sept. 19, 20. 

Knoxville, Tennessee, invested by the Confederates.Nov. 18. 

Union victory at Lookout Mountain, Georgia.Nov. 24. 

Union victory at Missionary Ridge, Georgia.Nov. 25. 

Union victory at Knoxville, Kentucky... 1.Nov. 29. 

The President orders a draft for more men.Feb. 1. 

Battle of Olustee. Florida.Feb. 20. 

Grant created Lieutenant-General.*.March 3. 

Fort De Russy. Louisiana, captured by Union troops.March 14. 

Battle of Cane Rivc-r. Louisiana.March 26. 

Battle of Mansfield, or Sabine Cross Roads, Lovisiana. A$ril & 


4 






























































600 


CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY. 


1864. Battle of Pleasant Hill, Louisiana.April 9. 

Fort Pillow, Tennessee, captured by the Confederates.April 12, 

Plymouth, N. C., surrendered to the Confederates_.,.April 20 

Army of the Potomac commenced a forward movement.May 3. 

Battle of the Wilderness, Virginia.May 5-7. 

March from Chattanooga against Atlanta commenced.May 7 

Battles near Spottsylvaiiia Court House, Virginia.May 7, 12 

Battle of Itesaca, Georgia... May 15 

Battle of Newmarket, Virginia.May 15. 

Army of the Potomac crossed to south side of the James_June 14. 

Battle between the Kearsarge and Alabama.June 19. 

Invasion of Maryland by Early’s army.July 5. 

Battle of Monocacy, Maryland.July 9. 

The President calls for 500,000 volunteers.July 18. 

Battles before Atlanta, Georgia.July 20, 22, 28. 

Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, sacked and burned.July 30. 

Explosion of mine and Union repulse at Petersburg.July 30. 

Confederates defeated in Mobile Bay. Alabama.Aug. 5. 

Weldon railroad seized by Union troops.Aug. 18. 

Atlanta, Geoi'gia, captured by Union army.Sept. 2. 

Battle of Winchester, Virginia.Sept. 19. 

Battle of Fisher’s Hill, Virginia.Sept. 22. 

Battle of Cedar Creek, Virginia.Oct. 19. 

Confederate ram Albemarle destroyed by torpedo.Oct. 28. 

Plymouth, North Carolina, recaptured by Union troops. Oct. 31. 

Nevada admitted into the Union.Oct 31. 

Battle of Franklin, Tennessee.Nov. 30. 

Battle near Nashville, Tennessee.Dec. 16. 

Savannah, Georgia, captured by Union army.Dec. 21. 

1865. Fort Fisher, North Carolina, captured by Union troops.Jan. 15. 

Constitutional Amendment abolishing slavery passed.Jan. 31. 

Columbia, South Carolina, captured by Union troops.Feb. 17. 

Charleston, South Carolina, captured by Union troops.Feb. 18. 

Wilmington, North Carolina, captured by Union troops.Feb. 22. 

Battle of Bentonville, North Carolina.March 19, 20. 

Battle near Goldsboro’, North Carolina.March 21. 

Battle of Fort Steadman, Virginia.March 25. 

Petersburg and Richmond captured.April 3. 

Surrender of Lee’s army.April 9. 

Mobile, Alabama, captured by Union forces.April 13. 

President Lincoln assassinated.April 14. 

Andrew Johnson inaugurated President.April 15. 

Surrender of Johnston’s army..^.April 26. 

Jefferson Davis captured in Georgia.May 10. 

Close of the Great Rebellion. 

Slavery declared abolished.Dec. 18. 

1867. Nebraska admitted into the Union.March 1. 

Alaska purchased from Russia for $7,2C0.000.June 20. 

1868. The House of Representatives impeached President Johnson, Feb 24. 

The President was declared acquitted.April 26. 

3869. Ulysses S. Grant inaugurated President.March 4. 

1871. The “Alabama Treaty” was concluded.May 8. 

The great fire of Chicago occurred.Oct. 8, 9. 10. 

1876. The Centennial Anniversary of American Independence. 

The “World’s Fair” in Philadelphia.May 10 to Nov. 10. 

Colorado admitted into the Union.Aug. 1. 

\877. Rutherford B. Hayes inaugurated President.March & 

1881. James A. Garfield inaugurated President.March 4 C 

“ “ • “ shot by Chas. J. Guiteau, at Washington. July 2 

“ “ “ died at Long Branch.Sept. 19 

Chester A- Arthur inaugurated President.r.Sept. 20 


























































INTEREST LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES, 


60) 


INTEREST LAWS IN THE UNITED STATES. 


State. 

Rate 
per cent. 

Penalty of Usury. 

Legal. 

Special. 

Alabama. 

8 


Loss of interest. 

Arizona .. 

10 

5 

None. 

Arkansas. 

6 

10 

Forfeiture of principal and interest. 

California. 

7 

§ 

None. 

Colorado. 

10 

§ 

None. 

Connecticut. 

6 

§ 

None. 

Dakota. 

7 

12 

Forfeiture of contract. 

Delaware. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of principal. ’ 

District of Columbia.. 

6 

10 

Forfeiture of all interest. 

Florida . 

8 

§ 

None. 

Georgia. 

7 

8 

Forfeiture of all interest. 

Idaho . 

*10 

24 

$300, or imprisonment 6 months, or both. 

Illinois. 

6 

8 

Forfeiture of all the interest. 

Indiana. 

6 

8 

Forfeiture of the interest over 8 per cent. 

Iowa. 

6 

10 

Forfeiture of interest, and costs. 

Kansas. 

7 

12 

Forfeiture of excess over 12 per cent. 

Kentucky. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of excess of interest. 

Louisiana. 

6 

8 

Forfeiture of interest. 

Maine. 

6 

§ 

None. 

Maryland. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of excess. 

Massachusetts.. 

G 

§ 

None. (Six per cent, on judgments.) 

Michigan .. 

7 

10 

Forfeiture of excess. [cent, is charged. 

Minnesota. 

7 

10 

Forfeiture of contract if more than 10 per 

Mississippi. 

6 

10 

Forfeiture of all interest. 

Missouri. 

6 

10 

Forfeiture of all interest. 

Montana. 

10 

§ 

None. 

Nebraska. 

7 

10 

Forfeiture of all interest, and costs. 

Nevada. 

10 

§ 

None. [ceived. 

New Hampshire. 

6 

G 

Forfeiture of three times the interest re- 

New Jersey. 

6 

G 

Forfeiture of all interest, and costs. 

New Mexico. 

6 

§ 

None. [imprisonment. 

New York. 

6 

II 

Forfeiture of contract, $1000 fine, 6 months 

North Carolina. 

6 

8 

Forfeiture of interest. 

Ohio. 

6 

8 

Forfeiture of excess. 

Oregon. 

10 

12 

Forfeiture of interest, principal, and costs 

Pennsylvania. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of excess. Act May 28, 1858. 

Rhode Island. 

f6 

§ 

Forfeiture, unless a greater rate is con- 

South Carolina.,. 

7 

7 

Forfeiture of all the interest. [tracted. 

Tennessee. 

6 

G 

Forfeiture of excess over 6 per cent. 

Texas....'. 

8 

12 

Forfeiture of all interest. 

Utah. 

10 

§ 

None. 

Vermont. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of excess. 

Virginia. 

6 

§ 

None. 

Washington Territory 

10 

§ 

None. 

West Virginia. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of excess. 

Wisconsin. 

7 

10 

Forfeiture of all the interest. 

Wyoming. 

12 

§ 

None. 


* Usurers liable to arrest for misdemeanor. t On railroad bonds only, 
t 7tat@ on judgments unless otherwise expressed. § No limits 

I! No corporation can plead usury, 






































































STATUTE OF LIMITATIONS. 


(502 


STATE LAWS WITH REFERENCE TO LIMITATION OF ACTIONS, 


SHOWING THE LIMIT OF TIME ON WHICH ACTION MAY BE BBOUGHT. 


States 

AND 

Territories. 

Assault, 

slander, 

replevin. 

Open 

accounts. 

Notes. 

Judg¬ 

ments. 

Sealed 

instru¬ 

ments. 


Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

Alabama. 

1 

3 

6 

20 

10 

Arizona. 

— 

2 

4 

5 

— 

Arkansas. 

1 

3 

5 

10 

10 

California. 

3 

2 

4 

5 

5 

Colorado. 

1 

2 

G 

6 

6 

Connecticut. 

1 

6 

G 

G 

17 

Dakota. 

2 

6 

6 

20 

20 

Delaware... 

1 

3 

6 

20 

20 

District of Columbia. 

1 

3 

3 

12 

12 

Florida. 

2 

5 

6 

20 

20 

Georgia. 

1 

4 

6 

7 

20 

Idaho... 

3 

2 

4 

5 

6 

Illinois. 

1 

5 

10 

20 / 

10 

Indiana. 

2 

C 

20 

20 

20 

Iowa. 

2 

5 

10 

20 

10 

Kansas. 

1 

3 

5 

5 

15 

Kentucky. 

1 

5 

5 

15 

15 

Louisiana. 

1 

3 

5 

10 

20 

Maine. 

2 

G 

20 

20 

20 

Maryland. 

3 

3 

3 

12 

12 

Massachusetts. 

2 

G 

20 

20 

20 

Michigan. 

2 

G 

6 

10 

10 

Minnesota. 

2 

G 

C 

10 

6 

Mississippi.. 

1 

3 

6 

7 

7 

Missouri. 

1 

5 

10 

20 

10 

Montana. 

2 

2 

4 

5 

4 

Nebraska. 

2 

4 

5 

20 

10 

Nevada. 

2, 6 

G 

20 

20 

20 

New Hampshire. 

1 

G 

6 

20 

20 

New Jersey. 

2 

G 

6 

20 

20 

New Mexico. 

1 

4 

6 

10 

15 

New York. 

1 

6 

6 

20 

20 

North Carolina. 

1 

3 

10 

10 

10 

Ohio. 

1 

Q 

15 

15 

15 

Oregon. 

2 

1 

6 

10 

10 

Pennsylvania. 

1 

G 

6 

20 

20 

Khode Island. 

1 

6 

6 

20 

20 

South Carolina. 

2 

6 

G 

20 

20 

Tennessee. 

1 

6 

6 

10 

— 

Texas. 

1 

2 

4 

10 

10 

Utah. 

1 

2 

4 

5 

7 

Vermont. 

. 2 

6 

14 

8 

8 

Virginia. 

5 

5 

6 

10 

20 

Washington Territory 

2 

3 

G 

6 

20 

West Virginia. 

5 

5 

10 

10 

10 

Wisconsin. 

2 

G 

6 

20 

20 

Wyoming. 

1 

4 

5 

10 

21 


Note.—A statute of limitation begins to run from the time at whicli a 
creditor is authorized first to commence suit. Upon mutual, concurrent, 
and open accounts, t ie stitute,in general, begins to run with the date of 
the last item. A debt otherwise barred may generally by revived by a 
new promise made within the period of limitation. The new promise may 
be either express or implied from a part payment, or any unqualified ac¬ 
knowledgment, from which a promise may bo inferred. 


































































INSOLVENT AND ASSIGNMENT LAWS. 


(503 


INSOLVENT, ASSIGNMENT, AND HOMESTEAD LAWS OF THE 
DIFFERENT STATES OF THE UNION. 

SlXCE the repeal of the United States Bankrupt Law, tlio laws of the 
different States respecting insolvency, assignments for the benefit of cred¬ 
itors, exemptions of property from liability for debts, and attachments of 
property upon mesne process have become of general interest. A short 
epitome of them is here presented. The following are some of the general 
rules governing these matters: A discharge in insolvency does not affect 
the rights of a creditor who is not within the jurisdiction of the State where 
the discharge is granted, and does not submit himself to that jurisdiction 
by proving his claim against the estate of the debtor. In the absence of 
statutes, assignments of property for the benefit of creditors are valid, even 
though they provide for preferences, and for the release of the debtor by 
creditors taking the benefit of then). An involuntary assignment, under 
the laws of one State, of choses in action and other property, in another, is 
not good against attaching creditors in the second State. A voluntary 
assignment will not prevail against a prior attachment, nor against a sub¬ 
sequent attachment, unless the assignment is valid under, and executed 
with the formalities required by, the laws of the State where the property 
is attached. 

ALABAMA. —No insolvent law. Assignments regulated by statute, 
which forbids preferences, or any provision for the release of the debtor. 
Attachments issue against a defendant who is a non-resident, or absconds, 
or removes his property from the State, or is guilty of fraud, &c. A bond 
is required of plaiutiff. Real Estate Exemption — 80 acres and house in 
country, or lot and dwelling to value of $2000 in city. Personal Property 
Exemption—To amount of $1000. 

ARIZONA. —No insolvent or assignment law. Attachments issue in ac¬ 
tions upon contract for direct payment of money where plaintiff has no se¬ 
curity, or when defendant is a non-resident, &c. The plaintiff must give 
bond. Real Estate Exemption —Land and House to value of $5000. Per¬ 
sonal Property Exemption —$150 library; $000 household goods; $C00 tools, 
stock in trade, &c. 

ARKANSAS.—No insolvent law. Assignments regulated by statute, 
which forbids preferences. Attachments issue against a defendant who is 
a non-resident, about to leave the State, avoids service of process, conceals 
property, or is guilty of fraud, &c. Real Estate Exemption—1G0 acres in 
country; or city lot, with improvements to value of $2500. Personal Prop¬ 
erty Exemption—Unmarried person—specified articles $200; also, wearing 
apparel. Married person—specified articles $500; also, wearing apparel. 

CALIFORNIA.—An insolvent law by which a debtor surrendering his 
property may receive a discharge from'his debts. No preferences permit¬ 
ted. No discharge in case of fraud, nor from debts due as a depositary of 
funds received as banker, broker, or commission merchant. Assignments 
not allowed, unless under this law. Attachments when defendant is a non¬ 
resident, or in an action upon contract for direct payment of money, where 
plaintiff has no security, the plaintiff giving bond. Real Estate Exemption 
-—Homestead to value of $5000. Personal Property Exemption—$200 libra¬ 
ry, &c.; $200 household goods, &c.; $2000 miner’s cabin, and tools, claims, 
siuices, &c.; and a multitude of special articles. 

COLORADO.—No insolvent or assignment law. Attachments (plaintiffs 
giving bond) when defendant is non-resident, or conceals himself, or stands 
in defiance of officer, or in case of fraud, &c. Real Estate Exemption— 
Homestead to value of $2000. Personal Property Exemption—Married per¬ 
son—$100 household goods; $200 tools in trade; $300 library; $200 working 
animals; $50 farming implements. Unmarried person—$300 tools, stock iu 

trade, &c. . 

CONNECTICUT.—Insolvent law, with compulsory proceedings, which 
may be taken by creditor to amount of $100. ‘ Property put into hands of 


604 


INSOLVENT AND ASSIGNMENT LAWS, 


trustee. Discharge from debts proved, upon payment of seventy per cent. 
Debtor’s property exempt for two years from legal process tipon debts 
which might have been proved. Assignments must be administered under 
this law. Attachments on mesne process, in all cases. Real Estate Ex¬ 
emption—There is no real estate exemption. Personal Property Exemption 
—$150 household goods, cattle, Ac.; $250 horse, buggy, family stores, to spe¬ 
cified amount; $500 library of physician or surgeon; $200 boat used in 
fishing. i 

DAKOTA.—No insolvent law. Assignments without preferences allowed, i 
but are void against any creditor not assenting thereto, if they tend to 
coerce the creditor to release his claim, or provide for payment of fraudu¬ 
lent claim, or reserve any benefit to assignor, or confer any power upon 
assignee, which may delay the conversion of the assigned property, or ex¬ 
empt the assignee from liability from neglect of duty, Ac. Attachments 
(plaintiff giving bond) when defendant is non-resident, absconds, conceals 
or conveys property in fraud of creditors, Ac. Real Estate Exemption— 
Homestead, 160 acres; or lo't or plot of ground actually occupied in town.; 
Personal Property Exempt ion—$1500, books, wearing apparel, Ac. \ 

DELAWARE.—No insolvent law. Assignments governed by the common 
law, except that a special partnership may not give preferences. Attach¬ 
ments (plaintiff giving bond) when defendant has fraudulently left the 
State, Ac. Real Estate Exemption—No real estate exemption. Personal 
Property Exemption—Married person, $275 tools and fixtures. Unmarried 
person, $75 tools and fixtures. 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.—No iusolvent or assignment laws, except 
that assignments of the property of a special partnership, with preferences, 
are void. Attachments (plaintiff giving bond) when the defendant is non¬ 
resident, or removes or is about to remove bis property, Ac. Real Estate 
Exemption—No real estate exemption. Personal Property Exemption— 
$300 wearing apparel and furniture; $200 tools and implements of trade; 
stock to same amount; $300 library and implements of professional man or 
artist; $100 farmer’s team, Ac.; $400 library and family pictures. 

FLORIDA.—No insolvent or assignment law. Attachments (plaintiff 
giving bond) when ^defendant is non-resident, or about to part with bis 
property fraudulently, or remove from the State, or fraudulently secretes 
property, Ac. Real Estate Exemption—Homestead ICO acres land and im¬ 
provements in country, or half an acre in village or city. Personal Prop¬ 
erty Exemption—$1000 personal property. 

GEORGIA.—No insolvent law. Assignments regulated by statute,which 
forbids preferences, or making a release of the debtor a condition precedent 
to receipt of dividends. Attachments (the plaintiff giving bond) when tbo 
defendant is non-resident, absconds, conceals liimself, resists a legal arrest, 
removes or is about to remove bis property, or fraudulently disposes of the 
same. Real Estate Exemption—Married person, guardian, aged or infirm 
person, or any person having care of dependent. Female who is not tbo 
bead of family is entitled to amount of realty or personality, or both, to tbo 
value of $1600 in the aggregate. 

IDAHO.—Insolvent law, under which the debtor is discharged upon 
making an assignment, as therein provided, except in cases of fraud. At¬ 
tachments (plaintiff giving bond) in actions upon contract for the direct 
payment of money, when tbo plaintiff has no lien or security, or when tbo 
defendant is a non-resident, Ac. Real Estate Exemption—No real estate 
exemption. Personal Property Exemption—$100 library, tables, desks, Ac.; 
$200 grain, seed, or vegetables, mechanics’ tools, physicians’ or surgeons’ 
instruments, actors’ wardrobes, Ac., miners’ tools and implements, cart- 
men’s specified horses and wagons. 

ILLINOIS. — No insolvent law. Assignments, without preference, al¬ 
lowed and regulated by statute. Attachments (plaintiff giving bond) when 
the defendant is non-resident, absconds, conceals himself or his property, 
is guilty of fraud, Ac. Real Estate Exemption—Lot of ground and build¬ 
ings, value $1000, to head of family, Personal Property Exemption—Un« 


INSOLVENT AND ASSIGNMENT LAWS. 


COS 


married person, books, pictnres, wearing apparel, and $100 other property. 
Married person books, &c., $300 other property. 

INDIANA.—No insolvent law. Assignments, without preferences or 
provision for release of debtor, allowed and regulated by statute. Attach¬ 
ments substantially same as iu Illinois. Keal Estate Exemption —$300 real 
or personal, or both. 

IOWA. — No insolvent law. Assignments, without preferences, allowed 
and regulated by statute. Attachments substantially same as in Illinois. 
Keal Estate Exemption—$500 homestead of 40 acres in country, or half an 
acre in town. Personal Property Exemption—$200 household furniture; 
also, wearing apparel, library, tools, &c.; $75 wearing apparel and selected 
property to unmarried person. 

KANSAS.—No insolvent law. Assignments,without preference, allowed 
and regulated by statute. Attachments substantially same as in Illinois. 
Keal Estate Exemption—160 acres land; or one acre in town or city, with 
improvements. Personal Property Exemption—$500 household furniture, 
wearing apparel, &c.; $300 stock and farming utensils; $400 library ana 
implements of professional man. 

KENTUCKY.—No insolvent law. Assignments regulated by statute. 
Any preference may be set aside in six mon tbs. A ttacbments substantially 
as in Illinois. Keal Estate Exemption—$1000 house and land. Personal 
Property Exemption—$100 household furniture; $500 library and imple¬ 
ments of professional man; $100 mechanics’ tools. 

LOUISIANA.—Insolvent law, with compulsory proceedings by a judg¬ 
ment creditor, upon return of the execution “no property found.” The 
debtor makes a surrender to the creditors, and may be discharged by the 
consent of a majority of creditors in number and amount, except in case 
fraud or preference is proved. Assignments, without preference, may be 
made without regard to the insolvent law. Attachments substantially aa 
in Illinois. Keal Estate Exemption—160 acres land, with improvements, 
and personal property; value in all $2000. 

MAINE.—Insolvent law, passed in 1878, modeled on the United States 
Bankrupt Law. Voluntary petition may be filed by debtor owing $300. 
Involuntary proceedings by at least two creditors, having one fourth in 
amount of the provable debts. Debtors owing less than $300 may make an 
assignment in a summary manner. No percentage is required to be paid 
to entitle a debtor, for the first time insolvent, to discharge. Attachments 
within four months from date of filing petition dissolved. Preferences 
given within two months void, and may he recovered by assignee. Assign¬ 
ments are probably acts of insolvency, and may be set aside by the assignee 
in insolvency, if made within four' months of the filing of the petition. 
Otherwise, probably good, if without preferences. Attachments on mesne 
process in all cases. Keal Estate Exemption—$500 in land and dwelling. 
Personal Property Exemption—$50 furniture; $100 sewing-machine; $150 
library; $350 animals, clothing, tools, &c. 

MARYLAND.—Insolvent law, under which the debtor is discharged 
upon surrender of bis property, except where fraud or preference is proved. 
Assignments subject to rules of common law. Attachments (plaintiff 
giving bond) when defendant is non-resident, and in cases of fraud, <fcc. 
Keal Estate Exemption—No real estate exempted. Personal Property 
Exemption—$100 in selected property; also, tools and wearing apparel. 

MASSACHUSETTS.— Insolvent law, similar to the United States Bank¬ 


rupt Law. Proceedings generally the same, except that involuntary pe¬ 
tition may be filed by one creditor, and the acts of insolvency are not so 
numerous. Discharge upon payment of fifty per cent, or by consent of a 
majority of number and value of creditors. None in case of fraud or pref¬ 
erence. Assignments are acts of insolvency, but good if not avoided by 
assignee in insolvency. Attachments on mesne process, in all cases. 
Reaf Estate Exemption—$800 farm, or lot of land and buildings. Personal 
Property Exemption—$780 household furniture,stock,library,provisions,&e. 


606 INSOLVENT AND ASSIGNMENT LAWS. 


MICHIGAN. —Insolvent law, by which a debtor, with the consent of two 
thirds of his creditors, and upon surrendering his property, may be dis¬ 
charged. Assignments allowed. Attachments (plaintiff giving bond) issue 
When defendant is a non-resident, or is guilty of fraud, &c. _ Real Estate 
Exemption—40 acres of land in country; or one lot in city, with dwelling, 
$1500. Personal Property Exemption—$250 household furniture; $150 li- 
crary; sheep, cows, &c., to householder, in addition. 

MINNESOTA.—No insolvent law. Assignments, without preference, 
allowed and regulated by statute. Attachments (plaintiff giving bond) 
when defendant is non-resident, conceals his property, is guilty of fraud.&c. 
Real Estate Exemption—80 acres land, or lot and dwelling in city, or village 
of more than 5,000 inhabitants; and half an acre in town of less than 5,000. 
Personal Property Exemption—$500 household articles; $300 farming uten¬ 
sils; $400 mechanics’ tools, stock, and provisions; library and implements 
of professional man. 

MISSISSIPPI. — No insolvent law. Assignments not requiring a release 
of the debtor allowed. Attachments (plaintiff giving bond) w hen defendant 
is non-resident, conceals property, or is guilty of fraud, &c. Real Estate 
Exemption—80 acres laud to any householder; $2000 worth of real property 
in incorporated town. Personal Property Exemption—$250 furniture; li¬ 
brary, wearing apparel, tools, and implements. 

MISSOURI. — No insolvent law. Assignments, without preference, al¬ 
lowed and regulated by statute. Attachments (plaintiff giving bond) when 
defendant is non-resident, conceals himself or property, or is guilty of fraud. 
Real Estate Exemption!—100 acres land to married man, to value of $1500; 
18 square rods, value $3,000, in city of 40,000 or over; 30 square rods, value 
$1500, in city of less size. Personal Property Exemption—$300 personal 
property to head of family. 

MONTANA.—No insolvent or assignment laws. Attachments in actions 
upon contracts to pay money, the plaintiff giving bond in double the value 
of property attached ; also before debt due, if debtor fraudulently disposes 
of his property to defraud his creditors. Real Estate Exemption—160 acres 
land and dwelling in country; or half an acre, with buildings, $2000 value, 
in city; or 20 acres in city, value $2000. Personal Property Exemption— 
$500 personal property; $100 household furniture; $50 farming implements, 
library, tools, &c. 

NEBRASKA. — No insolvent law. Assignments, without preference, al¬ 
lowed and regulated by a recent statute (1877). Attachments (plaintiff 
giving bond) when defendant is non-resident, or conceals property, or is 
guilty of fraud, &c. 

NEVADA. — Insolvent law. No percentage or consent required for dis¬ 
charge, which is only from debts mentioned in debtor’s schedules. None, 
if fraud or preference, &c. Assignments forbidden. Attachments (plaintiff 
giving bond) in actions upon contract for direct payment of money, where 
plaintiff has no security. Real Estate Exemption—$5,000 homestead. Per¬ 
sonal Property Exemption—$100 office furniture and library; $400 house¬ 
hold furniture, seed, and stock; $500 miner’s cabin; $500 miner’s tools; 
$150 sewing-machine. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. — No insolvent law. Assignments, without pref- t 
erence or provision for release of debtor, allowed and regulated by statute. 
Attachments on mesne process, in all cases. 

NEW JERSEY. — No proper insolvent law. Assignment law, by which 
the debtor is discharged from the debt proved under assignment, except 
where the debtor is guilty of fraud or concealment, &c. Attachments when 
defendant is non-resident or absconds from his creditors. Real Estate Ex- 
emtion—No real estate exemption. Personal Property Exemption—$200 per- 
eonal by bead of family, or $200 personal by widow of deceased. 

NEW MEXICO. —No insolvency or assignment laws. Attachments sub¬ 
stantially as in Illinois. Real Estate Exemption—$1000 homestead to head 
of family. Personal Property Exemption—$25 provisions; $10 furniture; 
$25 tools and implements. 


INSOLVENT AND ASSIGNMENT LAV7S. 


GG7 


NEW YORK. —Insolvent law, tinder which the debtor surrendering his 
property is discharged by consent of the persons representing two thirds 
of the debts. No discharge if fraud or preference is proved. No involun¬ 
tary proceedings unless the debtor is imprisoned. Assignments and the 
duties of assignees have been regulated by recent acts (1877 and 1878). 
Attachments substantially as in Illinois. Real Estate Exemption—$1000 
homestead for family. Personal Property Exemption—$250 household fur¬ 
niture, &c. 

NORTH CAROLINA.—A law by which, upon surrendering his property 
the person of the debtor is free from liability to arrest or imprisonment^ 
except when fraud is proved; but the debt is not discharged. Assignments 
allowed. Attachments substantially as in Illinois. Real Estate Exemp¬ 
tion—$1000 homestead. Personal Property Exemption—$500 personal to 
non-owner of homestead; $100 tools, &c. 

OHIO.—A law similar to that of North Carolina. Assignments, without 
preference, allowed"and regulated by statute. Attachments substantially 
as in Illinois. 

OREGON.—Attachments (plaintiff giving bond) upon all contracts, pay¬ 
ment of which is unsecured. Voluntary assignment law dissolves attach¬ 
ments, if made at any time before judgment, distributes assets pro rata, 
among all creditors presenting claims within three months. Real Estate 
Exemption —No real estate exemption. . Personal Property Exemption—$75 
library, &c.; $100 wearing apparel; if householder, $50 each member; $400 
tools, implements, &c.; $300 household furniture and stock, to householder. 

PENNSYLVANIA.—Law similar to that of North Carolina. Assignments, 
without preference, allowed and regulated by statute. Attachments sub¬ 
stantially as in Illinois. Real Estate Exemption—$300 real or personal. 

RHODE ISLAND. — No insolvent law. Assignments allowed, and reg¬ 
ulated by a recent statute,which took effect September, 1878. Attachments, 
or levies, within sixty days after the same are made or commenced, may be 
dissolved by an assignment, without preferences, under the act. Upon the 
giving of a preference by the 'debtor,^.any three creditors, holding not less 
than one third of the debts, may petition the Supreme Court in Equity for 
the appoiutment of a receiver of his estate, who is to take possession like 
an assignee in bankruptcy. Preferences given by the debtor within sixty 
days of the commencement of proceedings are void, as under the United 
States Bankrupt Law. There is no provision for the discharge of the 
debtor. Attachments, when defendant is non-resident, or fraudulently 
contracted the debt, or conceals or disposes of bis property, or has refused 
to apply bis property to the payment thereof. Real Estate Exemption—No 
real estate exemption. Personal Property Exemption—$300 household fur¬ 
niture, &c.; $200 tools, implements, &c. 

SOUTH CAROLINA.— No insolvent law. Assignments according to 
common law. Attachments substantially ns in Illinois. Real Estate Ex¬ 
emption— $1000 homestead to bead of family. Personal Property Exemp¬ 
tion —$500 household furniture, tools, &c. 

TENNESSEE.—Law as to insolvency and assignments same as in South 
Carolina. Attachments substantially as in Illinois. Real Estate Exemp¬ 
tion—$1000 homestead. Personal Property Exemption—$200 of lumber »x 
product to mechanic; various household articles and stock specified. 

TEXAS.— Law as to insolvency and assignments same as in South Caro- 
lina. Attachments substantially as in Illinois. Real Estate Exemption— 
200 acres and dwelling in country, or lots in city, valne $5000. Personal 
Property Exemption—Library, tools, wearing apparel, &c. 

UTAH. — Law as to insolvency and assignments same as in South Caro¬ 
lina. Attachments (when plaintiff has no security) substantially as in 
Illinois. Real Estate Exemption—$1000 homestead. Personal Property 
Exemption—$100 office furniture; $100 seed; $400 mechanics’ tools or pro¬ 
fessional library; $200 cash each member of family; also various articles. 

VERMONT.—Insolvent law of 1876, modeled oil the United States Bank¬ 

rupt Law, with involuntary proceedings by one creditor to amount of $250* 


608 


INSOLVENT AND ASSIGNMENT LAWS. 


No discharge, unless assets equal thirty per cent of debts, or by consent o! 
majority in number and amount of debts proved. No discharge also in 
substantially same cases as iu Bankrupt Law. Assignments appear to be 
acts of insolvency, "which may be set aside bv an assignee in insolvency, if 
made within four months of filing his petition. Attachments on mesne 
process, in all cases. Real Estate Exemption—$500 homestead. Personal 
Property Exemption—$200 library professional man; $200 cattle; $250 wag- 
ons, harness, &c. 

VIRGINIA. — No insolvent or assignment laws. Attachments substan¬ 
tially as in Illinois. Real Estate Exemption—$2000 real or personal. 

WASHINGTON TERRITORY.— Law as to insolvency and assignment* 
same as Virginia. Attachments substantially as in Illinois. Real Estate 
Exemption—$1060 homestead. Personal Property Exemption—$150 house¬ 
hold furniture; $200 farming utensils; $500 mechanic’s tools or materials; 
$500 professional library or instruments; $200 office furniture; $300 team¬ 
ster’s wagon, &c.; $200 boa'ts. &c. 

WEST VIRGINIA.—No insolvent law. Assignments regulated by stat¬ 
ute, preferences being allowed. Attachments same as m Virginia. Real 
Estate Exemption—$1000 homestead. Personal Property Exemption—$200 
personal; $50 mechanic’s tools. 

WISCONSIN. — Insolvent law, by which a debtor is discharged npon sur¬ 
rendering property and complying with law. Assignments, with prefer¬ 
ences, unless by limited partnerships, allowed and regulated by statute. 
Attachments substantially as in Illinois. Real Estate Exemption—40 acres 
land and dwelling in country, or one fourth acre and dwelling in city or 
village. Personal Property Exemption—$200 household furniture; $50 
farming utensils; $200 tools and implements; $1500 printing-press’ aud 
material. 

WYOMING.—No assignment or insolvent laws. Attachments substan¬ 
tially as in Illinois. Real Estate Exemption—$1500 homestead. Personal 
Property Exemption— $150 wearing apparel; $500 household propertv: 
$300 tools, teams, &c. J 


SUMMER HEAT IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 

The following figures show the extreme summer heat in the various 
countries of the world:— 

Bengal and the African desert, 150° Fahrenheit; Senegal and Gan da- 
loupe, 130°; Persia, 125°; Calcutta and Central America, 120°; Afghanistan 
and the Arabian desert, 110°; Capo of Good Hope and Utah, 105°; Greece 
104°; Arabia, 103°; Montreal, 103°; New York, 102°; Spain, India, China! 
and Jamaica, 100°; Sierra Leone. 94°; France, Denmark, St. Petersburg 
Shanghai, the Barman Empire. Buenos Ayres, and the Sandwich Islands’ 
90°; Great Britain, Siam, and Peru, 85°; Portugal, Pekin, and Natal 80°’ 
Siberia, 77°; Australia and Scotland, 75°; Italy; Venezuela, and Madeira’, 
73°; Prussia and New Zealand, 70°; Switzerland’and Hungary, 60°; Bavaria 
Sweden, Tasmania, and Moscow, 65°; Patagonia and the Falkland Isles, 55°’ 
Iceland, 45°- Nova Zernbla, 34°. 


Xing Philip’s "War. 

King "William's "War.... 

Dutch War. 

Queen Anne’s War. 

French and Indian War 

American Revolution_ 

Indian War.. 

Barbary "War. 


AMERICAN WARS. 


.1675 

.1689 

.1673 

1744 

1753 

1775 

1790 

1803 


Tecum seb "War. 

War of 1812. 

Algerine War. 

First Seminole War. 

Second Seminole War. 

Mexican War. 

The Southern Rebellion...-,.. 


1804 

.1812 

1815 

1817 

1835 

1S4S 

1861 





















FOREIGN GOLD AND SILVER COINS. 


609 


VALUE OF FOREIGN GOLD AND SILVER COINS IN 
UNITED STATES MONEY. 

GOLD COINS. 


Country. 

Denomination. 

Value 

gold. 

Australia. 

Pound of 1852.. 

$5.32 

Do. 

Sovereign, 1855. 

4.86 

Austria. 

Ducat. 

2.28 

Do. 

Sovereign. 

6.75 

Do. 

Union Crown .. 

6.G4 

Belgium. 

Twenty-five fr’s 

4.72 

Bolivia. 

Doubloon. 

15.59 

Brazil. 

Twenty milreis 

10.91 

Cent’l America 

Two escudos... 

3.69 

Chili. 

Old doubloon .. 

15.59 

Do. 

Ten pesos. 

9.15 

Denmark. 

Ten thaler .... 

7.90 

Ecuador. 

Four escudos .. 

7.55 

England. 

Pound, sover’gn 

4.86 

France. 

Napoleon,20 irs. 

3.86 

Germans',north 

Ten thaler. 

7.90 

Do. 

Ten thaler, Pr’n 

7.97 

Do. 

Krone (crown) . 

6.64 

Do. south.. 

Ducat. 

2.28 

Greece. 

Twenty drachm 

3.44 

Hindostan .... 

Mohur. 

7.08 


i 


Country. 


Denomination. 



Cl O 

fcf 


Italy. 

J apan. 

Do. 

Mexico. 

Naples. 

Netherlands . 
New Granada 

Do. 

Do. 

Peru. 

Portugal. 

Prussia. 

Romo. 

Russia. 

Spain. 

Do. 

Sweden. 

Tunis. 

Turkey. 

Tuscany. 


Twenty lire ... 
Old cobang .... 
New cobaug ... 

Doubloon. 

Six ducati. 

Ten guilders... 
Bogota doubl’n. 
Popayan doub’n 

Ten pesos. 

Old doubloon .. 
Gold crown .... 
Union crown... 

2£ scudi. 

Five roubles... 

100 reals. 

80 reals . 

Ducat. 

25 piastres. 

100 piastres.... 
Sequin. 


$3.84 

4.44 

3.58 

15.G1 

5.04 

4.00 

15.61 

15.38 

9.68 

15.56 

5.81 

6.64 

2.60 

3.98 

4.96 

3.86 

2.24 

3.00 

4.37 

2.31 


SILVER 


Country. 

Denomination. 

0} 

p g 

C? rp 

t> S 

Austria. 

Old rix dollar .. 

$1.02 

Do. 

Old scudo. 

1.03 

Do. 

Florin bef. 1858 

.51 

Do. 

Union dollar ... 

.73 

Belgium. 

Five francs ..:. 

.98 

Bolivia. 

New dollar .... 

.79 

Do. 

Half dollar. 

.39 

Brazil. 

Double milreis. 

1.03 

Canada. 

Twenty cents.. 

.19 

Cent l America 

Dollar. 

1.00 

Chili. 

Old dollar. 

1.07 

Do. 

New dollar .... 

.98 

Denmark. 

Tworigsdaler.. 

1.11 

Fnorland . 

Shilling. 

.23 

Fiance. 

Five francs .... 

.98 

Germany, north 

Thaler bef. 1857 

.73 

Do. 

New thaler .... 

.73 

Do, south.. 

Florin bef. 1857. 

.42 

Do. 

New florin. 

.42 

Greece. 

Five drachms.. 

.48 

Hindostan .... 

Rupee. 

.47 




COINS 


Country. 

Denomination. 

Value 

silver 

Japan... 

Itzebu. 

$0.38 

Do. 

New itzebu.... 

.34 

Mexico. 

Dollar, new.... 

1.07 

Naples. 

Scudo. 

.95 

Netherlands . 

2£ guilders. 

1.03 

Norway. 

Specie daler... 

1.11 

New Granada 

Dollar of 1857 .. 

.98 

Peru. 

Old dollar. 

1.06 

Do. 

Dollar of 1858 .. 

.95 

Do. 

Half dollar, 1835 

.38 

Prussia. 

Thaler bef. 1857 

.73 

Do. 

New thaler.... 

.73 

Rome ........ 

Scudo... 

1.06 

Russia. 

Rouble. 

.79 

Sardinia. 

Five lire. 

.98 

Spain. 

New pistareen. 

1.20 

Sweden. 

Rix dollar. 

1.11 

Switzerland.. 

Two francs- 

.4ft 

Tunis. 

Five piastres .. 

.64 

Turkey . 

20 piastres. 

.87 

Tuscany. 

Florin. 

.28 


























































































































































610 


POPULATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS, 


POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES AND TOWNS IN ' 

THE UNITED STATES. 

TO WHICH IS ADDED THE DEBT OF EACH CITY, AS FAR AS ASCERTAINED. 

Note. —The “net debt” of cities is the aggregate funded and floating 
indebtedness, less amounts in sinking funds. 


Alabama. 

Huntsville. 

Mobile. 

Montgomery .. 

Selma. 

Arkansas. 

Little Hock.... 
California. 

Los Angelos... 

Oakland. 

Sacramento_ 

San Francisco . 

San Jose. 

Stockton. 

Colorado. 

Denver. 

Leadville. 

Connecticut. 
Bridgeport .... 

Danbury. 

Derby. 

Greenwich .... 

Hartford. 

Meriden. 

Middletown ... 
New Britain... 
New Haven ... 
New London .. 

Norwalk. 

Norwich. 

Stamford. 

Waterbary.... 

Windham. 

Delaware. 

Wilmington ... 
Dist. Columbia... 
Georgetown ... 
Washington... 
Florida. 
Jacksonville... 

Key West. 

Georgia. 

Atlanta. 

Athens. 

Augusta. 

Columbus. 

Macon. 

Savannah. 

Illinois. 

Alton. 

Aurora,. 


jruiHim- 

tion. 

Net debt. 

1880. 

Dollars. 

4.977 

46,800 

31,205 

2,671,100 

16,714 

567,900 

7,529 

• 323,600 

13,185 

335,243 

11.311 

310,177 

34,556 

■669,126 

21,420 

861.000 

233,956 

3,059.285 

12,567 

None. 

10,287 

385,615 

35,630 

20,000 

14,820 


29,148 

831.000 

11,669 

255.415 

11.649 

80.243 

7.892 

183.307 

42.553 

3.689.855 

18,340 

788,317 

11,731 


13.978 

494,843 

62.882 

1,359,619 

10.529 

496,611 

13.956 

522,495 

21.141 

1,191.256 

11,298 

165,000 

20,269 

361.508 

8,265 

44,193 

42,499 

1,372,450 

12,578 


147,307 

23,310,146 


270,916 

9,890 

10,000 

37,421 

2,180,000 

6,099 

107,9501 

23,023 

1,961.319 

6.152 

540.800 

12,748 

743,000 

30,681 

3,425,000 

9,851 

110,491' 

11,825 

25,506, 


Illinois (contin’d) 

Belleville. 

Bloomington... 

Cairo.. 

Chicago. 

Decatur. 

East St.Louis.. 

Elgin. 

Freeport. 

Galena. 

Galesburg. 

Hyde Park .... 
Jacksonville... 

Joliet. 

Moline. 

Ottawa. 

Peoria. 

Quincy. 

Hock ford. 

Bock Island ... 

Springfield_ 

Indiana. 

Evansville. 

Fort Wayne... 
Indianapolis... 
Jeffersonville.. 

Lafayette. 

Logan sport.... 

Madison. 

New Albany... 

Richmond__ 

South Bend.... 
Terre Haute... 

Vincennes. 

Iowa. 

Burlington .... 
Cedar Rapids.. 
Council Bluffs.. 

Davenport. 

Des Moines.... 

Dubuque. 

Iowa City ..... 

Keokuk. 

Muscatine. 

Ottumwa. 

Waterloo. 

Kansas. 

Atchinson__ 

Lawrence. 

Leavenworth.. 
Tojpoka..,,,... 


Popula 

tion. 

Net debt. 

1880. 

Dollars. 

10.682 

217,712 

17.184 

221.463 

9.012 

270.000 

503.304 

12,794.271 

9.548 

80.075 

9,185 

272.800 

8,789 

34.336 

8.516 

69.220 

6,453 

147.076 

11.446 

53.250 

15.716 


10.927 

273.336 

16,145 

54.000 

7.805 

28.071 

7.598 

60.000 

29.315 

716.500 

27.275 

1:917.888 

13.136 

178.090 

11.660 

289.050 

19,746 

778,780 

29.280 

None. 

26.681 

856,900 

75,074 

1,914.500 

10,422 

240.350 

14.860 

None. 

11.198 

456.276 

8,945 

232.051 

16.422 

358.482 

12.743 

167.000 

13,279 

337.600 

26.040 

267.224 

7,680 

38,831 

19.450 

128.062 

10,104 

40,867 

18,059 

138,400 

21,834 

290.675 

22,408 

578.000 

22,254 

804,611 

7,123 

74.967 

12.117 

372,375 

8,294 


9,004 

17,795 

5,630 

2,000 

15,106 

449,687 

8,511 

654,115 

16.550 

396,573 

15.451 

333,249 
























































































POPULATION OP CITIES AND TOWNS. 


611 


POPULATION AND DEBTS OF CITIES, &c( Continued.) 



Popula¬ 

tion. 

Net debt. 


Popula¬ 

tion. 

Net debt. 

Kentucky. 

18S0. 

Dollars. 

Massachusetts. 

1880. 

Dollars. 

Covington _ 

20,720 

16,656 

1,030.000, 

84.316 

Waltham. 

11,711 

7,587 

477,000 

404.788 

Lexington. 

Westfield. 

Louisville. 

123.645 

4.842.935 

Weymouth .... 

10,571 

64.392 

Newport 

20.433 

966.618 

Woburn. 

10,198 

58,295 

626 602 

Owensborough 

5,516 

67.000 i 

Worcester. 

2,447,543 

Paducah. 

Louisiana. 

New Orleans .. 

8,376 

216.140 

138,000 

Michigan. 

Adrian. 

Ann Arbor_ 

7,849 

8.061 

59,400 

16,000 

Shreveport.... 

11,017 


Bay City. 

20.693 

433,100 

Maine. 

Bangor. 

16.857 

2,661.000 

Detroit. 

East Saginaw.. 

116,342 

19,016 

1,282,772 

611.055 

Biddeford . 

12,652 

183.874 

Grand Bapids . 

32,015 

471,000 

Lewiston 

19.083 

1.038.102 

Jackson . 

lk 105 

183,500 

25,000 

Portland. 

33,810 

4,322,154 

Kalamazoo .... 

11.937 

Maryland. 

Baltimore. 

332.190 

27,092,690 

Lansing. 

Muskegon. 

8,319 

11,262 

105.400 

180.000 

Cumberland... 

10,666 

394.064 

Port Huron.... 

8.883 

349,000 

Frederick. 

Massachusetts. 
Abington. 

3.697 

559,989 

Saginaw City.. 
Minnesota. 
Minneapolis 
Bed Wing. 

10,525 

46,887 

5,876 

202,800 

1,137,467 

45,445 

Attleborough.. 

11.111 

16.600 

Beverly. 

8.445 

986.969 

Stillwater. 

9,054 

41,498 

82.400 

Boston 

362 535 

28,244.017 

71,200 

1.476,350 

Saint Paul. 

1,526,715 

183,000 

Broclcton 

13,608 

8.053 

Winona. 

10,208 

Brookline. 

Mississippi. 

Cambridge .... 

52,740 

21,785 

3,403,723 

Natchez. 

7.058 

21,734 

Chelsea. 

1,554.496 

Vicksburg. 

11,814 

373,218 

Chicopee. 

Clinton. 

"EVi.ll 7^/ivp.r 

11,325 
8.030 
49 006 

100,050 

99,500 

3,169,765 

770.778 

Missouri. 

Campbell. 

Central. 

7,485 

11.074 

••••»- 

T^itrVhhnror 

12.405 

Hannibal. 

144,027 

Gloucester .... 

19.329 

193,370 

Kansas City... 

55.813 

1,339,224 


18.475 

393.428 

St. Joseph. 

32,484 

2,445.600 

TT nlunlcft 

21,851 
39,178 
59.485 
38,284 
12,017 
10,126 
7 573 

878.454 

St. Louis. 

350,522 

9,561 

13,004 

30,518 

4,227 

22,847,761 


1.712,000 

1.554,275 

2,072.815 

483,523 

151,951 

463,726 

194,550 

Sedalia. 

Lowell. 

Nebraska. 

Lincoln. 

199,615 

227,578 


Omaha. 

Marlborough .. 

Nevada. 

Carson City ... 
Virginia City.. 

Milford. 

9,310 

13,705 

112,000 

Natick. 

New Bedford .. 

8.480 

26,875 

303,303 

1.086,000 

New Hampshire. 
Concord. 

13,836 

615.500 

Newburyport.. 

13.537 

428.706 

Dover. 

11,687 

458,830 

Newton. 

16.995 

993.591 

Manchester.... 

32.630 

929.000 

North Adams.. 

10.192 

267,894 

Nashua. 

13,397 

458,661 

Northampton.. 

12.172 

537.500 

Portsmouth ... 

9,690 

448,400 

Peabody. 

Pittsfiftid 

9,028 
13 367 

289,300 

385.341 

New Jersey. 
Bayonne. 

9.372 

650,275 

Oni 11 ey 

10.529 

65.980 

Bridgeton. 

8,729 

74,000 

Ssi.1p.iti 

27.598 

1.162.487 

Camden .. 

41.658 

1,164,900 

Somerville. 

24.985 

1.596.974 

Elizabeth. 

28,229 

5,512,638 

Springfield- 

33.340 

1,928.000: 

Hackensack... 

...... 

1,099,250 

Taunton. 

21,213 

449,735j 

Hoboken. 

30,999 




























































































612 


POPULATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS. 


POPULATION AND DEBTS OF CITIES, &c.-( Continued.) 


New Jersey. 
Jersey City.... 

Millville..'. 

Newark. 

NewBrunswick 

Orange . 

Paterson. 

Plainfield. 

Trenton. 

New York. 

Albany. 

Amsterdam ... 

Auburn. 

Binghamton ... 
Brookbaven ... 

Brooklyn. 

Buffalo. 

Cohoes . 

Elmira. 

Fishkill. 

Flushing . 

Greenburgh ... 
Hempstead.... 
Hornellsville .. 

Hudson. 

Huntington ... 

Ithaca. 

Jamaica. 

Johnstown .... 

Ki ngston. 

Lenox . 

Lockport. 

Long Isl’d City 
Middletown ... 

Morrisania_ 

New Lots. 

New York. 

Newburgh .... 
Ogdensburgh.. 

Oswego. 

Ovvego..... 

Oyster Bay.... 

Palmyra. 

Poughkeepsie . 

Port Jervis_ 

Rochester. 

Rome. 

Saratoga. 

Sanger ties. 

Schenectady... 

Seneca . 

Syracuse . 

Troy. 

Utica. 

Wallkill. 


Popula¬ 

tion. 

Net debt. 

18S0. 

Dollars. 

120.728 

15,598.435 

7, GOO 

37,000 

136,400 

9,070.032 

17,107 

1,618,946 

13,206 

253.832 

50,887 

1,359,500 

8,126 

45.500 

29,910 

1,664,501 

90.903 

3,138,500 

11,711 


21.924 

530.000 

17,315 

299,500 

11.544 


566.689 

38,040,000 

155.137 

8,211,934 

19,417 

141,214 

20.541 

270.400 

10,732 


15,919 


9,861 


18,160 


8,195 

54.400 

8.669 

321,250 

8.098 


9.105 

66,303 

10,089 


16,626 


18,342 

644,880 

10,249 


13,522 

108.667 

17,117 

950,000 



13,681 


1206.590 

109 425.414 

18,050 

313.400 

10.340 

135.000 

21,117 

1.264,224 

9,883 


11.923 


21.493 


20.207 

1,939.198 

4,824 

None. 

89.363 

5,701.686 

12,045 

160.000 

10,822 

297.600 

10.375 


13,675 

118.000 

2.877 

.] 

51.791 

1,351.500 

56.747 

958.296 

33.913 

766.000 

11,483 

...... 


New York (Cont'd) 

Watertown_ 

Water vliet_ 

West Troy_ 

Yonkers. 

North Carolina. 

New Berne_ 

Raleigh. 

Wilmington... 
Ohio. 

Akron. 

Bellaire. 

Canton. 

Chillicothe 

Cincinnati. 

Cleveland. 

Columbus. 

Dayton. 

Delaware. 

Fremont. 

Hamilton. 

Ironton. 

Mansfield. 

Newark. 

Piqua . 

Pomeroy. 

Portsmouth ... 

Sandusky . 

Springfield .... 
Steubenville... 

Tiffin. 

Toledo. 

Hrbana. 

Xenia. 

Youngstown .. 

Zanesville. 

Oregon. 

POl tl ilHu ...... 

Pennsylvania. 

Allegheny. 

Allentown. 

Altoona. 

Bethlehem .... 

Carbondale_ 

Carlisle. 

Chester. 

Columbia. 

Cornplanter... 

Danville. 

Easton. 

Erie.. 

Harrisburg_ 

Hickory. 

Lancaster. 

Lebanon . 


Popula¬ 

tion. 

Net debt. 

1880. 

Dollars. 

10.697 

407,500 

22.220 


11.532 

Nothing. 

18,892 

1,388,008 

6.443 

3.227 

14,110 

138.357 

17,361 

539,845 

16,512 

17.619 

8.025 

106.000 

12.258 

180,657 

10.938 

None. 

255,708 

21.992.500 

160.142 

4,076.946 

51,665 

1.259.1G2 

38,677 

1,101.520 

6,894 

77.300 

8,451 

44.000 

12,121 

48.067 

8,857 

243,758 

9,859 

195,737 

9.602 

55.402 

6,033 

294,219 

5.560 

151.000 

11,314 

317.809 

15,838 

381.215 

20,729 

58.627 

12,093 

30.190 

7,879 

55,500 

50,143 

3,232.660 

6,252 

32.903 

7.026 

66.187 

15,431 

193,406 

18,120 

529,097 

17,598 

76,500 

78.681 

1,596.429 

18.068 

430.443 

19.716 

368,830 

5,193 

140.700 

7.714 

9,369 

6.209 

139,100 

14.996 

357.084' 

8,312 


7,790 


11.924 

219.949 

27.730 

1,201,229 

30,762 

1,065,300 

25.769 

464.142 

8,778 

308.700 

























































































































POPULATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS. 


613 


POPULATION AND DEBTS OF CITIES, &c.- (Continued.) 



Popula¬ 

tion. 

Net debt. 


Popula¬ 

tion. 

Net debt. 

Pennsylvania. 

1880. 

Dollars. 

Texas. 

1880. 

Dollars. 

Lock Haven... 
Mahanoy. 

5,845 

7,181 

208,743 

Austin. 

Bren ham. 

10.960 

4.114 

10,358 

22,253 

106,744 

Mead vine. 

8.860 

77,699 

72,624 

Dallas. 

304.356 

1,023,249 

New Castle.... 

8,416 

Galveston. 

Norristown- 

13.064 

81,200; 

Houston. 

18.646 

1,501.591 

Oil Citv. 

7,315 

122.400 

San Antonio.. 

20,561 

155.266 

Philadelphia .. 

846,984 

16.251.696 

Sherman. 

9,248 

129.000 

Pittsburgh .... 
Pottsville. 

156,381 

13.253 

14,134,296 

Waco. 

Utah. 

7,296 

100,000 

Reading. 

43,280 

999.000 

Ogden City.... 


3,333 

Scranton . 

Shmnokin. 

45.850 

8.184 

325 202 
37,680 

Salt Lake City. 
Vermont. 

20,768 

67,000 

Titusville. 

9.046 

328.267 

Burlington_ 

11.364 

383.427 

Wilkeslmrre .. 
Williamsport.. 

23.339 

18.934 

95,096 

651.272 

Rutland. 

Virginia. 

12,149 

202,460 

York. 

Rhode Island. 

13,940 

33,000 

Alexandria.... 
Dan River. 

13.658 

8.382 

1,037,088 

Lincoln. 

13.765 

50,000 

Lynchburg.... 

15,959 

794.837 

Newport. 

15,693 

1.467 

116,408 

39,800 

Norfolk. 

21,966 

21,656 

2.187.371 

1,136.100 

N. Providence . 

Petersburg_ 

Pawtucket .... 

19.030 

935.000 

Portsmouth ... 

11.388 

283.014 

Providence_ 

Warwick. 

104.050 

12.163 

9,373.026 

57.500 

Richmond. 

West Virginia. 

63,803 

4,399,021 

Woonsocket... 
South Carolina. 
Charleston .... 

16,053 

49.999 

230,000 

4,129.102 

Parkersburg .. 

Wheeling. 

Wisconsin. 

6.582 

31,266 

531,882 

Columbia. 

St. James, 

10,040 

900,000 

Eau Claire .... 
Fond du Lac .. 

10,118 

13.091 

101.000 

1«5,000 

Goose Creek, 
St. John’s, 

Berkeley_ 

St. John’s, 
Colleton. 

10,615 


Green Bay_ 

Janesville. 

7.735 

9.018 

147,140 

34.000 

9,586 


La Crosse. 

Madison. 

14.505 

10,325 

135.000 

136.768 

10,388 


Milwaukee.... 

115.578 

2,160.289 

130.500 

Tennessee. 


Oshkosh. 

15,749 

Chattanooga... 

12.892 

71.556 

Racine. 

16.031 

218.512 

Knoxville. 

9,690 

212,583 

Sheboygan .... 

7,314 

230.000 

Memphis. 

Nashville. 

33.593 

43.461 

None. 

1.606,200 

Watertown- 

7,883 

229.400 

Total Population of 299 Cities and Towns. 

_ 11.876.146 

Aggregate Debt of 299 Cities and Towns. 

....$549,904,979 

* 


AREA AND POPULATION OF THE EARTH. 


Divisions. 

Area. 

Population. 

Pop. to 
Sq.M. 

America... 

14.700,000 

3.800.000 

95.495,500 

315,929.000 

834.707.000 

6* 

83 

Europe.... 

Asia .................................. 

15.000,000 

10.800.000 

55J 

19 

A frien _ __..._ 

205.679.000 

27,896,000 

Ot’pD nira .... 

4,500,000 

6 


Total. 

48,800,000 

1,479,706.500 

30§ 


























































































RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS OE THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES, 

From the organization of the Government to June 30, 1879. and the amount of Losses, and the ratio of such Losses per $1000 to 
the aggregate received and disbursed, arranged as nearly as practicable in periods of Administrations. Also, in the periods 
prior and subsequent to June 30, 1861. Prepared by the Treasury Department in answer to numerous inquiries. 


614 


RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS OF THE GOVERNMENT, 



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POPULATION OF UNITED STATES BY RACES, 


615 


POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, BY RACES, IN 1870 AND 1880. 



State’s and 
Territories 

Total 

Popul’n. 

1880. 

White. 

1880. 

Colored. 

4880. 

Chi¬ 

nese. 

18S0. 

Jnii'ns. 
civ. or 
taxed. 
1880. 

White. 

1870. 

Colored. 

1870. 

Chi¬ 

nese. 

1870. 

Indn». 
civ. or 
taxed. 
1870. 

1 

Alabama 

1,262,794 

661,986 

600,141 

4 

213 

521,384 

475,510 


98 

2 

Arizona 

40,441 

35,178 

138 

1,632 

3,493 

9,581 

26 

20 

31 

3 

Arkansas 

802,564 

591,641 

210,622 

134 

197 

362,115 

122,169 

98 

89 

4 

Caliiornia 

864,686 

767,266 

6,168 

75,122 

16,130 

499,424 

4,272 

49,310 

7,241 

6 

Colorado 

194,649 

191,452 

2,459 

610 

128 

39,221 

456 

7 

180 

C 

Conn. 

622,683 

610,884 

11,422 

130 

241 

527,549 

9,668 

2 

235 

7 

Dakota 

135,180 

133,177 

381 

238 

1,384 

12,887 

94 


1,200 

8 

Delaware 

146,654 

120,198 

26,456 



102,221 

22,794 



9 

Dist. ofC. 

177,638 

118,236 

59,378 

18 

6 

88,278 

43,404 

3 

15 

10 

Florida 

267 351 

141,249 

125,262 

18 

37 

96,057 

91,689 


2 

11 

Georgia 

1,539.048 

814,218 

724,654 

17 

94 

638,926 

545,142 

1 

40 

12 

Idaho 

32.611 

29,011 

58 

3,378 

164 

10,618 

60 

4,274 

47 

13 

Illinois 

3,078.769 

3,032,174 

46,248 

214 

133 

2,511,096 

28,762 

1 

32 

14 

Indiana 

1,978,362 

1,939,094 

38,998 

37 

233 

1,655,837 

24,560 


210 

15 

Iowa 

1,624.620 

1,614,510 

9,442 

47 

464 

1,188,207 

5,762 

3 

748 

1G 

Kansas 

995 966 

952,056 

43,096 

22 

792 

346,377 

17.108 


914 

17 

Kentucky 

1,648.708 

1,377,077 

271,162 

10 

50 

1,098,692 

222,210 

1 

108 

18 

Louisiana 

940,103 

455.063 

483,898 

483 

819 

362,065 

364,210 

71 

569 

19 

Maine 

648,945 

646,903 

1,427 

8 

607 

624,809 

1,606 

1 

499 

20 

Mar>land 

934.632 

724,718 

209,897 

6 

11 

605,497 

175,391 

2 

4 

21 

Mass. 

1,783,0)2 

1,764,082 

18,644 

256 

341 

1,443:156 

13,947 

97 

151 

22 

Michigan 

1,636 331 

1,614,078 

14,986 

29 

7,238 

1,167,282 

11,849 

2 

4,926 

23 

Minnes’ta 

780.806 

776,940 

1,558 

54 

2,254 

438,257 

759 


690 

24 

Mississ’pi 

1,131.592 

479,371 

650,337 

52 

1,832 

382,896 

444,201 

16 

809 

26 

Missouri 

2,468,864 

2,023,568 

1-45,046 

194 

96 

1,603,146 

118,071 

3 

75 

26 

M ontana 

39,157 

35,468 

202 

1,737 

1,750 

18,306 

183 

1,949 

157 

27 

Nebraska 

452,433 

449,805 

2,376 

18 

233 

122,117 

7S9 


87 

28 

Nevada 

62.265 

53,571 

465 

5,423 

2,803 

38,959 

357 

3,152 

23 

29 

N. IIamp. 

346,984 

346,261 

646 

14 

60 

317,697 

5S0 

.... 

23 

30 

N. Jersey 

1,130,983 

1,091,856 

38,796 

182 

58 

875,407 

30,658 

15 

16 

3i 

N. Mexico 

118,430 

107,188 

907 

55 

10,280 

90,393 

172 


1,309 

32 

New York 

5,083,810 

5,017,142 

64,943 

942 

783 

4,330,210 

52,081 

29 

439 

33 

N. Carol’a 

1,400,047 

867,467 

531,316 

1 

1,216 

678,470 

391,650 


1,241 

34 

Ohio 

3,198,239 

3,118,344 

79,665 

117 

113 

2,601,946 

63,213 

1 

100 

35 

Oregon 

174,767 

163,087 

493 

9,503 

1,679 

86,929 

346 

3,330 

318 

36 

Penh. 

4,282,786 

4,197,106 

85,342 

170 

168 

3,456,609 

65,294 

14 

34 

37 

Rhode I’d 

276,528 

269,933 

6,503 

27 

67 

212,219 

4,980 

• • • • 

154 

38 

S. Carol’a 

995,622 

391,258 

604,325 

9 

114 

289,667 

415,814 

1 

124 

39 

Term. 

1,542,463 

1,139.120 

402,992 

26 

326 

936,119 

322,331 

• • • • 

70 

40 

Texas 

1,592,574 

1,197,493 

394,007 

142 

932 

564,700 

253,475 

25 

379 

41 

Utah 

143,906 

142,381 

204 

518 

804 

86,044 

118 

445 

179 

42 

Vermont 

332,286 

331,243 

1,032 

• • • • 

11 

329,613 

924 

• • * • 

14 

43 

Virginia 

1,512,806 

880,739 

631,996 

6 

65 

712,089 

512,841 

4 

229 

44 

Washin’n 

75,120 

67,349 

357 

3,227 

4,187 

22,195 

207 

234 

1,319 

45 

West Va. 

618,443 

592,433 

25,729 

14 

17 

424,033 

17,980 

, . . . 

1 

46 

Wiscon’n 

1,315,480 

1,309,622 

2,724 

16 

3,118 

1,051,351 

2,113 

. . . . 

1,206 

47 

Wyoming 

20,788 

19,436 

299 

914 

139 

8,726 

183 

143 

66 


Total U. S. 

50,152.866 

43.402.408 

6,577.497 

106,679 

65,880 

33,592,245 

4,886,387 63,254 

125,731 


Per Cent, op Increase from 1870 to 1880. 


Total Population.30.06 per cent. 

White Population.28. _2 “ 

Colored Population.31.78 


Chinese Population.67.07 per cent. 

Indian Population (civilized or 
taxed). .156.02 “ 


r Note —The inhabitants of Alaska and the Indian Territory (both unorganized as yet) are not 
included in the above total. The census of Alaska in 1880 showed: White, 392; Creoles (issue of 
intermarriages between the whites and natives), 1,683; Aleuts, 1,960; innuits, li,48B; Indians, 
8,655; total, 30,178. 

The Indian Territory is estimated to contain 60,000 to 75,000 inhabitants. 

The Indians included in the census in each State and Territory are those reckoned as civil¬ 
ized or outside of tribal organizations. Indians not taxed are by law excluded from the census. 
Estimates of their numbers vary widely-from 200,000 to 350,000 (the latter as estimated in the 


census of 1870). 

r In the Chinese column have been reckoned a very few Japanese, East Indians, and Sandwich 
Islanders, not exeeeding 250 in all. -- 










































POPULAR AND ELECTORAL VOTE, 


€16 


POPULAR AND ELECTORAL VOTE EOR PRESIDENT, 1880. 


States. 

Gar¬ 

field. 

Rep. 

Han¬ 

cock. 

Dem. 

Weav¬ 

er. 

Gr. 

Scat¬ 

tering. 

G'rfd’s 

P.u’ty. 

H’ck's 

Plu'ty. 

Total 

Popular 

vote. 

Elect 

Gar¬ 

field. 

oral v 

Han¬ 

cock. 

Dte. 

To¬ 

tal. 

Alabama 

56,173 

90,687 

4,642 


.... 

31,509 

151,507 


10 

10 

Arkansas 

41,661 

60,489 

4,079 


.... 

18,828 

106,229 

«... 

6 

6 

California 

8(X348 

80,426 

3,392 


.... 

78 

164,166 

1 

5 

6 

Colorado 

27^450 

24,647 

1,435 


2,803 

.... 

53,532 

3 

. . . . 

3 

Connecticut 

67,073 

64,417 

868 

412 

2,656 

t . . , 

132,770 

6 

• • . • 

6 

Delaware 

14,150 

15,183 



1,033 

29,333 

.... 

3 

3 

Florida 

23,654 

27,964 


; 

.... 

4,310 

51,618 

. . . . 

4 

4 

Georgia 

52,648 

' 102,522 

481 


.... 

49,874 

155,651 

.... 

811 

11 

Illinois 

318,037 

277,321 

26,358 

596 

40,716 

. . . . 

622,312 

21 

• • • • 

21 

Indiana 

232,164 

225,528 

12,9S6 


6,636 


470,678 

15 

.... 

15 

Iowa 

183,904 

105,845 

32,327 

630 

78,059 

A • • • 

322,706 

11 

• • • • 

n 

Kansas 

121,520 

59,789 

19,710 


61,731 

.... 

201,019 

5 

• • • • 

5 

Kentucky 

104^50 

147,999 

11,493 

257 

. . . . 

43,149 

264,304 

• • . • 

12 

12 

Louisiana! 

3i;891 

65,310 



33,419 

97,201 

.... 

8 

8 

Maine2 

74,039 

65,171 

4,408 

235 

8,868 

143,853 

7 

.... 

7 

Maryland 

78,515 

93,706 

818 


. 

15,191 

173,039 

. . . . 

8 

8 

Massachusetts 

165’205 

111,960 

4.54S 

799 

53,245 

.... 

282,512 

13 

. . . . 

13 

Michigan 

185i190 

131,300 

3-1,795 

1,156 

53,890 

.... 

352,441 

11 

, , , , 

11 

Minnesota 

93,903 

53,315 

3,267 

286 

40,588 

.... 

150,771 

5 

. , . , 

5 

Mississippi 

34,854 

75,750 

5,797 

677 

. . . . 

40.896 

117,078 

, . . , 

8 

8 

Missouri 

153,567 

208,609 

35,045 


.... 

55,042 

397,221 

.... 

15 

15 

Nebraska 

54,979 

28,523 

3,853 


26,456 

87,355 

3 

.... 

3 

Nevada3 

8,732 

9,611 




879 

18,343 

.... 

3 

3 

N. Hampshire 

44,852 

40,794 

528 

189 

4,058 

. . . . 

86,363 

5 

, . . . 

5 

New Jersey 

120,555 

122,565 

2,617 

191 

2,010 

245,928 

. . . . 

9 

9 

New Yoik 

555,544 

534,511 

12,372 

2,177 

21,033 

1,104,605 

35 

.... 

35 

North Carolina 

115,878 

124,204 

1,136 


8,326 

241,218 

. 

10 

10 

Ohio 

375,048 

340,821 

6,456 

2,642 

34,227 

.... 

724.967 

22 

.... 

22 

Oregon 

20,619 

19,948 

249 

671 

.... 

40,816 

3 

.... 

3 

Pennsylvania 

444,704 

407,428 

20,668 

1,983 

37,276 

.... 

874,783 

29 

.... 

29 

Rhode Island 

18,195 

10,779 

236 

25 

7,416 

.... 

29,235 

4 


4 

South Carolina 

58,071 

112,312 

566 

7 

. . . . 

54,241 

170,956 


7 

7 

Tennessee 

107,677 

128,191 

5,916 

43 

.... 

20,514 

241,827 


12 

12 

Texast 

57,8-15 

156,228 

27,405 

• c • • 


98,383 

241,478 

. . . 

8 

8 

Vermonts 

45,090 

18,181 

1,212 

110 

26,909 

.... 

64,593 

5 

. 

5 

Virgin ia6 

84,020 

127,976 

139 

.... 

43,956 

212,135 


11 

11 

West Virginia 

46,243 

57,391 

9,079 

.... 

.... 

11,14s 

112,713 

.... 

5 

5 

Wisconsin 

144,397 

114,634 

7,980 

161 

29,763 

267,172 

10 

.... 

10 

Total 

4,442,950 

4,442,035 

306,867 

712,576 

537,001 

536,086 

9,204,42S 

214 

155 

069 

Plurality 

Per cent. 

915 

48.26 

48 25 

3.33 

.13 

915 

59 

58.00 

42.00 



Note. —Numerous variations In tlie Presidential vote are found in the different tables published. 
One principal source of discrepancy is in takiug the vote for different Electors, of either party. a» 
representing the vote for President. As the votes for Electors vary greatly, some tables take 
the highest vote cast for any one Elector; others, the highest cast for any Elector-at-iarge; and 
others still, the average vote cast for all the Electors of each party. 

1. In Louisiana, two Republican Electoral tickets were voted for: the regular Republican, and 
the Beattie, or Grant Republican. The latter receivedabout 9,740 votes, not enumerated above- 

2. In Maine, the Hancock Electoral ticket was styled “Fusion,” containing 3 Democratic and 
4 Greenback Electors. Besides this, a “Straight” Greenback Electoral ticket was voted for, 
with Wearer's name ntthe head. 

3. The above vote in Nevada and Tennessee is from the State Officers. Other statements vary 
largely in the vote of both parties. 

4. The footings in Texas are correct, as rendered to the Secretary of State, but three Counties 
made no return of votes for President (Denton, Galveston and McMullen). If these cast as many 
rotes for Electors as for Governor, it would increase Hancock's vote in the State, 5,820, and 
Garfield's 1,746, and Weaver’s 593. 

1 5. These figures are the finally corrected returns in the Office of the Secretary of State. 
Earlier statements gave Garfield 45,567 votes, and Hancock 18,316 votes. 

6. Two Democratic Electoral tickets were voted for in Virginia, t.he Regular or Debt-paying Han¬ 
cock Ticket, and the Re-adjuster or Mahone HaococK ticket. Both are added together above. 

7. Or the scattering votes, 10,305 were cast for Neal Dow, “Prohibition” candidate for Pres¬ 
ident. and 707 votes for John W. Phelps, “ American ” or Auti-Secret-Society candidate. 

8. The Electoral vote of Georgia was cast irregularly, on the 2d Wednesday of December, in¬ 
stead of the 1st Wednesday, as required by Act of Congress. In the count of the Electoral vote, 
February 9, 1881, Congress declared Hancock to ha ve reeeived 155 votes if Georgia were counted. 
And 144 votes if not counted; that in either case, Garfield had received a majority of the votes, 
6ad was duly elected. 








































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611 



































































































HEADS OF THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS, 


619 


HEADS OP THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE "WORLD. 


jGrovernxnents. 

Rulers. 

Title. 

Yr.oi 

Birtl 

Date of 
Accession. 

Argentine Republic .. 

Austria-Hungary. 

Belgium. 

Julio A. Roca. 

President.. 


June — 1880 

Franz Joseph I. 

Leopold II. 

Emperor... 
7\ i n cr 

1830 

1835 

Deer. 2.1648 
Dec. 10,1865 
June 1, 1880 
April 7,1831 

Bolivia. 

Nicholas Campero_ 

Pedro 11., Alcantara.. 

IPresident 

Brazil. 

Emneror... 

1825 

Chili. 

Anibal Pinto. 

President. 


‘Sept. 18,1876 
Jan.12,1875 
April 1,18S0 
Provisional. 
Nov. 15,1863 
Sept. 8, 1876 
Jan. 30,1879 

China.. 

Kwong Sbu. 

Emperor... 
President, 

1871 

Colombia. 

R. Nunez. 

Costa Rica. 

Tomas Guardia. 

President, 


Denmark. 

Christian IN ., 

Kins.' 

1818 

Ecuador_•.. 

Jose de Vintimilla.... 

President. 

France. 

Francois PJulesGrevy 

President.. 

1813 

Germauy. 

Anhalt. 

Wilhelm I. 

Friedrich. 

Emperor... 
Duke_ 

1797 

1831 

Jan. 18,1671 
May 22,1871 
Mar. 10 1664 

Bavaria. 

Ludwig II . 

King. 

1845 

Brunswick. 

Wilhelm I. 

Duke. 

1806 

A pi. 20, 1831 
Deer. 8,1875 
Nov. 8, 1859 
July 10,1867 
Aug. 3, 1853 
Jau. 29.1844 

Li one... 

G. F. Waldemar_ 

Prince_ 

1824 

Reuss-Greiz. 

Heinrich NXTT 

Prince. 

1846 

Reuss-Scbleiz. 

Heinrich XIV. 

Prince. 

1832 

Saxe-Altenburg. 

Ernst. 

Duke. 

1626 

Saxe-Coburg & Gotha 
Saxe-Meinin ,r en. 

Ernst II. 

Duke. 

1818 

Georg II . 

Duke. 

1826 

Sept. 30,1866 
Oct. 29, 1873 
Nov.21, 1660 
Nov.26, 1869 
Aug.19,1835 
July 17,1880 
June 25 1864 

Saxony. 

Albert. 

King. 

1828 

Sckaumburg-Lippe ... 
Sckwarzburg-Iiudolph 
Sohwarzburg-Sondera 

Adolf.._ 

Prince. 

1817 

Georg. 

Prince. 

1838 

Gunther II. 

Prince. 

1801 

AValdeck. 

Georg Victor. 

Prince. 

1830 

W urtembui >cr . 

Kuril. 

Kin <r 

1823 

Gt. Britain & Ireland. 

Victoria I. 

Queen &E.I 

1819 

June20,1837 

Greece. 

Georgios I. 

Kin". 

1845 

•June 6, 1863 
May 7, 1873 
Feb. 12,1874 
May 29,1877 
Jan. 9, 1878 
Feb. 13.1867 
Deer. 1,1680 

Gautemala.. 

J. Ruflno Barrios. 

President.. 


TTn.wniia.Ti Islands _ 

Kalakaua I.... 

Kin 0- . 

1836 

Honduras. 

M. A. Soto. 

President.. 


Italy.. 

Humbert I... 

King. 

1844 

Japan.... 

Mutsu Hito. 

Mikado.... 

1852 

Mexico.. 

Manuel Gonzalez. 

President-. 

"Morocco 

Muley-Hassan. 

Sultan. 

1831 

Sept.25,1873 
Mar. 17,1849 

Netherlands. 

Willem III... 

King. 

1817 

Nic,a ratlin. 

Joaquin Zavala. 

President.. 


Mar. 1, 1879 

Paraguay. 

Persia_............. 

Iligrnio Uriarto. 

Nassr-ed-Deen. 

President.. 
Shah. 

1829 

Apr. 12.1877 
Sept. 10,1848 
Aug. 2, 1876 
Nov.11,1861 

Peru. 

Mariano Ignacio Prado 

President.. 

.... 

Port 11 roil. .. 

Luis I. 

King. 

1838 

Russia. 

Alexander III . 

Emperor_ 


Mar. 14,1881 

Sa.n Doniiii<rn 

Bonaventura Baez._ 

President.. 


Dec. 10,1876 
Apr. 30,1876 
Dec. 30.1874 

San Salvador. 

Spain ... 

Rafael Znldivar . 

President,. 


Alfonso NTT. 

King. 

1857 

Sweden and Norway.. 

Switzerland. 

Turkey. 

Oscar II. 

R. Hammer . .. 

King. 

President 

1829 

Sept.18,1872 
Jau. 1, 1879 
Aug.31,1875 

Abdul-Hamid-Khan .. 

Sultan. 

1842 

E^vnt.. 

Tewfik Pacha. 

Khedive... 

1830 

June 25,1879 

Koiimama .. 

Karl I., Domini. 

Prince..... 

1839! May 10,1866 
1855] July 2, 1868 

Servia. 

Milan IV. Obrenovic. 

Prince. 

TTnited States. 

Chester A. Arthur . 

President.. 

.... Sent. 2a 1881 

TTruguay. 

F. A. Vidal. 

President.. 


Mar. 17,1880 

Venezuela.Guzman Blanco. 

President.. 

...JEeb. 26.1879 


































































































































































620 


THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 


THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

The Dominion of Canada forms (since 18C7) a confederate government, 
•with a representative parliament meeting annually at Ottawa, the capital. 
The members of the Senate, 78 in number, are nominated tor hteby tne 
summons of the Governor-General. The House of Commons,with 206 mem¬ 
bers, is elected by the people for five years, th« right of suffrage being sub- 
ject to a property qualification. The Governor-General (appointed in lo4o) 
is the Marquis of Lome; salary, $50,000. . , . . . R 

The funded debt in 1877 was $149,397,110, drawing interest from 4 to 6 
per cent, having increased to this amount from 80 millions in 1867. lhe 
revenue for the fiscal year ending Juno 30, 1877, was $22,059,2(4. derived 
from the following principal sources: customs, $12,546,988; excise, $4,941,838; 
public works, including railways and canals. $1,870.076; post-office, $1,114,946. 
The expenditure for 1877 was $34,362,408, of which $3,000,000 was for the 
redemption of the debt, $3,000,000 for the Pacific and other railwax con¬ 
structions, and $4,000,000 for other public works. The net ordinary ex- 
penses amounted to $23,587,368, the principal item being for interest on the 
public debt, $6,797,227. 

Commerce of Canada for 10 years— 1868-1877. 


Statement showing the values of total Exports, Imports, and Goods entered 
for Consumption in the Dominiou, and duty collected for ten years. 


Year ending Juno 30. 

Total 

Exports. 

Total 

Imports. 

Entered for 
Consumpt'u 

Duty. 

1868. 

1869 . 

1870 . 

1871 . 

1872 . 

1873 . 

1874 . 

1875 . 

1876 . 

1877 . 

Aggregate for 10 years 

$57,567,883 

60,474,781 

73,573,490 

74,173,618 

82,639,663 

89,789,922 

89,351,928 

77,886,979 

80,966,435 

75,875,393 

$73,459,644 

70,415,165 

74,814,339 

96,092,971 

111,430,527 

128,011,281 

128,213,582 

123,070,283 

93,210,346 

99,327,962 

$71,985,306 

67,402,170 

71,237,663 

86.947.482 
107,709,116 
127,514,594 
127,404.169 
119,618,657 

94.733.218 

96.300.483 

$ 8.819,431 63 
8.298,909 71 
9.462,940 44 
11.843,655 75 
13.045.493 50 
13.017,730 17 
14,421,882 67 
15,301.382 12 
12.833,114 48 
12,548,451 09 

$762,300,097 

$998,046,100 

$970,852,798 

$119,652,991 56 


Of the imports, 40 millions came from Great Britain, 51 millions from the 
United States, and $5,300,000 from all other countries. 

Of the exports, $41,500,000 went to Great Britain, 26 millions to the 
United States, and 8 millions to all other countries. The Canadian lumber 
trade is of great extent and value, and from 94 to 96 per cent of its aggre¬ 
gate exports go to the United States. 

The merchant shipping of the Dominion, Jan. 1, 1878, numbered 7,362 
vessels, measuring 1,310.468 tons, and is steadily increasing. The canals of 
Canada are extensivo and profitable, and are managed by the Government. 
The Welland canal charges 20 cents per ton on grain and other bulky 
freights, and 2|_ cents a ton on each vessel. The total tonnage passing the 
Welland canal in 1877 was 1,216,659 tons, and that through the St. Lawrenc® 
canals, 1,341,156 tons. The revenue from all the canals in 1877 was $373,954. 

The savings banks of Canada in 1877 numbered 287 post-office and gov¬ 
ernment savings banks (first started in 1868), with deposits amounting to 
$7,470,631, on which the interest allowed depositors was $294,224. 

The total money value of the fisheries in 1877 was $11,422,501.77. Of 
this aggregate, the value of codfish figures at about $3,360,000; mackerel, 
$1,670,000; herring, $1,500,000; and lobsters, $1,213,000. 

The Indian population of Canada, as reported by the Superintendent of 
Indian Affairs in 1877, was 99,650, . 






































RAILROADS OF THE WORLD, 


62* 


THE RAILROADS OF THE WORLD IN 1377-78. 


Countries. 

Miles. 

Total Cost. 

Cost 

per 

mile. 

Nortii America . < 

Total. 

: United States. 

Canada. 

' Mexico. 

79,208 

4,929 

403 

$4,180,191,727 

317,795.4G8 

38.816.154 

$52,774 

64,474 

96.318 

84,540 

$4,537,603,349 

4 4 

Middle America < 

Honduras. 

Costa Rica... 

Cuba (Spanish). 

Jamaica (British). 

. Panama (Colombia)... 

56 

29 

459 

26 

48 

$ 4,963,600 
2,817,300 
32,698.930 
1.200.000 
12.000.000 

$88,635 

97,148 

71,239 

41,154 

250,000 

Total. 


C18 

$53,679,830 

$87,022 



South America . <; 

Colombia. 

Ecuador. 

Venezuela. 

Guiana (British). 

Brazil. 

Peru. 

Chili. 

Argentine Republic.. 
Paraguay... 

42 

76 

39 

21 

1,324 

1,744 

977 

1,466 

47 

231 

$ 3.297,619 
5,781,958 
2.972.013 
1,375,000 
139,059,891 
201,719.073 
90,302,156 
111.276.992 
2.694.698 
14,529,701 

$78,514 

76.078 

76,205 

65,476 

105,030 

115,671 

92,428 

75.912 

57.334 

62.899 

Uruguay . 

Total. 


5.967 

$573,009,701 

$96,029 



Europe. < 

' Gt. Britain &. Ireland . 

France . 

Spain.. 

Portugal. 

Belgium. 

Holland. 

Denmark... 

Sweden. 

Norway. 

Russia. 

Germany. 

Austria. 

Hungary. 

Switzerland. 

Italy. 

Turkey. 

Roumania. 

Greece. 

17,092 

14,078 

4,112 

709 

2,208 

1,262 

819 

2,517 

363 

13,229 

18,471 

6,979 

3.967 

1,341 

4,849 

997 

791 

7 

$3,368,793,000 

1,593,534.595 

375,454.374 

55.561.976 
338.894.897 
113.254.192 

58.406.976 
156.325.836 

22.231.397 

902.4C9.151 

1,779,200.604 

679.152.022 

305.225.7'i2 

90.922.482 

478,426.452 

102,111.743 

77,684.982 

500,700 

$197,097 

113,193 

91,307 

78,364 

153,485 

89,741 

71,315 

62.108 

61.519 

68.219 

96.324 

97,318 

76.616 

67.802 

98.656 

102.419 

98.211 

71.429 

Total... 


93,791 

10.408.152.951 

$110,971 


(Turkey in Asia. 

249 

$ 20,817,610 

$ 83.607 


India (British). 

6,937 

546,824,335 

78.823 


Ceylon (British). 

92 

9.987,370 

108.556 


Java (Dutch). 

296 

17.226,916 

58.197 


Philippines (Spanish) . 

279 

17,475.723 

62.630 


China...". 

10 

200,000 

20.000 


.Japan . 

67 

4,187.500 

62.500 



7,930 

$616,719,454 

$77,774 











































































































622 


RAILROADS.-COAL PRODUCTION. 


' 


THE RAILROADS OF THE WORLD IN 1877-78. 


Countries- 

Miles. 

Total Cost. 

Cost 

per 

mile. 

Africa. 

Egypt. 

Tunis. 

Algeria (French). 

Cape Colony (British) - 

Namaqualand. 

Natal (British). 

Mauritius. 

1,163 

42 

587 

149 

93 

6 

66 

$72,022,264 

2,213.680 

27,948,244 

7,463,589 

813.619 

258,845 

1,857,595 

$61,928 

52.706 

47.612 

50.051 

8,749 

43,131 

28,145 

Total. 

2,106 

$112,577,836 

$53,456 

Australasia .... < 

New South Wales- 

Queensland. 

Victoria. 

South Australia. 

Western Australia ... 

Tasmania. 

Now Zealand. 

554 

298 

702 

327 

38 

167 

579 

$43,485,676 

18,181.874 

68,848,580 

16,057,989 

1,661.291 

7,959,628 

27,078,116 

$78,494 

61.013 

97,790 

49,107 

43.716 

47.662 

46,767 

Total. 

2,665 

$183,273,154 

$68,771 

Grand Total. 

197,617 

16.485.015,775 

$83,419 


COAL PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD. 

Showing the production of the principal countries biennially, from 1870 
to 1876, the returns for the latter being the latest obtainable for all the 
places mentioned:— 



Sq. m, 
Coal 
Lands. 

1870. 

1872. 

1874. 

1876. 


Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Great Britain. 

11.900 

110,431,192 

123,497,316 

125,067,916 

133.344,766 

United States. 

192,000 

32.863,690 

45,000,000 

47.872,963 

49,005,748 

Germany. 

1,770 

23,316,238 

42.324,466 

40.655.332 

43.364,968 

France . 

2,086 

6,550,000 

15,899,005 

17.059.547 

17.047.760 

Belgium. 

510 

13,697,118 

15,158,948 

14.669,029 

15,500,000 

Austria. 

1.800 

6,443,575 

10,389,952 

11,000.000 

11,500.000 

Russia. 

30.000 

817.008 

1,097.832 

1.343.558 

1,750,000 

Spain... 

Portugal. 

3,501 

414,482 

570,000 

18.000 

880.950 

600.000 

18,000 

872,720 

' 500.000 
18 000 

Nova Scotia. 

18,000 

. 625,769 

709,646 

Australia. 

24.840 

868.564 

1,040.154 

1,304,567 

1.600,000 

India. 

2,004 

500.000 

600.000 

850,000 

1.000,000 

Japan. 

5,000 

390 


84,000 

75.000 

390.000 

81.397 

350.000 

140.087 

Vancouver Island. 

29.863 

Other countries. 

.... 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

1.000,000 

1.000,000 

Totals. 


197.557.499 258,141,623 

262,785.029 

276.830,965 






























































































RATE OF MORTALITY, 


&23 


BATE OF MORTALITY.—EXPECTATION OF LIFE AT ALL AGES. 

The Carlisle Tables , shewing how many persons out o/lO.OOO will annually die, 
on the average, until all are deceased; also , the expectation of life at all ages . 


Age. 

Number 

Alive. 

Deaths 

each 

year. 

Expecta¬ 

tion. 

Years. 

Age. 

Number 

Alive. 

Deaths 

each 

year. 

Expec¬ 

tation. 

Years. 

Birth. 

10.000 

1,539 

38.72 

53 

4.211 

68 

18.97 

1 

8,461 

682 

44.68 

54 

4.143 

70 

18.28 

2 

7,779 

505 

47.54 

55 

4,073 

73 

17.60 

3 

7,274 

276 

49.81 

56 

4,000 

76 

16.90 

4 

6,998 

201 

50.75 

57 

3,924 

82 

16.20 

6 

6,797 

121 

51.24 

58 

3,842 

93 

15 54 

6 

6,676 

82 

51.16 

69 

3.749 

106 

14.91 

7 

6.594 

58 

50.80 

60 

3.633 

122 

14.33 

8 

6,536 

43 

50.24 

61 

3,521 

126 

13.81 

9 

6,493 

33 

49.57 

62 

3 395 

127 

13.31 

10 

6,460 

29 

48.82 

63 

3,268 

125 

12.80 

i 1 

6,431 

31 

48.03 

64 

3,143 

125 

12.29 

12 

6,400 

32 

47.27 

65 

3.018 

124 

11.80 

13 

6,368 

33 

46.50 

60 

2.894 

123 

11.30 

14 

6,335 

35 

45.74 

67 

2.771 

123 

10.74 

15 

6,300 

39 

45.00 

68 

2,648 

123 

10.22 

16 

6,261 

42 

44.27 

69 

2,525 

124 

9.70 

17 

6,219 

43 

43.57 

70 

2.401 

124 

9.14 

18 

6,176 

43 

42.87 

71 

2.277 

134 

8.64 

19 

6,133 

43 

42.16 

72 

2,143 

146 

8.15 

20 

6,090 

43 

41.45 

73 

1.997 

156 

7.71 

21 

6,047 

42 

40.74 

74 

1,841 

166 

7.32 

22 

6,005 

42 

40.03 

75 

1,675 

160 

7.00 

23 

5,963 

42 

39.30 

76 

1.515 

156 

6.70 

24 

5,921 

42 

38.59 

77 

1,359 

146 

6.40 

25 

5.879 

43 

37.85 

78 

1,213 

132 

6.11 

26 

5.836 

43 

37.13 

79 

1,081 

128 

5.80 

27 

5,793 

45 

36.40 

80 

953 

116 

5.50 

28 

5,748 

50 

35.69 

81 

837 

112 

5.20 

29 

5,698 

56 

35.00 

82 

725 

102 

4.92 

30 

5,642 

57 

34.33 

83 

623 

94 

4.65 

31 

5.585 

57 

33.70 

84 

529 

84 

4.39 

32 

5,528 

56 

33.02 

85 

445 

78 

4.12 

33 

5,472 

55 

32.35 

' 86 

367 

71 

3.90 

34 

5,417 

55 

31.68 

87 

296 

64 

3.70 

3o 

5,362 

55 

31.00 

88 

232 

51 

3.39 

36 

5,307 

56 

30.31 

89 

181 

39 

3.40 

37 

5,251 

57 

29.63 

90 

142 

37 

3.29 

38 

5,194 

58 

28.95 

91 

105 

30 

3.27 

39 

5,136 

61 

28.27 

92 

75 

21 

3.37 

40 

5.075 

66 

27.60 

93 

54 

14 

3.50 

41 

5,009 

69 

26.97 

94 

40 

10 

3.52 

42 

4,940 

71 

26.33 

95 

30 

7 

3.53 

43 

4.869 

71 

25.71 

96 

23 

5 

3.45 

44 

4,798 

71 

25.08 

97 

18 

4 

3.27 

45 

4,727 

70 

24.45 

98 

14 

3 

3.07 

46 

4,657 

69 

23.81 

99 

11 

2 

2.77 

47 

4,588 

67 

23.16 

100 

9 

2 

2.27 

48 

4,521 

63 

22.50 

101 

7 

o 

A* 

1.80 

4;) 

4,458 

61 

21.81 

102 

5 

2 

1.30 

60 

4,397 

59 

21.10 

103 

3 

2 

0.83 

61 

4,338 

62 

20.39 

104 

1 

1 

0.50 

62 

4,276 

65 

19.68 

[See note on 

pajre 58 

•] 












































624 


FINANCIAL CONDITION OF NATIONS, 


DEBTS, REVENUES, EXPENDITURES, AND COMMERCE OP 

NATIONS. 


Countries. 


Public 

Debt. 


Argentine Rep 
Austria proper 
Austria-Hung. 

Belgium. 

Bolivia. 

Brazil. 

Canada. 

Cliili. 

China. 

Colombia. 

Denmark. 

Ecuador . 

Egypt. 

France. 

Germany. 

Gt.Britain & Ir 

Greece. 

Guiana. 


$ 68,416,043 
1,419.096,072 
205,999.970 
232,684,553 
17,500.000 
368.351.139 
112,248,378 
50,677.600 
3,200,000 
15,399,304 
52.000,000 
17,500.000 
450.540.000 
4,695.600.000 
30.000.000 
3,888.907.980 
98,012.000 
460,000 


Hawaiian Islds 


548.022 


Hungary prop. 
India, British.. 

Italy. 

Japan . 

Luxembourg.. 

Mexico. 

Netherlands .. 

Norway. 

Paraguay. 

Peru. 

Persia. 

Portugal. 

Roumania. 

Russia. 

Servia. 

Siam. 

Spain. 

Sweden. 

Switzerland... 

Turkey. 

United States . 

Uruguay. 

Venezuela. 


274.358,915 
576.634,330 
1,977,117,845 
145,000.000 
2.400.000 
395,500,000 
391,242,322 
13.526,128 
12,098,417 
213,482.680 
No debt. 
428.977,613 
90,000.000 
2,020.092,043 
5,000,000 


2,401,612,001 

39.241,142 

6.225,000 

1,212,772.200 

2,028,648,111 

43.615,000 

62,659,687 


Total debts. .$24,097,349,195 


Revenue. 


$20,683,537 
186,776.170 
60,000,000 
50,048,972 
2,929,574 
72,548,454 
22,700,000 
21.294,383 
230,000,000 
3,114,619 
13,464.066 
20.800.000 
54.820.818 
548, G05,716 
135,584,249 
398.825,180 
7,765.360 
1,580.000 
504.095 
106,069,258 
272,649.885 
279.550.000 
63.120.600 
1.438.660 
23.807,671 
43.973,345 
11,364.220 
609.000 
29.801.195 
8.240,000 
29.568.816 
19,578,885 
489.377,280 
2.968,422 
4.000,000 
131.500,000 
23.563.201 
8.297,480 
88,764,050 
257,763,879 
6.965,683 
3,549,000 


Expendi¬ 

tures. 


Imports. 


Exports 


$20,663,337 

202,035,039 

58.845,695 

49.045,128 

4.505.504 

67.789.297 

24.100,000 

22,052,187 


2.779.410 
13.074,620 
21 500.455 
54.737,670 
569,334,102 
135.000.000 
412.017,475 
7.832.768 
4,580,000 
460.000 
116.902.036 


$ 34,910,290 


258,450,000 

258,504,000 

5.750.000 

88,045,520 

93,200,000 

39,050,197 

105,000,000 

6,949,028 

50,311,240 

7,596.264 

29,000.000 

882,360.000 

918,850.000 

1,969,695,885 

24,073,400 

1,811,770 

1,682,000 


$ 44,041,131 


204,800,000 

222.920.400 
5,000.000 

104,232,800 
89,851,328 
37,139,961 
114 000.000 
9,994,386 
33,933,640 
3,913,536 
68,000,000 
961.540.000 
608,200.000 
1,263,883.010 
15,097,000 
2.241.040 
2,090,000 


292.503.145 

278.121,440 

62.993.850 


244,000,000 

265.899.000 

24,087,515 


325,600,000 

213.371,000 

27,669,465 


1.409,344 
24.891.522 
48.785,061 
10,726.500 
750.000 
33,755.375 
8.750.000 
29.720.336 
19.578.885 
430.557.403 
2.924.779 
4.000.000 
131,824.000 
21.872.193 

8.524.400 
140.000.000 
236.964.327 
6.800,000 
3 §42,500 


29.062,407 

305.416,000 

52,017,280 

565,595 


5.625,000 

38,131,520 

16,200,000 

365.426,400 

6,197,000 

7,100.000 

66,670,000 

85.906.800 
Not given. 

72,430,000 

466,872,846 

21.917.800 

12,000 000 


31,659,151 
226,750,000 
33,933,640 
607,653 
37,500,000 
2,813,000 
26,448 660 
28,440,000 
286,484,000 
5,500,000 
8,300,000 
75,564,000 
62.532,960 
Not given. 
51.000.000 
739.107,578 
1 a 953,000 
17,000,000 


NOTE TO PAGE 57. 

The rate of mortality of males of all ages is 1 in 40; and of females 1 in 
42, nearly. The expectation of life is thus reckoned at about 5 per cent 
longer for women than for men. 























































4 


THE ARMIES OF THE WORLD. 625 

THE ARMIES OF THE WORLD. 


Countries. 

Population. 

Regular 

Army. 

War 

Footing. 

AnnnalCost 
of Army. 

Cost 

per 

head. 

Per ct 
total 
expen 
diture 

Austria-Hung’y. 

37,350,000 

296,218 

1,021,692 

$50,680,000 

$1 35 

86.12 

Argentine Rep.. 

1,812,490 

8,283 


*4,514,018 

*2 49 

*21.84 

Belgium. 

5,336.185 

46.277 

103,683 

8,787,909 

1 64 

17.91 

Bolivia. 

2,000,000 

4,022 


1,126 916 

56 

25 01 

Brazil. 

11,108,291 

16,500 

32.000 

10,862,496 

97 

16.02 

Canada. 

3,672.116 

3,000 

655,000 

1,013,944 

27 

4.20 

Chili. 

2,3:53,568 

3,516 

28,274 




China. 

433 500,000 

700,000 

1,260,000 




Colombia. 

2,774,000 

2.600 

30,000 

288,000 

10 

10.36 

Denmark. 

1,903,000 

35,703 

50,000 

2,406,109 

1 26 

18.40 

Egypt. 

17,100,000 

62,920 

128,000 

*4,452,422 

*26 

*8.13 

France. 

36,905,788 

470,600 

1,750.000 

100,007,623 

2 70 

19.25 

Germany. 

42,727,360 

419,659 

1,034,524 

92,572,403 

2 16 

68.57 

Great Britain ... 

34,242,966 

133,720 

370.561 

65,161,015 

1 90 

16.68 

Greece. 

1,457,894 

12,397 

30,000 

1,494,860 

1 02 

19.08 

India, British.... 

191,168,412 

58,170 

144,700 

76,875,960 

40 

28.21 

Italy. 

27,769,475 

199,577 

867,509 

37,983,755 

1 36 

13.65 

J apan. 

34,338,404 

35,380 

50,240 

7,506,000 

21 

11.91 

Luxembourg.... 

205,158 

513 


100,480 

48 

7.12 

Mexico. 

9,276,079 

22.387 


*10,554,745 

*1 13 

*42.40 

Netherlands. 

3,865,456 

61,803 

160,000 

10,266,990 

2 65 

21.04 

Norway. 

1,807,555 

12,750 

18,000 

1,480,760 

81 

13.80 

Persia. 

6,000,000 

28,400 

108,500 

3,400,000 

56 

37.71 

Peru. 

3.000,000 

13,200 





Portugal. 

4,057,538 

35,733 

75,000 

4,342,928 

1 07 

14.61 

Roumania. 

5,073,000 

130,158 

144,668 

3,310,198 

65 

16.90 

Russia. 

72,392,927 

787,900 

1,671,674 

144,215,615 

1 99 

35.12 

Servia. 

1,366,923 

14,150 

150,000 

869,138 

63 

29.71 

Spain. 

16,526.511 

330,000 

400,000 

49,146,491 

2 97 

37.23 

Sweden. 

4,429,713 

36,495 

156,970 

3,579,940 

80 

16.36 

Switzerland. 

2,759,854 

106,102 

203,262 

2,419,213 

87 

28.37 

Turkey. 

9,573,000 

157,667 

618,100 

24,763.095 

2 58 

17.68 

United States ... 

50,152.866 

26,914 

t3,759,693 

37,082,735 

95 

15.53 

Uruguay. 

445,000 

4,060 

24,000 

*2,364,100 

*5 31 

*34.76 

Venezuela. 

1,784,197 

5,494 






Note.— The last column shows the ratio which the military expenditure 
bears to the total annual expenditure of each nation. 

* Army and Navy. t Militia force, plus the regular anny. 

























































626 NAVIES AND MERCHANT 1 SHIPPING. 

THE NAVIES OE THE WORLD. 


Countries. 

No. of 
Vessels 

No. of 
Men. 

Cost of 
Navy. 

Argentine Rep. 

28 

3,135 

$ 842.362 

Austria-Hung’v 

(38 

6,319 

4,705,095 

Belgium. 

10 

172 


Bolivia. 

37 



Brazil. 

03 

6,184 

9,994,147 

Canada. 

7 


. 

Chili.. 

15 

840 


China. 

38 



Denmark. 

33 

1,125 

1,200,000 

Egypt. 

14 



Erance. 

226 

50,517 

33,178,699 

Germany. 

60 

8,051 

1,192.325 

Gt. Britain Air. 

531 

81,447 

56,445,000 

Greece. 

21 

652 

391,978 


Countries. 

No. of 

Vessels 

No. of 
Men. 

Cost of 
Navy. 

Italy. 

66 

11,880 

$7,543,388 

Japan . 

21 

3,944 

2.700,000 

Mexico . 

4 


*10.554.745 

Netherlands 

105 

4,996 

5,780.216 

Norway. 

119 

4,342 

652,340 

Bern 

18 



Portugal- 

37 

3,853 

1.585,494 

Roumania... 

9 

266 


Russia. 

223 

30.039 

20,030,704 

Spain. 

138 

14,648 

6,536,315 

Sweden. 

141 

6,141 

1,352,792 

Turkey. 

170 

6,000 





United States 

146 

8,684 

14,077,974 


* Army and Navy, 


MERCHANT SHIPPING OF THE WORLD IN 1876. 


Countries. 

Sailing 
V essels. 

Tonnage. 

Steam 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Total 

Tonnage. 

British. 

20.265 

5,807.365 

3,299 

3,362,992 

9,170,357 

United States .. 

7.288 

2,390,521 

605 

789,728 

3.180,249 

Norwegian. 

4,749 

1,410.903 

122 

55,874 

1.466,777 

Italian. 

4,601 

1.292.076 

114 

97,582 

1.389.658 

German. 

3,456 

875,995 

226 

226,888 

1.102.853 

Erench . 

3,858 

725.048 

314 

334.334 

1.059.382 

Spanish. 

2,915 

557,320 

230 

176.250 

733.570 

Greek. 

2,121 

426.905 

11 

7,133 

434.038 

Dutch. 

1,432 

399.993 

126 

134.600 

534.593 

Swedish. 

2,121 

399.128 

219 

88,660 

487,783 

Russian. 

1.785 

391.952 

151 

105,962 

497,914 

Austrian. 

983 

338.684 

78 

81.269 

419,953 

Danish. 

1,348 

188.953 

87 

60.697 

249.650 

Portuguese. 

456 

107.016 

26 

22.277 

129,293 

{South American 

273 

95.459 

81 

59,263 

154.722 

Central Ameri’n 

153 

57,944 

6 

3,132 

61,076 

Turk. & Egypt’n 
Belgian..... 

205 

54 

4&289 

23,344 

30 

35 

28,264 

40,700 

76,553 

64,044 

Asiatic. 

Liberian. 

42 

3 

16,019 

454 

n 
• • • 

10,877 

26,996 

454 



































































































NATIONAL FINANCES AND COMMENCE 


6^.7 


NATIONAL DEBTS, EXPENDITURE, AND COMMERCE* PER * 

CAPITA, OF NATIONS. 


Countries. 

Debt 
per head. 

Annual * 
expenditure 
per head. 

Annual 
imports 
per head. 

Annual 
exports 
per head. 

Argentine Republic.... 

$39.07 

$12.04 

$20.31 

$25.66 

Austria-Hu u gary. 

5.73 

1.63 

7.19 

5.70 

Austria proper. 

65.26 

9.29 



Hungary proper. 

17.68 

7.53 



Belgium. 

48.08 

10.13 

53.41 

46.06 

Bolivia. 

10.04 

2.58 

3.30 

2.08 

Brazil. 

36.43 

6.70 

8.71 

10.31 

Canada. 

31.16 

6.69 

25.87 

24.94 

Chili. 

24.49 

10.66 

18.21 

17.95 

Colombia. 

5.22 

.94 

2.35 

3.38 

Denmark. 

27.19 

6.83 

26.31 

17.95 

Ecuador. 

20.20 

24.36 

8.77 

4.51 

Egypt. 

85.82 

10.42 

5.52 

12.94 

France. 

127.23 

14.07 

24.17 

26.05 

Germany. 

.70 

3.15 

21.54 

14.21 

Prussia. 

10.55 

6.33 



Great Britain & Ireland 

114.62 

12.35 

59.11 

40.59 

Greece ....:. 

27.50 

5.35 

16.49 

10.30 

India, British. 

3.01 

1.42 

.93 

1.48 

Italy. 

71.94 

10.12 

9.67 

8.85 

Mexico. 

42.63 

2.68 

3.13 

3.41 

Netherlands. 

101.21 

11.37 

71.27 

67.70 

Norway. 

7.48 

5.91 

28.77 

18.77 

Paraguay. 

54.72 

3.39 

2.55 

2.74 

Peru. 

79.82 

12.62 

m m m . 

14.02 

Portugal. 

96.84 

6.70 

8.60 

5.97 

Roumania. 

11.82 

3.85 

3.19 

5.60 

Russia. 

16.33 

4.83 

4.22 

3.23 

Servia. 

3.61 

1.43 

4.58 

4.06 

Spain. 

142.71 

7.83 

3.96 

4.48 

Sweden. 

8.86 

4.93 

19.39 

14.11 

Switzerland. 

2.25 

3.08 

m m m m 

m m m m 

Turkey. 

31.70 

4.38 

2.23 

1.59 

United States. 

52.56 

6.13 

12.64 

16.92 

Uruguay . 

98.00 

15.28 

49.25 

38.09 

Venezuela. 

35.11 

2.04 

6.72 

9.52 


UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1872-7S. 

The following is a statement of the aggregate number of this class of 
institutions, with instructors and students, a3 reported to the Bureau of 
Education each year, from 1870 to 1876, inclusive:— 



1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

1876. 

Number of institutions. 

Number of instructors. 

Number of students. 

266 
2 823 

290 

2.962 

49,827 

298 

3.040 

45,617 

323 
3.106 
52,053 

343 

3,783 

56,692 

355 

3,999 

58.894 

356 

3.920 

56,481 










































































623 


WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 


WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OE THE UNITED STATES AND 

OTHER COUNTRIES. 

Congress adopted the decimal system in the subdivision of moneys. In 
283G a law was passed for regulating the Weights and Measures of the 
Union, by which the Secretary of the Treasury was directed to supply 
standards of weights, of length, and of capacity, according to the standards 
of Great Britain, to the Governors of States and revenue-collectors. Mr. 
John Quincy Adams had reported, in 1821, in favor of the British standards, 
because they were in general use, and a change to the decimal principle, as 
had been effected in France, would be attended with great embarrassment. 
The measure of time and circular motion is the same in America and Eu¬ 
rope. The Troy weight of England was adopted in the United States for 
weighing coin and bullion. Our apothecaries compound their medicines by 
the Troy pound and a subdivision of their own. The Avoirdupois weight 
used in England is also our legal standard for weighing all other articles 
bought or sold by weight. The British and the United States statute acre, 
sq. yard, sq. foot, and sq. inch, and the mile, yard, foot, and inch are tho 
same. 

Congress retains the old English wine gallon as a measure for liquids, 
and the Winchester bushel for grain, &c., but England has abandoned both, 
and substituted what she terms the imperial measure, whether*for wines, 
beer, other liquids, or dry goods sold by measure. Her imperial gallon is 
exactly 1 l-5th of our wine gallon, and measures 277,274 solid inches; our 
Winchester gallon, abandoned by her, measuring 268.8, or about 8$ cubic 
inches less; her new bushel is equal to 1.032 of ours. Heaped measure was 
abolished by law in Scotland two hundred years ago, though not always in 
practice. McCulloch calls it a barbarous custom, England recognizes it 
in recent laws, and the United States have sometimes ordered duties to be 
collected by it. 

(U. S.) Troy Weight.— 24 grains make 1 pennyweight; 20 pennyweights, 

1 ounce; 12 ounces, 1 pound, lib Troy is to ltb Avoirdupois as 144 is to 
175; or, 5,760 grains make ltb Troy, and 7,000 grains ltb Avoirdupois. 

(U. S.) Avoirdupois Weight.— [1 drachm, or 27 11-32 grains, equal 1.7712 

f rammes]: 16 drachms make 1 ounce [equal to 28.3392 grammes]; 16 ounces, 
pound; 28 pounds, 1 quarter; 4 quarters, 1 hundred weight; 20 hundred 
weight, or 2,240 lbs., 1 ton. 

In Philadelphia and many other places, 2,240 lbs. are generally considered 
a ton. In the State of New York, unless by special bargain, 2,000 lbs. are a 
ton. Sales by the pound are the most common; nothing is sold by tbe cwt. 
of 112 lbs. In Avoirdupois, 7 lbs. make 1 clove of wool, and 14 lbs. 1 stone. 
A pack of wool is 240 lbs. In Ohio, when sales are made by the bushel, 
without a special agreement, tbe following are the legal weights of a bushel: 
Wheat, 60 lbs.; Indian corn, 56; barley, 48 : oats, 39; rye, 56; flax-seed, 56; 
clover-seed, 64. Corn is usually sold in the Western States 56 lbs. to the 
bushel. In Boston, 53 lbs. to the bushel of Western corn. 

In freights, a ton (by the rules of the New York Chamber of Commerce) 
is composed of 8 barrels of flour; 22 bushels of grain, peas, or beans, in casks; 
36 bushels of grain in bulk, or European salt; 31 bushels W. I. salt; 6 bar¬ 
rels of beef, pork, tallow, or pickled fish ; 200 gallons, wine, measure, of oil, 
wine, brandy, or other liquors; 29 bushels of sea-coal; 40 cubic feet of square 
timber, oak plank, pine, cotton, wool, and bale goods; 2,000 lbs. of bar or 
pig iron, ashes, and all other heavy goods. 

(U. S.) Linear Measure.— 3 barleycorns make 1 inch; 12 inches, 1 foot; 
3 feet, 1 yard; 5k yards, 1 rod or pole; 40 rods, 1 furlong; 8 furlongs, 1 mile. 
A baud is 4 inches; a fathom, 6 feet; a cubit, li feet; 69§ statute,'or 60 sea 
miles, 1 degree of a great circle of tbe earth; 3‘miles, 1 league. 

Cloth Measure.—9 inches make 1 quarter; 4 quarters, 1 yard. 

(U. S.) Square Measure. —144 square inches make 1 square foot; 9 sq. 
feet, 1 sq. yard; 30J sq. yards, 1 sq. pole; 40 sq. poles. 1 rood; 4 roods, 1 
fiore; 640 acres; 1 eq. mile, 


WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 


629 


(TT. S.) Solid Measure. —1728 cubic inches make 1 cubic foot; 27 cubic 
feet, 1 cubic yard ; 42 cubic feet, 1 ton of shipping; 40 cubic feet, 1 load of 
unhewn timber; 50 do., 1 load squared do. 

(U. S.) Wink Measure. —4 gills make 1 pint; 2 pints, 1 quart; 4 quarts, 

1 gallon; 31£ gallons, 1 barrel; 03 gallons, 1 hogshead; 2 hogsheads, 1 pipe; 

2 pipes, 1 ton. 

(U. S.) Dry, or Winchester Measure. —4 gills, 1 pint = 33.6 cubic 
inches = 0.55053 French litres; 2 pints, 1 quart = 67 2-5 cub. in. = 1.10106 
litres; 4 quarts, 1 gallon = 268.8 cub. in. = 4.40424 litres; 2 gallons, 1 peck = 
537.6 cub. in. = 8.80848 litres; 4 peck3,1 bushel = 2150.42 cub. in. = 35.23392 
litres; 5 quarters, 1 wey or load. 

T he Winchester bushel is 18i inches wide and 8 inches deep; it contains 
2150 2-5 solid inches, being 47 1-5 less than the imperial bushel. Of wheat 
the bushel is 60 lbs. The barrel of flour contains 5 Winchester bushels, 
ami weighs, net, 196 lbs. The barrel of Indian corn contains 3£ bushels. 
The weight of a gallon of molasses is usually 11 lbs., but sometimes 10 or 12. 

British Imperial (new) Standard Measure, compared with Winches 
ter and Wine Measures. — Our extensive dealings with England make it 
useful for business men to have an explanation of the difference between 
the imperial measure for liquids and drygoods and our Winchester and 
wine measures, which latter were formerly used in England. It is greatly 
to be desired that uniform -weights, measures, and coins may soon be used 
all over the world. 

The English coal bushel was a quart larger than our Winchester; bnt 
selling coal by measure caused such extensive frauds that it was abolished. 
It is now sold in Great Britaiu by weight only. 

By the imperial standard, adopted in England in 1825,1 gill is = to 8.665 
solid inches; 4 gills = 1 pint; 2 pints, 1 quart ; 4 quarts, 1 gallon, or 277.274 
solid inches; 2 gallons, 1 peck; 4 peclcs, 1 bushel, or 2218.192 inches; 4 bush¬ 
els are 1 coom; 2 cooms (8 bushels), 1 quarter. 

The quarter of wheat is equal to the quarter of a ton of 2.240 lbs. = 560 
lbs.; 70 lbs. in weight are an English bushel of wheat,while 60 lbs. of wheat 
make our bushel; so that the United States wheat bushel is iust 6-7ths of 
the English, or imperial; and a quarter of wheat in England is equal to 
9i bushels in the United States. 

The United States grain gallon measures 268.8 solid inches; the wine 
gallon, 231 inches; the imperial measures 277^ in.; 36 of our wine gallons 
are very nearly equal to 30 imperial gallons. The obsolete English ale and 
beer gallon measured 282 cubic inches. 

The imperial standard gallon is a measure that will bold 10 lbs. Avoir¬ 
dupois of pure (distilled) water, weighed in air at 62 deg. Fahrenheit, tho 
barometer being at 30 decrees. 

This is the unit standard, in Great Britain, of capacity for liquids, ale, 
beer, wine, spirits, and dry goods not measured by heaped measure. Our 
Winchester gallon weighs 9 lbs. 10 oz. and 1J drachms of pure water. 


HOW INTEREST INCREASES. 

Very few persons have figured on the difference between six and eight 
percent. One dollar loaned for one hundred years at six per cent, with 
the interest collected annually and added to the principal, will amount to 
$340. At eight per cent it amounts to $2,203. or nearly seven times as much. 
At three per cent, the usual rate of interest in England, it amounts to $19.25; 
whereas at ten per cent, which has been a very common rate in the United 
States, it is $13,809, or about seven hundred times as much. At twelve 
per cent it amounts to $84,075. or more than four thousand times as much. 
At eighteen per cent it amounts to $15,145,007. At twenty-four per cent 
(which we sometimes hear talked of) it reaches the enormous sum of 
§2,551,799,404. 




63d 


CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

The following is a List of the most important Events in the History of the 
World, from the Creation to the present Time. 

E. O. 

The Creation. 4008 

The deluge of Noah’s flood. 2352 

The calling of Abraham. 1985 

Moses born . 1571 

Cecrops founds the kingdom of Athens.1556 

Cadmus carries Phoenician letters into Greece . 1493 

The Pentateuch, or first five books of Moses written. 1452 

Tyre built. 1252 

Carthage founded by the Tyrians. 1233 

Destruction of Troy. 1184 

Dedication of Solomon’s temple at Jerusalem. 1008 

Era of the Olympiads began. 776 

Era of the building of Rome. 753 

Maps and globes introduced into Greece by Anaximander .. 600 

Tarquin the Proud, the last king of Rome, expelled. 509 

Xerxes’ expedition against Greece. 481 

Ezra restores Jerusalem, seventy weeks of years, or 490 years before 

the death of our Saviour. 458 

The history of the Old Testament closes about. 430 

Alexander the Great born. 356 

Sun-dial first erected in Rome. 293 

Dionysius of Alexandria began his era, being the first who ascertained 

the solar year to consist of 365 days, 5 hours and 49 minutes . 285 

The first Punic war began. 264 

Hannibal invades Italy over the Alps.. . 218 

Paper invented in China... 170 

The first library formed in Rome. 1C8 

Corinth and Carthage destroyed by the Romans. 148 

History of the Apocrypha ends.. 135 

Julius Caesar’s first descent in Britain. 55 

Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalia. 48 

Caesar murdered by Brutus and other conspirators .. 44 

The Saviour of the World born. 5 

A. O. 

The common Christian era, as settled by Dionysius, began on the 1st 

of January, Christ being then 4 years old. 1 

Jesus Christ baptized by John. 29 ' 

He suffers at Jerusalem at the 38th year of his age. 33 

Claudius Caesar’s expedition to Britain. 43 

London became a Roman station . . 50 

Christianity said to be introduced into Britain.. 60 

Jerusalem taken aud utterly destroyed by Vespasian and Titus. 70 

Pompeii and Herculaneum overwhelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius. 

Pliny the elder dies. 79 

Agricola buiUs his wall between the Forth and the Clyde. 85 

Adrian builds a wall between Newcastle and Carlisle..... 121 

Silk first brought from India... 274 

Wines first made in Britain. 276 

The Franks, a German nation, settle in Gaul, which from thence was 

called France. 277 

Observation of Sunday enjoined under Contantiue, the first Christian 

emperor of Rome .. 321 

Constautine removes the seat of empire from Rome to Byzantium, 

thence called Constantinople. 303 

Roman empire divided into eastern aud western. 364 


















































CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 


631 


Europe overrun by the Goths under Alaric.... 401' 

France formed into a kingdom under Pharamcnd.420 

City of Venice founded.*.’ 452 

The Mahomeian era of the Hegira, or flight of Mahomet from Mecca 

„ p e g | n .8 . 622 

England invaded by the Danes.. 650 

Glass first brought to England.! 1!. 1! 603 

The Britons subdued by the Saxons. 685 

Computations from the birth of Christ used in history. 748 

Charlemagne founds the western empire...” 800 

Juries instituted in England..’. 979 

Arithmetical cyphers brought into Europe by Saracens: ietters of the 

alphabet had hitherto been used. 991 

Paper made of cotton rags in use...* 1000 

Danes finally driven out of Scotland.1040 

The conquest of England by William Duke of Normandy. 1066 

The tower of London built by him.[. *. 108 O 

First crusade for the recovery of the holy laud.’’. 1096 

Henry II. of England gains possession of Ireland. !.!!!! 1172 

Glass windows in private houses in England. 1180 

A conjunction of all the planets at sunrise, 16th September.! 1186 

Magna Charta signed by King John .,.i2l5 

Astronomy and geography revived by the Moors of Spain. 1223 

Commons of England first summoned to Parliament.. 1264 

Parliament regularly held from this year, being the 22d of Edward I .. 1293 

Turkish empire founded by Ottoman. 1298 

Mariner’s compass improved by Gioia of Amaldi.. 1302 

Gunpowder made by a monk at Cologne.1330 

Gold first coined in England by Edward III. 1344 

Edward III. had 4 pieces of cannon at Cressy. 1345 

Coals first brougut to London. ... 1357 

Wickliffe, the English reformer, flourished.1369 

Canary Islauds discovered by a Norman..1405 

Painting in oil invented at Bruges by John Van Eyck . 1410 

Algebra introduced into Europe...1412 

Printing invented by Laurence of Haerlem, who died in. 1440 

Constantinople taken by the Turks: Greek empire ends . 1453 

Glass manufactured in England... 1457 

Engraving and etching on copper about. 1460 

Printing brought to England by Caxton. 1471 

America discovered by Colon or Columbus. 1492 

Portuguese sail to India round the Caps of Good Hope.1497 

Shillings first coined in England.. 1505 

Martin Luther began the Reformation...1517 

First voyage round the world by Magellan’s ships. 1522 

Reformation introduced into England. 1534 

Variation of the compass discovered by Cabot. 1540 

Reformation completed in Scotland by John Knox. 1560 

Pope Gregory reforms the calendar. 1582 

Tobacco first brought to England from Virginia . 1583 

Mary Queen of Scotland beheaded by Elizabeth. 1587 

Telescopes invented in Germany.1590 

DecimaL Arithmetic invented at Bruges. 1602 

Union of the crowns of England and Scotland. 1603 

Galileo of Florence discovers Jupiter’s Satellites. 1610 

Thermometers invented by Drebel in Holland. . 1610 

Logarithms invented by Napier in Scotland. 1614 

Circulation of the blood, established by Harvey: this had been sug¬ 
gested in France in 1553... 1619 

Barbadoes the first British settlement. 1625 

Barometers invented in Italy by Torricelli ...,...1643 





























































632 


CHRONOLOGICAL TAELS 


A. O. 

Pendulums applied to clocks by Huigens .. 1649 

Air pump invented by Guericke Magdeburg.. 1653 

Restoration of Charles II. on the 29th of May.1660 

Royal Society of London established. 1662 

Tea first used in England. 1666 

Newtonian philosophy published.1686 

Land-tax enacted in England...1689 

Bayonets first used by the French. 1693 

Bank of England established.1693 

Union of kingdoms of England and Scotland. 1706 

New Style introduced into Britain.1752 

Transit of Venus over the Sun, 6th of June. 1756 

Cook returns from his first voyage round the world.1771 

Dr. Herschel discovers the planet called by his name.1781 

Dr. Herschel discovers two of its Satellites. 1787 

Revolution in France began. 1789 

King of France deposed... . 1792 

United Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland met for the first time, 

on the 22d of January. 1801 

Restoration of Louis 18th, and peace between France and the Allied 

Powers, 1st of May . 1814 

Peace proclaimed in London. June 20. 1814 

Battle of Waterloo, June 18th. 1815 

Catholic Emancipation. 1829 

Revolution in Frauce, July 29th. 1830 

Cholera. 1832 

Sir Walter Scott died 21st September... 1832 

First Reformed Parliament assembled.1833 

West India Slave Emancipation Bill passed..1833 

American Banks Buspend payments, June . 1837 

Victoria crowned in Westminster Abbey, June 28th. 1838 

Total Abolition of Slavery in all the British Colonies, August 1st. 1838 

Insurrection in Canada. 1838 

War between Great Britain and China: Squadron of 15 ships of the line 

sail for China. 1840 

Queen Victoria marries Prince Albert of Saxe Cobourg Gotha. 1840 

The remains of Napoleon Bonaparte brought from St. Helena, and 

placed in the Church of the Invalides at Paris .. . 1840 

Union of Upper and Lower Canada.. 1841 

The President steamship sailed from New York for Liverpool, and was 

lost on the passage, with 136 persons on board . 1841 

Death of W. E. Charming, D.D., the celebrated American author . 1842 

Dreadful earthquake among the West India Islands, the town of Point- 
a-Pitre, in Guadaloupe, completely destroyed, and 60u0 persons 

killed. 1842 

Louis Phillipe, king of the French, abdicated. 1848 

Louis of Bavaria, abdicated. 1848 

Slavery abolished in french Colonies. 1848 

Charles Albert of Sardinia, abdicated. 1849 

Britannia Tubular Bridge opened. 1850 

Napoleon III. declared Emperor of France.' 1852 

Gold discovered in South Australia. 1852 

Napoleon III. marries Eugenie. 1853 

Balaclava, charge of the 6U0.1854 

Sir John Franklin removed from Navy List. 1854 

Gold discovered in Vancouver’s Island. 1856 

Gpld discovered in British Columbia. 1856 

Gretna Green mtrriages abolished.’ * 1856 

Sepoy mutiny, India...j.1857 

Stereotype printing for newspapers.. 1857 

English and French force capture Canton . 1857 


























































CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 


633 


Emperor Maximilian executed... 

Atlantic telegraph, first message, August 15th. 

The Great Eastern launched.| ” 

Quito destroyed by an earthquake. 

William Walker, filibuster, shot. 

Victoria Bridge, Canada, opened.....**!*.*..*.*. 

Frederick William IV. of Prussia, died. 

Serfdom abolished in Russia. 

The Telephone invented.. 

Prince Albert died .. . 

Prussian ports blockaded by Denmark ...’... **. 

Peace between Prussia and Denmark. 

First Parliament of the Dominion of Canada... 

Battle of Sadowa.** .... 

Gen. Sir R. Napier defeated the troops of Theodore, King of Abyssinia, 

at Magdala, January. 

George Peabody, the philanthropist, died. 

Queen Isabella II. of Spain, abdicated. 

Garabetta left Paris in a balloon.. . 

Battles of VionviJle, Gravelot, and Sedan. 

Charles Dickens died. 

Imperial crown of Germany conferred on William of Prussia. 

Battle of Sedan... 

Diamonds discovered in South Africa. 

Livingstone and H. M. Stanley meet in Africa. 

Tunnel under Mount Cenis opened. 

■Thiers elected President of the French Republic. 

Captain Hall of the Polaris, died. 

Gold discovered id New Zealand. 

William of Prussia proclaimed Emperor of Germany. 

The Tuileries destroyed by Communists. 

King Amadeus I., of Spain, abdicated. 

Belfort restored to France. 

Death of Napoleon III. 

Mail st-amer Atlantic sunk; loss, 700 . 

Transit of Venus. . 

Fiji Islands become British Colonies.. 

Sultan Abdul Aziz of Turkey, abdicated. 

Sultau Murad V. of Turkey, abdicated. 

Berlin Couference. 

Industrial Exhibition, Brussels .. 

Escape of Fenian prisoners from West Australia. 

Malleable glass produced. 

Freedom of the City of London conferred on ex-President Grant. 

Zurich, crematian of human bodies legalized. 

Great Exposition in Paris . 

Peace between Russia and Turkey.. 

England at war with Zulus. 

Prince Imperial killed by Zulus . 

Lesseps Company begin work on Panama Canal. 

Social war upon Jews in Germany . 

Great land troubles in Ireland. 

Irish Home Rulers silenced by majority in House of Commons. 


A. O. 

1857 

1858 

1858 

1859 

1860 
1860 
1861 
1861 
1861 
1861 
1864 
1864 
1866 
1866 

1868 

1869 

1870 
1870 
1870 
1870 
1870 

1870 

1871 
1871 
1871 
1871 
1871 
1871 
1871 
1871 
1873 
1873 
1873 

1873 

1874 
1874 
1876 
1876 
1876 
1876 
1876 

1876 

1877 

1877 

1878 

1878 

1879 

1879 

1880 
1880 
1880 
1881 























































G34 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 


CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 

A. C. 

861. Ferae Islands, discovered about this time by a Scandinavian vessel. 

871. Iceland, discovered by some Norwegian Chiefs, who were compelled to 
leave their native country. According to some accounts, it had been 
visited before this by a Scandinavian pirate, Naddodd. 

960. Greenland, discovered by the Icelanders about this period. The first 
colony established there was destroyed by a pestilence in the 14th cen. 
tury, and by the accumulation of ice between Greenland and Iceland- 
all intercourse was cut off. 

1002. Winland dat Gode (Good Wine Land), a part of America, was discovered 
by the Northmen, Eric and Biorn. 

1344. Madeira, the well-known wine-producing island, was discovered by 
Juan Gonzalez and Tristan Vaz, Portuguese. 

1345. Canary Isles, discovered by some Genoese and Spanish seamen, having 
been known to the ancients. 

1364. Guinea, the coast of, discovered by some seamen of Dieppe, about this 
period, 

1418. Porto Santo, discovered by Yaz and Zarco, Portuguese. 

1440-1445. Senegal River, discovered by the Portuguese. 

1446. Cape Verde, discovered by Denis Fernandez, a Portuguese. 

1448. Azores Islands, discovered by Gonzalio Velio, a Portuguese. 

1449. Cape Verde Islands, discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese in the 
service of Portugal. 

1471. Island of St. Ihomas, \mder the Equator, discovered. 

1484. Congo, discovered by the Portuguese, under Diego Cam. 

1484. Cape Bojador, or Nun, doubled for the first time by the Portuguese. 

1486. Cape of Good Hope, discovered by Bartholomew Diaz. 

1492. Lucayos, or Bahama Islands. These were the first points of discovery 
by Columbus. San Salvador, one of these islands, was first seen by 
this great navigator on the 11th or 12th of October in this year. 

1492. Cuba, Island of Hispaniola, or St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus 
in his first voyage. 

1493. Jamaica, St. Christopher’s Dominica, discovered by Columbus in his 
second voyage. 

1497. Cape of Good Hope, doubled by Vasco di Gama, and the passage to In¬ 
dia discovered. 

1497. Newfoundland, discovered by John Cnbot, who first called it Prima 
Vista and Baccalaos. 

1498. Continent of America, discovered by Columbus. 

1498. Malabar, coast of, discovered by Vasco di Gama. 

1498. Mozambique, island of, discovered by Vasco di Gama. 

1499. Guiana and Venezuela, discovered by Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci, 
under Portuguese flag. 

1501. Brazil carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci. 

1501. Labrador and River St Lawrence, discovered by Cortecal, who sailed 
from Lisbon on a yoyage of discovery for the Portuguese. 

1502. Gulf of Mexico. Some of the shores of this gulf explored by Columbus 
on his last voyage. 

1502. St. Helena, the island of. discovered by Jean do Nova, a Portuguese. 

1506. Ceylon, discovered by the Portuguese. Ceylon was known to the Ro¬ 
mans in the time of Claudius. 

1506. Madagascar, island of, discovered by Tristan da Cunha, and revisited 
by the Portuguese navigator, Fernandez Pereira in 1508. This island 
was first called St. Lawrence, having been discovered on the day of 
that Saint. 

1503. Canada, visited by Thomas Aubert. Known before to fishermen, who 
had been thrown there by a tempest. 

1508. Ascension Isle, discovered by Tristan da Cunha. 

1508. Sumatra, island of, discovered by Siqueyra, a Portuguese. 

1511. Sumatra, more accurately examined by the Portuguese. 


GEOGRAPHICAL UiSCOYEKlEB. 


6$S 


A. 0. 

1511. Molucca Isles, discovered by the Portuguese. 

1511, Sunda Isles, discovered by Abrew, a Portuguese. 

1512. Maldives. A Portuguese navigator, wrecked on these islands, found 
them in occasional possession of the Arabians. 

1512. Florida, discovered by Ponce de Leou, a Spanish navigator. 

1513. Borneo and Java. The Portuguese became acquainted with these 
islands. 

1513. South Sea. The Great Ocean was discovered this year from the moun¬ 
tains of Darien, by Nuguez de Balboa, and subsequently navigated by- 
Magellan. The supposition of the New World being part of India now 
ceased. 

1515. Peru, discovered by Perez de la Eua. 

1516. Rio Janeiro, discovered by Diaz de Solis. 

1516. Rio de la Plata, discovered by the same.1 

1517. China, discovery of. by sea, by Fernand Perez d’Andrada. 

1517. Bengal, discovered by some Portuguese thrown on the coast by a tem¬ 
pest. 

1518. Mexico discovered by the Spaniards; conquered by Certes in 1519. 

1519. Magellan, Straits of, passed by Magellan with a fleet of discovery fitted 
out by the Emperor Charles V. The first voyage round the world was 
undertaken by this navigator; and his vessel performed the enter¬ 
prise. although the commander perished. 

1520. Terra del Fuego, discovered by Magellan. 

1521. Ladrone Islands, discovered by Magellan. 

1521. Philippines. This archipelago was discovered by Magellan, who lost 
his life here in a skirmish. 

1524. New France. The first voyage of discovery made by the French under 
Francis the First, one of whose ships, after reaching Florida, coasted 
along as far as 50 degrees north latitude, and gave to this part the 
name of new France. 

1524. North America, travelled over from Florida to Newfoundland by Verri- 
zana, a Florentine, in the service of France. 

1525. New Holland, discovered by the Portuguese about this time; this im¬ 
mense tract was for some time neglected by Europeans, but was vis¬ 
ited by the Dutch, at various periods, from 1619 to 1644. 

1527. New Guinea, discovered by Sanvedra, a Spaniard, sent from Mexico, by 
Cortez. 

1530. Guinea, the first voyage to, made by an English ship for elephants' 
teeth. 

1534. Canada, visited by Cortier, of St. Malo; a settlement having previously 
been made in 1528, by Verrizzani, who took possession in the name of 
Francis I. of France. 

1535. California, discovered by Cortez, 

1537. Chili, discovered by Diego de Almargo, one of the conquerors of Peru. 

1541. Labrador, discovered by a French engineer, Alphonse. 

1541. India, the first English ship sailed to, for the purpose of attacking the 
Portuguese. 

1542. Japan, discovered by the Portuguese, Antonio de Meta and Antonio de 
Peyxoto, who were cast by a tempest on its coast. 

1545. Potosi, mines of, discovered by the Spaniards. 

1552. Spitzbergen, observed by the English, but mistaken fo part of Green¬ 
land. Visited by Barentz, a Dutch navigator in search of a north-east 
passage,in 1596. 

1553. White Sea. This sea, which had not been visited since the time of Al¬ 
fred. was now supposed to be discovered by Chancellor, the English 
navigator. 

1553. Nova Zembla, discovered by Willoughby, an English seaman. 

1575. Solomon’s Isles, discovered by Mendana, a Spaniard, sent by the Gov¬ 
ernor of Peru. 

1576. Frobisher’s Strait, discovered by the English navigator whose name it 
bears. 


630 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 


A. O. 

1576. Greenland, further explored by Frobisher, who also penetrated farther 
between this country and Labrador. 

1577. New Albion, discovered by Drake, who was the second to attempt a 
voyage round the world, which he performed in three years. 

1580. Siberia, discovered by Yermak Timophelevitch, Chief of the Cossacks. 

1587. Davies’ Straits, discovered by the English navigator whose name it 
bears, in his voyage for the discovery of a north-west passage. 

1594. Falkland Islands, discovered by the English navigator, Sir John Haw¬ 
kins. 

1596. Marquesas, discovered by Mendana, a Spaniard, on his voyage from 
Peru to found a colony in the Solomon Isles. 

1596. Solitary Island, discovered by Mendana on the above-named voyage. 

1606. Archipelago del Espirito Santo, discovered by Guirns. a Portuguese 
sent from Peru. These islands are the cyciades of the Bougainville, 
and the New Hebrides of Cook. 

1606. Otaheite, supposed to be discovered by Guiros, who named it Segit- 
taria. 

1607-1610. Hudson’s Bay, discovered by the celebrated English navigator, 
Hudson, on his third voyage. Venturing to pass the winter in this 
bay on his fourth voyage, he was, with four others, thrown by his sail¬ 
ors into a boat, and left to perish. 

1607. Chesapeake Bay, discovered by John Smith. 

1615. Straits of Le Maire. discovered with the island of Staten on the east, 
by Le Maire, a merchant of Amsterdam,, and Schouten, a merchant of 
Horn. 

1616. Cape Horn, doubled by Le Maire and Schouten, Dutch navigators, who 
called ic after the town of which Schouten was a native. 

1616. Van Dieman’s Land, discovered by the Dutch. 

1616. Baffin's Bay, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman. 

1636. Frozen Ocean. In this year the Russians discovered that this ocean 
washed and bounded the north of Asia. The first Russian ship sailed 
down the Lena into this sea. 

1642. New Zealand, with the southern port of Van Dieman’s Land, discovered 
by Tasman, a Dutch navigator. 

*654. Bourbon, isle of, occupied by the French. 

1673. Louisiana, discovered by the French. This country received its name 
from Le Salle, a Frenchman, who explored the Mississippi, in 1682. 

1686. Easter Islands, discovered by Roggewein, a Dutch navigator. 

i690. Kamschatka, the principal settlement of the Russians, on the coast of 
Asia, discovered by a Cossack chief. Morosko. This country was taken 
possession of by the Russians in 1697, 

1692. Japan, carefully visited by Kemfer, a German. 

1699, New Britaiu. This island, and the straits which separate it from New 
Guinea, discovered by Datnpier. This enterprising seaman made a 
voyage round the world at the period of this discovery. 

1711. Kurile Isles, occupied by the Russians. The people of these islands, 
which are twenty-one in number, still pay tribute to Russia. They are 
principally volcanic. 

1628. Behring’s Strait, explored and designated by a Danish navigator in the 
service of Russia, whose name it bears. Behring thus established that 
the continents of Asia and America are not united, but are distant 
from each other about thirty-nine miles. 

1728. Kamschatka, ascertained by Behring to be a peninsula. 

1741. Aleutian Isles, on the coast of North America, discovered by Behring. 
A more accurate survey of these islands was made under the Russian 
Government, by Captains Billing and Sarytehef, from 1781 to 1798. 

1765. Duke of York’s Islands, discovered by Byron. 

1765. Isles of Danger, discovered by Byron. 

1767 Otaheite, discovered by Wallis. 

1768. Cook’s Strait, discovered by Captain Cook on his voyage round tha 
world, which occupied from 1768 to 1771. 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 


637 


A. O. 4 

1770. New South Wales, discovered by Captain Cook. 

1772. Island of Desolation, the first land south of India, discovered by Ker¬ 
guelen, and called by his name. Subsequently called the Island of 
Desolation by Captain Cook. 

1774. New Caledonia, discovered by Captain Cook in his second voyage, 1772- 
1775. 


1778. Icy Cape, discovered by Captain Cook. 

1778. Sandwich Islands, discovered by Captain Cook in his third voyage, 
which commenced in 1776. He lost his life in 1779. 

1797. Bass’s Straits. Mr. Bass, surgeon of H. M. S. Reliance, penetrated as 
far as Western Port, in a small open boat, from Port Jackson, and was 
of opinion that a strait existed between New South Wales and Van Die- 
man’s Land. In 1799, Lieut. Flinders circumnavigated Van Dieman’s 
Land, and named the Strait after Mr. Bass. 

1804, 5, 6. Missouri, explored to its sources by Captains Lewis and Clarke, 
and the origin and source of the Columbia ascertained. 

1819. Barrow s Straits, discovered by Lieut . Parry, who penetrated as far as 
Melville Island, in lat. 74 deg. 26 min. N. and long. 113deg. 47 min. W. 

1819. New South Shetland, discovered by Mr. Smith, of the brig William, 
bound to Valparaiso. 

1819-1822. North America, the northern limits of, determined by Captain 
Franklin, from the mouth of the Coppermine River to CapeTurnagain. 

1821. Asia, the northern limits of, determined by Baron Wrangle. 

1825-6. North America. Franklin’s second expedition, in w r hich the coast 
between the mouths of the Coppermine and M’Kenzie’s rivers, and 
the coast from the mouth of the latter to 149 }? W. long., were discov¬ 
ered. 

1827. North America. In August of this year. Captain Beechey, in H. M. S. 
B'ossom, discovered the coast from Icy Cape to Point Barrow, leaving 
about 140 miles of coast unexplored between this Point and Point 
Beechey. Point Barrow is 156>£ W. long. 

1829-33. North America North-west passage. Discoveries of Captain Ross, 
October 18th, 1833. 

1830. The Niger (termination of) discovered by Richard and John Lander, 
November 18th. 

1838. Arctic discoveries by Dease and Simpson. 

1849. Livingstone and friends trace River Zouga, Africa. 

1855. Livingstone discovers Victoria Falls, Africa. 

1856-1859. Du Chaillu explores Equatorial Africa. 

1857. Captain Burton crosses Equatorial Africa. 

1858. Captain Speke discovers Victoria Nyanza. 

1876. Cameron crosses the continent of Africa. 

1876. British Arctic expedition within 1,000 mile* of North Pols. 






638 


A BRIEF LIST 

OF 

MYTHOLOGICAL AND CLASSICAL NAMES 

IN THE FABULOUS HISTORY OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 


Achates (a-ka/tez). The faithful friend of iEneas, the hero of Virgil’s JEneid. 

Acheron (ak'e-ron). The son of Sol and Terra, changed by Jupiter into a 
river of hell, or the infernal regions;—used also for hell itself. 

Achilles (a-kil'lez). A Greek, who signalized himself in the war against 
Troy; and having been dipped by his mother in the River Styx, was 
invulnerable in every part except his right heel, but was at length 
killed by Paris with an arrow. 

Actseon (ak-te'on). The son of Aristeus, and a famous hunter, who, having 
surprised Diana as she was bathing, was turned by her into a stag, and 
killed by his own dogs. 

Adonis (a-do'nis). A beautiful youth beloved by Venus. He was killed by 
a wild boar. When wounded, Venus sprinkled nectar into his blood, 
from which flowers sprang up. 

Egeus (e-ie'us). A king of Athens, who threw himself into the sea, which 
after him was called the .ZEgean Sea. 

Egis (e'jis). A shield given by Jupiter to Minerva. 

.Eneas (e-ne'as). A Trojan prince, son of Anchises and the goddess Venus, 
the hero of Virgil’s poem, the JEneid. 

Eolus (e'o-lus). The god of the winds and storms. 

Esculapius (es-ku-la/pe-us). The god of medicine, and the son of Apollo, 
killed by Jupiter with a thunderbolt on account of his skill, and par¬ 
ticularly for having restored Hippolytus to life. 

Agamemnon (ag-a-mem'non). King of Mycenae and Argos, brother to Men- 
elaus, and commander-in-chief of the Grecian army at the siege of Troy. 

Aganippe (ag-a-nip'pe). A fountain at the foot of Blount Helicon, conse¬ 
crated to Apollo and the Muses. 

Ajax (a'jaks). The son of Telamon, and, next to Achilles, the bravest of 
all the Greeks in the Trojan war. 

Albion (al'be-on). The son of Neptune, who went into Britain, where he 
established a kingdom. 

Alceste, or Alcestis (al-ses'te, or -tis). The daughter of Pelias and wife of 
.Admetus, brought back from hell by Hercules. 

Alcides (al-si'dez). A patronymic or title of Hercules. 

Alecto (a-lek'to). One of the three Furies. 

Ammon (am'mon). A title of Jupiter. 

Ampliion (am-fi'on). The son of Jupiter and Antiope, who built the city 
of Thebes by the music of his harp. He and his brother Zethus are 
said to have invented music. 

Amphitrite (am-fe-trl'te). The daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, goddess 
of the sea, and wife to Neptune. 

Andromache (an-drom'a-ke). The daughter of Eetion, king of Thebes, and 
wife of Hector. 

Andromeda (an-drom'e-da). The daughter of Cepheus and Cassiope, who, 
contesting with Juno and the Nereids for beauty, was exposed to a sea- 
monster. but was rescued and married by Perseus. 

Autmus (an-te'us). The son of Neptune and. Terra, a famous giant, killed 
by Hercules. 



MYTHOLOGICAL AND CLASSICAL NAMES. 


689 


Antigone (an-tig'o-ne). The daughter of (Edipus and Jocasta, famous for 
her filial piety. 

Apollo (a-pol'lo). The son of Jupiter and Latona, and the god of music, 
poetry, eloquence, medicine, and the fine arts. 

Arachne (a-rak'ne). A Lydian virgin, turned into a spider for contending 
with Minerva at spinning. 

Arcthusa (ar-e-tlm'sa). One of Diana’s nymphs, the daughter of Nereus 
and Doris, who was changed into a fountain. 

Argus (ar'mis). The son of Arestor, said to have a hundred eyes; but being 
killed by Mercury when appointed by Juno to guard Io, she put his 
eyes on the tail of a peacock. 

Ariadne (a-re-ad'ne). The daughter of Minos, who, from love to Theseus, 
gave him a clew of thread which guided him out of the Cretan laby¬ 
rinth, and she became his wife; but being afterwards deserted by him, 
she was married to Bacchus, and made his priestess. 

Arion (a-ri'on). A lyric poet of Methymna, who, in his voyage to Italy, 
saved his life from the cruelty of the mariners by means of dolphins, 
which the sweetness of his music brought together. 

Astraea (as-tre'a). The goddess of justice; changed into the constellation 
Virgo. 

Atalanta (at-a-lan'ta). A princess of Scyros, who consented to marry that 
one of her suitors who should outrun her. Hippomenes w r as the suc¬ 
cessful competitor. 

Atlas (at'las). One of the Titans, and king of Mauritania, who is said to 
have supported the world on his shoulders, and was turned into a 
mountain by Perseus. 

Aurora (au-ro'ra). The goddess of the morning. 

Bacchantes (bak-kan'tcz). Priestesses of Bacchus. 

Bacchus (bak'us). The son of J upiter and Semele, and the god of wine and 
of drunkards. 

Bellerophon (bel-ler'o-fon). The son of Glaucus, king of Egypt, very beau¬ 
tiful. With the aid of the horse Pegasus, he destroyed the Chimtera. 

Bellona (bel-lo'na). The goddess of war, and sister of Mars. 

Belus (be'lus). The son of Neptune and Libya, and one of the first kings 
of Babylon or Assyria, to whose statuo divine honors were jmid, aud to 
whom a magnificent temple was built. 

Boreas (bo're-as). The son of Astraeus and Aurora; the name of the north 
wind. 

Briareus (bri-a're-us). A giant that warred against heaven, and was feigned 
to have had fifty heads and one hundred hands. 

Busiris (bu-si'ris). The son of Neptune and Libya, a tyrant of Egypt, and 
a monstrous giant, who fed his horses with human flesh, and was killed 
by Hercules. 

Byblis (bib'lis). The daughter of Miletus, who wept herself into a fountain 
through love of her brother Caunus. 

Cacus (ka'kus). The son of Vulcan, a most notorious robber, slain by Her¬ 
cules for stealing his oxen. 

Cadnms (kad'mus). "The son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, the founder of 
the city of Thebes, aud th® reputed inventor of sixteen letters of the 
Greek alphabet. 

Calliope (kal-ll'o-pe). One of the Muses, who presided over eloquence and 
epic poetry. 

Calypso (ka-lip'so). One of the Oceanides, and one of the daughters of 
Atlas, who reigned in the island Ogygia, and entertained Ulysses. 

Camilla (ka-mil'la). A famous queen of the Volsci, who opposed iEneas on 
his landing in Italy. 

Capaneus (kap'a-neus). A famous Grecian, killed by a stone at the siege 
of Thebes. 

Cassandra (kas-san'dra). The daughter of Priam and Hecuba, endowed 
with the gift of prophecy by Apollo, 


640 


MYTHOLOGICAL AND CLASSICAL NAMES. 


Castalldcs (kas-tal'i-d8s). The Muses, so called from the fountain Castalins, 
at the foot of Parnassus. 

Castor (kas'tor). A sou of Jupiter and Leda. lie and his twin brother 
Pollux shared immortality alternately, and were formed into the con¬ 
stellation Gemini. 

Cecrops (se'krops). A very rich Egyptian, the founder and first king of 
Athens, who instituted marriage, altars, and sacrifices. 

Centaurs (sen'taurs). A people of Thessaly, half men and half horses, van¬ 
quished by Theseus. 

Cerberus (ser'be-rus). The three-headed dog of Pluto, which guarded the 
gates of hell. Hercules overcame and brought him away. 

Ceres (se'rez). The daughter of Saturn and Cybele, and goddess of corn, 
harvest, and flowers. 

Charon (ka/ron). The son of Erebus and Hox, and ferryman of hell, who 
conducted the souls of the dead, in a boat, over the Rivers Styx and 
Acheron. 

Charjrbdis (ka-rib'dis). A ravenous woman, turned by Jupiter into a very 
dangerous gulf or whirlpool on the coast of Sicily. 

Chiron (ki'ron). The son of Saturn and Phillyra, a Centaur, who was pre¬ 
ceptor to Achilles, taught iEsculapius physic, and Hercules astronomy; 
and who was made the constellation Sagittarius. 

Chryseis (kri-se'is). The daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo, famed for 
beauty and for her skill in embroidery. She fell to Agamemnon’s lot 
in the cause of the Trojan war, but was afterwards restored, in order 
to stop a plague amongst the Grecians, which Apollo had sent at the 
request of her father. 

Circe (sir'se). The daughter of Sol and Perse, a noted enchantress. 

Clio (kli'o). One of the Muses. She presided over history. 

Clytemnestra (klit-em-nes'tra). The faithless wife of Agamemnon, killed 
by her son Orestes for her crimes. 

Comus (ko'mus). The god of revelry, feasting, and jollity. 

Crocua (kro'kus). A young man who was enamored of tile nymph Smilax, 
and changed into the flower of the name of crocus. 

Croesus (kre'sus). The king of Lydia, and the richest man of his time. 

Cupid (ku-pid). The son of Mars and Yenus, a celebrated deity; the god 
of love, and love itself. 

Cybele (sib'e-le). The daughter of Coelus and Terra, the wife of Saturn, 
and the mother of the gods. 

Cyclops (si'klops). Vulcan’s workmen, giants who had only one eye, in 
the middle of their forehead, and were slain by Apollo in a pique 
against Jupiter. 

Daedalus (de'da-lus). A most ingenious artist and artificer of Athens, who 
formed the Cretan labyrinth, and invented the auger, axe, glue, plumb- 
line, saw, and masts and sails for ships. 

Danaides (da-na'i-dez). The fifty daughters of Danaus, king of Argos, all 
of whom, except Hypermnestra, killed their husbands on the first 
night after marriage, and were therefore doomed to draw water out 
of a deep well, and eternally to pour it into a cask full of holes. 

Daphne (dafne). The daughter of the River Teneus, changed into a 
laurel-tree. 

Daplinis (daf'nis). A shepherd of Sicily, and son of Mercury. He was 
educated by the nymphs, and inspired by the Muses with the love of 
poetry. 

Dardanus (dar'da-nus). The son of Jupiter and Electra, and founder of 
Troy. 

Deidaima (de-id-a-mi'a). The daughter of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, wife 
of Achilles, and mother of Pyrrhus. 

Deipliobus (de-if'o-bus). The son of Priam and Hecuba, who married 
Helena after the death of Paris, but was betrayed by her to the 
Greeks, 


MYTHOLOGICAL AND CLASSICAL NAMES- 641 


Dfjanira (dej-a-ni'ra). The daughter of (Enens, and wife of Hercules, who 
killed herself in despair, because her husband burnt himself to avoid 
the torment occasioned by the poisoned shirt that she had given him 
to regain his love, according to the direction of Nessus, the centaur, 
from whom she received it. 

Delos (de'los). An island in the Egean Sea, where Apollo was born and 
where he had a famous oracle. 

Delphi (del'd). A city of Phocis, famous for an oracle of Apollo. 

Deucalion (deu-ka'lion). The son of Prometheus, and king of Thessaly, 
who, with his wife Pyrrha, was preserved from the general delude 
and repeopled the world by throwing stones behind them, as directed 
by the oracle. 

Diana (di-a'na). The daughter of Jupiter aud Latona, and the goddess of 
hunting, chastity, aud marriage. 

Dictynna (dic-tin'na). A nymph of Crete, and one of the attendants ot 
Diana. 

Dido (di do). The queen of Carthage, daughter of Belns, and wife of 
Sichajus. She built Carthage, and, according to Virgil, entertained 
.Eneas on his voyage to Italy, and stabbed herself through despair, 
because Eneas left her. 

Diomedes (di-o-mo'dez). The son of Tydeus, and king of Etolia, who 
gained great reputation at Troy, and who, with Ulysses, &c., carried 
off the Palladium. 

Dirce (dir'se). The wife of Lycus, king of Thebes, dragged to death by a 
mad bull. 

Draco (dra'ko). An Athenian lawgiver, so severe as to punish every crim® 
■with death. 

Dryades (dri'a-dez). Nymphs who presided over the woods. 

Echo (ek'o). The daughter of Aer, or Air, and Tellus, who pined away 
through love for Narcissus. 

Electra (e-lek'tra). The daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, who 
instigated her brother Orestes to revenge their father's death upon 
their mother and Egisthus. 

Elysium (e-lizh'e-um). The happy residence of the virtuous after death. 

Enceladus (en-sel'a-dus). The son of Titan and Terra, and the strongest 
of the giants, who conspired against Jupiter, and attempted to scale 
heaven. 

Endymion (en-dim'i-on). A shepherd and an astronomer of Cana, con¬ 
demned to a sleep of thirty years. 

Epeus (e-pe'us). An artist, who made the Trojan horse, and invented the 
sword and buckler. 

Erato (er'a-to). One of the Muses:—she presided over lyric and amorous 
poetry. 

Erebus (er'e-bus). The son of Chaos and Nox, an infernal deity:—a river 
of hell, and often used by the poets for hell itself. 

Erinnys (e-rin'nys). The Greek name for the Eumenides, or Furies. 

Eunieiiides (u-men'i dez). A name of the Furies. 

Euphorbus (u-for'bus). The son of Panthous, slain by Menelaus in the 
Trojan war. 

Euphrosyne (u-fros'e ne). One of the three Graces. 

Euryale (u-ri'a-le). A queen of the Amazons:—also one of the three 
Gorgon s. 

Euryalus (u-ri'a-lus). A Peloponnesian chief in the Trojan war:—also a 
Trojan and a friend of Nisus, for whose loss Eneas was inconsolable. 

Eurydice (u-rid'i se). The wife of Orpheus, killed by a serpent on her 
marriage day. 

Eurylochus (u-ril'o-kus). One of the companions of Ulysses, and the only 
one who was not changed by Circe into a hog. 

Furystheus (u-ris'the-us). The sou of Sthenelus, and king of Mycenae, wha, 
at Juno’s instigation, set his brother Hercules twelve difficult labors. 

Euterpe (u-ter'pe), One of the Muses,—the one who pre8itle4 oyer music* 


<542 


MYTHOLOGICAL AND CLASSICAL NAMES. 


Fates (fates). Powerful goddesses, who presided over the birth and the 
life of mankind, were the three daughters of Nox and Erebus, named 
Clotko, Lachesis, and Atropos. Clothe was supposed to hold the distaff, 
Lachesis to draw the thread of human life, and Atropos to cut it off. , 

Fauna (faw'ua). A Roman deity, the wife of Faunus. 

Fauni (faw'ni). Rural deities, described as having the legs, feet, and ears 
of goats, and the rest of the body human. 

Faunus (faw'nus). A king of Italy about thirteen hundred years E. C.; 
fond of agriculture, and revered as a deity. 

Flora (flo'ra). The goddess of flowers and gardens. 

Fortuna (for-tu'na). A powerful deity, the goddess of fortune, from whose 
hand were derived riches and poverty, happiness and misery;—said to 
be blind. 

Furies (fu'ries). The three daughters of Nox and Acheron, Alecto, Tisi- 
phone, and Megaera. 

Galataea (gal-a-te'a). A sea-nymph, the daughter of Nereus and Doris, 
passionately loved by Polyphemus. 

Ganymede (gan'e-mede). The son of Tros, king of Troy, whom Jupiter, in 
. the form of an eagle, snatched up and made his cup-bearer, instead 
of Hebe. 

Geryon (je're-on). A monster, represented as having three bodies and 
three heads, and as having fed his oxen with human flesh, and was 
therefore killed by Hercules. 

Gordins (gor'de-us). A husbandman, but afterwards king of Phrygia, re¬ 
markable for tying a knot of cords, on which the empire of Asia de¬ 
pended, in so very intricate a manner, that Alexander, unable to unravel 
it, cut it asunder. 

Gorgons (gor'gons). The three daughters of Phorcus and Ceto, named 
fetheuo, Euryale, and Medusa. Their bodies were covered with im¬ 
penetrable scales, their hair entwined with serpents; they had only 
one eye betwixt them, and they could change into stones those whom 
they looked on. 

Graces (gra'sez). Three goddesses, represented as beautiful, modest virgins, 
and constant attendants on Venus. 

Harpies (har'pez. The three daughters of Neptune and Terra, named 
Aello, Celaeno, and Ocypete, winged monsters with the faces of virgins, 
the bodies of vultures, and hands armed with claws. 

Hebe (he'be). The daughter of Juno, goddess of youth, and Jupiter’s cup¬ 
bearer, banished from heaven on account of an unlucky fall. 

Hector (hek'tor). The son of Priam and Hecuba, the most valiant of the 
Trojans, and slain by Achilles. 

Hecuba (hek'u-ba). The daughter of Dimas, king of Thrace, and wife of 
Priam, who tore her eyes out for the loss of her children. 

Helen (hel'eu). The daughter of Tyndarus and Leda, and wife of Menelaus, 
the most beautiful woman of her age, who, running aw r ay with Paris, 
occasioned the Trojan war. 

Helcnus (hel'e-nus). The son of Priam and Hecuba, spared by the Greeks 
for his skill in divination. 

Helle (hel'le). The daughter of Athamas, who, flying from her stepmother 
Ino, was drowned in the Pontic Sea, and gave it the name of Hellespont. 

Hercules (her'ku-lez). The son of Jupiter and Alcmena, the most famous 
hero of antiquity, remarkable for his great strength. 

Ilermione (her-mi'o-ne). The daughter of Mars and Venus, and wife of 
Cadmus, who was changed into a serpent. 

Hero (he'ro). A beautiful woman of Sestos, in Thrace, and priestess of 
Venus, whom Leander of Abydos loved so tenderly that he swam over 
the Hellespont every night to see her; but at length being unfortu¬ 
nately drowned, she threw herself, in despair, into the sea. 

Hesione (he-si'o-ne). The daughter of Laomedon, king of Troy, delivered 
from a sea-iuoaster by Hercules, 


MYTHOLOGICAL AND CLASSICAL NAMES. 


(M3 


fUsperides (hes-per'i-dez). Three nymphs, daughters of Hesperus, who 
guarded the golden apples which Juno gave to Jupiter. 

Hesperus (hes'per-us). The son of Japetus, and brother to Atlas; changed 
into the evening star. 

Hippolytus (hip-pol'e-tus). The son of Theseus and Antiope, or Hippolyte, 
who was restored to life by JEsculapius, at the request of Diana. 

Hippomenes (hip pom'e-nez). A Grecian prince, who, beating Atalanta in 
the race by throwing golden apples before her, married her. They 
were changed by Cybele into lions. 

Hyacinthus (hi-a-sin'thus). A beautiful boy, beloved by Apollo and Zephy- 
rus. The letter killed him; but Apollo changed the blood that was 
spilt into a dower called the Hyacinth. 

Hydra (hi'dra). A celebrated monster, or serpent, with nine, or, according 
to some, a hundred heads, which infested the Lake Lerna. It was 
killed by Hercules. 

Hymen (hi'men). The son of Bacchus and Yenus, and god of marriage. 

Icarus (ik'a-rus). The son of Daedalus, who, flying with his father out of 
Crete into Sicily, and soaring too high, melted the wax of his w T ings, 
and fell into the sea,—thence called the Icarian Sea. 

Io (To). The daughter of Inachus and Ismene, turned by Jupiter into a 
cow, and worshipped after her death, by the Egyptians, under the 
name of Isis. 

Iphigenia (if-i-je-ni'a). The daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, 
and a priestess of Diana. ' 

Iris (i'ris). The daughter of Thaumas and Electra, one of the Oceanides, 
and messenger of Juno, who turned her into a rainbow. 

Ixion (iks-i'on). A king of Thessaly, the father of the Centaurs, who killed 
bis own sister, and was punished by being fastened in hell to a wheel 
perpetually turning round. 

Janus (jahus). The son of Apollo and Creusa, and first king of Italy, who, 
receiving the banished Saturn, was rewarded by him with the knowl¬ 
edge of husbandry, and of things past and future. 

Jason (ja/son). The leader of the Argonauts, who obtained the golden 
fleece at Colchis. 

Juno (ju'no). The daughter of Saturn and Ops, sister and wife of Jupiter, 
the great queen of heaven, and of all the gods, and goddess of marriages 
and births. 

Jupiter (ju'pe-ter). The son of Saturn and Ops, the supreme deity of the 
heathen world, the most powerful of all the gods, and governor of all 
things. 

Laocoon (laok'o-on). The son of Priam and Hecuba, and high priest of 
Apollo, who opposed the reception of the wooden horse into Troy. 

Laomcdon (la-om'e-don). A king of Troy, killed by Hercules, for denying 
him his daughter Hesione after he had delivered her from the sea- 
monster, to which she had been exposed, on account of her father's 
refusal to pay Neptune and Apollo for building the city walls. 

Lares (la'rez). Inferior gods at Home, who presided over houses and 
families. 

Latona (la-to'na). The daughter of Coeus the Titan and Phoebe, and mother 
of Apollo and Diana. 

Leda (le'da). The mother of Castor and Pollux, of Helen and Clytemnenira. 

Lucifer (lu'se-fer). The name of the planet Yenus, or morning star; said 
to be the son of Jupiter and Aurora. 

Lucina (lu-sl'na). A daughter of Jupiter and Juno, and a goddess who 
presided over childbirth. 

Luna (lu'na). The moon, the daughter of Hyperion and Terra. 

Medea (me-de'a). The daughter of ZEetes, and a wonderful sorceress, or 
magician. 


644 


MYTHOLOGICAL AND CLASSICAL NAMES. 


Medusa (me-dil'sa). One of the three Gordons, whose hair Minerva changed 
into snakes. Sho was killed by Perseus. 

Melpomene (mel-pom'e-ne). One of the Muses,—the one who presided over 
tragedy. 

Memnon (mem'non). King of ^Ethiopia, the son of Tithonus and Aurora, 
and king of Abydon, killed by Achilles for assisting Priam, and 
changed into a bird at the request of his mother. 

Henelaus (men-e-la'us). The son of Atreus, king of Sparta, brother of 
Agamemnon, and husband of Helena. 

Mentor (men'tor). The faithful friend of Ulysses, the governor of Telema- 
chus, and the wisest man of his time. 

Mercury (mer'ku-re). The son of Jupiter and Maia, messenger of the gods, 
inventor of letters, and god of eloquence, commerce, and travelers. 

Minerva (mi-ner'va). The goddess of wisdom, the arts, and war; produced 
from Jupiter’s brain. 

Minotaur (min'o-taur). A celebrated monster, half man and half bull, 
killed by Theseus. 

Mnemosyne (ne-mos'e-ne). The goddess of memory, and the mother of the 
nine muses. 

Momus (mo'mus). The son of Nox, and god of folly and pleasantry. 

Morpheus (mor'fe-us). The minister of Nox and Somnus, and god of dreams. 

Naiads (na/idz). Nymphs of streams and fountains. 

Nemesis (nem'e-sis). One of the infernal deities, and goddess of vengeance. 

Neptune (nep'tune). The son of Saturn and Ops, god of the sea, and, next 
to Jupiter, the most powerful deity; represented with a trident in liis 
right hand. 

Nestor (nes'tor). The son of Neleus and Gliloris, and king of Pylos at? 
Messenia. He fought against the Centaurs, was distinguished in tilt, 
Trojan war, and lived to a great age. 

Niobe (nl'o-be). The daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Ampliion, who. 
preferring herself to Latona, had her fourteen children killed, and 
wept herself into a stone. 

Nox (noks). One of the most ancient of the deities, and goddess of night. 

Oceanides (o-se-an'i-dez). Sea-nymphs, daughters ofOceanus; three thou¬ 
sand in number. 

Oceanus (o-se'a-nus). A powerful deity of the sea, son of Ccelus and Terra. 

Orpheus (or'fe-us). A celebrated Argonaut, whose skill in music is said to 
have been so great that he could make rocks, trees, &c., follow him. 

Osir’s (o-si'ri3). The son of Jupiter, married to Io, and worshipped by the 
Egyptians under the form of an ox. 

Pan (pan). The son of Mercury, and the god of shepherds, huntsmen, and 
the inhabitants of the country. 

Pandora (pan do'ra). A celebrated woman, and. according to Hesiod, the 
first mortal female that ever lived. Jupiter gave her a box which con¬ 
tained all the evils and miseries of life; but with hope at the bottom. 

Paris (par'is). The son of Prkim and Hecuba, a most beautiful youth, who 
ran away with Helen, and thus occasioned the Trojan war. 

Pegasus (peg'a-sus). A winged horse belonging to Apollo and the Muses, 
which sprung from the blood of Medusa, when Perseus cutoff her head. 

Penates (pe-na'tez). Small statues, or household gods. 

Penelope (pe-nel'o-pe). A celebrated princess of Greece, wife of Ulysses, 
remarkable for her chastity and constancy in the long absence of her 
husband. 

Philomela (fil-o-me'la). The daughter of Pandion, king of Athens, who 
was changed into a nightingale. 

Pluto (plfi'to). The son of Saturn and Ops, brother of Jupiter and Neptune, 
and the god of the infernal regions. 

Plntus (plu'tus). The son of Jasius and Ceres, and the god of riches, 
Pomona (pomo'na), The goddess of gardens and fruit-tree*. 


MYTHOLOGICAL AND CLASSICAL NAMES. 


645 


Priam (prl'am). The last tin" of Troy, the son of Laomedon, under whose 
reign Troy was taken by the Greeks. 

Prometheus (pro-me'the-us). The son of Japetus. He is said to have stolen 
fire from heaven to animate two bodies which he had formed of clay; 
and he was therefore chained by Jupiter to Mount Caucasus, with a 
vulture perpetually gnawing his liver. 

Proteus (pro'te-us). The son of Oceanus and Tethys, a sea-god and prophet, 
who possessed the power of changing himself into different shapes. 

Psyche (sl'ke). A nymph beloved by Cupid, and made immortal by Jupiter. 

Pygmies (pig'mies). A nation of dwarfs only a span high, carried away 
by Hercules. 

Remus (Ve'mus). The elder brother of Romulus, killed by him for ridiculing 
the city walls, which he had just erected. 

Rliadamanthus (rad-a-man'thus). Son of Jupiter and Europa, and king of 
Lycia, made one of the three infernal judges on account of his justice 
and goodness. 

Romulus (rom'u-lus). The son of Mars and Ilia; he was thrown into the 
Tiber by his uncle, but was saved, with his twin brother Remus, by a 
shepherd; and he became the founder and first king of Rome. 

Semele (sem'e-le). The daughter of Cadmus and Thebe, and mother of 
Bacchus. 

Semiramis (se-mir'a-mis). The wife of Ninus, and celobrated queen of 
Assyria, who built the walls of Babylon, and was slain by her own son 
Ninyas, and turned into a pigeon. 

Silenus (si-le'nus). The foster-father, master, and companion of Bacchus, 
who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, and was every day inebriated. 

Sirens (sl'rens). Sea-n 3 T mpks, or sea-monsters, the daughters of Oceanus 
and Amphitrite. 

Sisyphus (sis'e-fus). The son of iEolus, a most crafty prince, killed by 
Theseus, and condemned by Pluto to roll up hill a large stone, which 
constantly fell back again. 

fiomiius (som'nus). The son of Erebus and Nov, and the god of sleep. 

Sphinx (3finks). A monster, who destroyed herself because CEdipus solved 
the enigma or riddle she proposed. 

Stentor (sten'tor). A Grecian, whose voice is reported to have been as 
strong and as loud as the voices of fifty men together. 

Sylvanus (sil-va'nus). A god of the woods and forests. 

Tantalus (tan'ta-lus). The son of Jupiter, and king of Lydia, who served 
up the limbs of his son Pelops to try the divinity of the gods. 

Tartarus (tar'ta-rus). The part of the infernal regions in which the most 
impious and criminal were punished. 

Terpsichore (terp-sik'o-re). One of the Muses:—she presided over dancing. 

Themis (the'mis). The daughter of Ccelus and Terra, and goddess of justice. 

Tisiplione (ti-sif'o-ne). One of the three Furies. 

Titan (tl'tan). The son of Ccelus and Terra, brother of Saturn, and one of 
the giants who warred against heaven. 

Tithonus (ti-tho'nus). The son of Laomedon, loved by Aurora, and turned 
, bv her. in his old age, into a grasshopper. 

Triton (trl'ton). The son of Neptune and Amphitrite, a powerful sea-god, 
and Neptune’s trumpeter. 

Venus (ve'nus). One of the most celebrated deities of the ancients, the 
wife of Vulcan, the goddess of beauty, the mother of love, and the mis¬ 
tress of the graces and of pleasures. 

Yertumnus (ver-tum'nus). A deity of the Romans, who presided over 
spring and orchards, and who was the lover of Pomona. 

Vesta (ves'ta). The sister of Ceres and Juno, the goddess of fire, and 
patroness of vestal virgins. 

Vulcan (vul'kan) The god who presided over fire and workers in metal. 


646 


INTEREST TABLES 


INTEREST TABLES. 

Four per cent. 


Time. 

$1 

$2 

$3 

$1 

$5 

$6 

$7 

$8 

$9 

$10 

$25 

$50 

100 

1,000 

4 days. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

4 

44 

8 

a 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

4 

9 

87 

12 

u 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

6 

13 

$1.31 

16 

it 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

5 

9 

17 

1.74 

20 

41 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

o 

AW 

6 

11 

22 

2.19 

24 

ll 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

o 

2 

2 

3 

7 

13 

26 

2.62 

28 

ll 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

o 

3 

3 

8 

16 

33 

3.33 

1 mo. 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

o 

2 

2 

3 

3 

8 

17 

33 

3.33 

2 mos. 

0 

1 

2 

2 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

7 

17 

33 

67 

6.67 

3 

it 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

25 

50 

1.00 

10.00 

4 

41 

1 

o 

4 

5 

6 

8 

10 

10 

12 

13 

33 

66 

1.33 

13.33 

5 

ll 

o 

AW 

4 

5 

7 

8 

10 

13 

13 

15 

16 

42 

83 

1.67 

16.67 

6 

it 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

13 

20 

50 

1.00 

2.00 

20.00 

1 year. 

4 

8 

12 

16 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

1.00 

2.00 

4.00 

40.00 


Five per cent. 


Time. 

$1 

$2 

$3 

$4 

$5 

$6 

$7 

$8 

$9 

$10 

$25 

$50 

100 

1,000 

1 day. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

13 

2 days. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

27 

3 

ll 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

4 

41 

4 

II 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

5 

54 

5 

a 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

3 

7 

68 

6 

it 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

3 

9 

82 

7 

41 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

4 

10 

95 

8 

u 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

o 

5 

11 

$1.10 

9 

j 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

3 

6 

12 

1.23 

10 

41 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

6 

13 

1.37 

11 

it 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

7 

13 

1.51 

12 

tt 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

8 

17 

1.64 

13 

it 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

4 

8 

17 

1.88 

14 

4 t 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

4 

9 

18 

1.92 

15 

11 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

5 

10 

20 

2.05 

16 

41 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

o 

o 

AW 

5 

10 

21 

2.19 

17 

it 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

o 

o 

2 

5 

11 

22 

2.32 

18 

it 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

6 

12 

23 

2.46 

19 

It 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

6 

12 

24 

2.50 

20 

It 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

o 

AW 

2 

3 

6 

13 

25 

2.64 

21 

II 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

9 

At 

o 

2 

3 

7 

13 

26 

2.76 

22 

It 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

o 

3 

7 

14 

27 

2.86 

23 

it 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

9 

At 

2 

3 

3 

7 

14 

28 

2.98 

24 

ll 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

8 

15 

29 

3.11 

25 

ll 

0 

0 

0 

I 

JL 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

8 

15 

31 

3.24 

26 

II 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

o 

2 

3 

3 

3 

8 

16 

33 

3.37 

27 

II 

0 

0 

0 

1 

o 

Al 

2 

o 

3 

3 

4 

9 

17 

35 

3.50 

28 

ll 

0 

0 

0 

1 

o 

At 

o 

2 

3 

3 

4 

9 

18 

37 

3.63 

29 

It 

0 

0 

0 

1 

o 

o 

At 

3 

3 

3 

4 

9 

19 

39 

3.77 

1 mo. 

0 

0 

1 

o 

M 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

10 

21 

42 

4.16 

2 mos. 

1 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

21 

42 

83 

8.38 

3 

ll 

1 

o 

At 

4 

5 

6 

7 

9 

10 

11 

12 

31 

63 

1.25 

12.50 

4 

II 

2 

3 

5 

7 

8 

10 

12 

13 

15 

16 

42 

83 

1.66 

16.66 

5 

l( 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

15 

17 

19 

21 

52 

1.04 

2.08 

20.83 

6 

II 

3 

5 

i 

9 

12 

15 

18 

20 

23 

25 

63 

1.25 

2.50 

25.00 

1 year. 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

1.25 

2.50 

5.00 

50.00 






















































































INTEREST TABLES, 


64 ? 


SIX PER CENT, 


Time. 

$1 

•*> _ 

M | $4 

$5 

$6 

$7 

$8 

$9 

$10 

$25 

$60 

100 

1,000 

1 day. 

0 

0 

0 

o 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

16 

2 days. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

3 

33 

«> 

O 

ii 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

5 

50 

4 

ti 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

3 

6 

67 

5 

ti 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

4 

8 

83 

6 

a 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

5 

10 

$1.00 

7 


0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

3 

6 

12 

1.20 

8 

tt 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

6 

13 

1.33 

9 

it 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

7 

15 

1.50 

10 

u 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

8 

16 

1.67 

11 

n 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

8 

17 

1.83 

12 

it 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

4 

9 

18 

2.00 

13 

a 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

5 

10 

22 

2.17 

14 

u 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

5 

11 

23 

2.33 

15 

u 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

6 

12 

25 

2.50 

10 

it 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

6 

13 

26 

2.67 

17 

«( 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

6 

13 

28 

2.83 

18 

it 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

o 

2 

3 

7 

14 

30 

3.00 

19 

tt 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

o 

3 

7 

15 

31 

3.16 

20 

<( 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

o 

3 

8 

16 

33 

3.33 

21 

tt 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

o 

o 

2 

3 

3 

8 

17 

35 

3.50 

22 

it 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

o 

** 

3 

3 

3 

9 

18 

36 

3.66 

23 

it 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

9 

19 

38 

3.73 

24 

ti 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

o 

/W 

2 

3 

3 

4 

10 

20 

40 

4.00 

25 

it 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

10 

21 

41 

4.17 

20 

it 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

11 

22 

43 

4.33 

27 

ii 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

11 

23 

45 

4.50 

28 

ti 

0 

0 

1 

o 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

12 

24 

48 

4.67 

29 

tt 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

12 

25 

50 

4.83 

1 mo. 

0 

1 

1 

2 

o 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

12 

25 

50 

5.00 

2 mos. 

1 

o 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

25 

50 

1.00 

10.00 

3 

ii 

1 

3 

4 

6 

7 

9 

10 

12 

13 

15 

37 

75 

1.50 

15.00 

4 

it 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

50 

1.00 

2.00 

20.00 

5 

it 

2 

5 

7 

10 

12 

15 

17 

20 

22 

25 

62 

1.25 

2.50 

25.00 

0 

i; 

3 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

75 

1.50 

3.00 

30.00 

1 year. 

6 

12 

18 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

1.50 

3.00 

6.00 

60.00 


EIGHT PER CENT. 


Time. 

$1 

$2 

$3 

$4 

$6 

$6 

$7 

$8 

$9 

$10 

$25 

$50 

100 

1,000 

4 days. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

4 

9 

88 

8 “ 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

9 

17 

$1.76 

12 “ 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

6 

13 

26 

2.63 

10 “ 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

o 

2 

3 

3 

3 

9 

17 

35 

3.52 

20 “ 

0 

0 

1 

2 

o 

o. 

3 

3 

4 

4 

11 

22 

44 

4.40 

24- “ 

0 

0 

1 

o 

** 

o 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

13 

26 

53 

5.28 

28 “ 

0 

1 

o 

o 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

16 

31 

61 

6.16 

1 mo. 

0 

1 

o 

3 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

17 

33 

67 

6.67 

2 mos. 

1 

o 

4 

5 

6 

8 

9 

10 

12 

13 

33 

67 

1.33 

13.33 

3 “ 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

50 

1.00 

2 00 

20.00 

4 « 

3 

5 

8 

11 

13 

16 

18 

21 

24 

28 

67 

1.33 

2.67 

26.67 

5 “ 

3 

7 

10 

13 

17 

20 

23 

27 

30 

33 

83 

1.67 

3.33 

33.33 

6 “ 

4 

8 

12 

16 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

1.00 

2.00 

4.00 

40.00 

1 year. 

8 

16 

24 

32 

40 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

2.00 

4.00 

8.00 

80.00 












































































648 


INTEREST TABLES, 


SEVEN PER CENT. 


Time. 

$1 

$2 

$3 

$4 

$5 

$6 

$7 

$S 

$9 

$10 

$25 

$50 

100 

1,000 

1 day. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

19 

2 days. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

4 

38 

3 

U 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

3 

5 

57 

4 

it 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

O 

AW 

4 

8 

77 

5 

4 4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

4 

9 

96 

6 

U 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

5 

11 

$1.16 

7 

u 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

6 

13 

1.35 

8 

44 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

7 

15 

1.55 

9 

U 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

8 

17 

1.73 

lf> 

u 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

9 

19 

1.92 

11 

4 • 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

5 

10 

21 

2.12 

12 

u 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

9 

O 

AW 

5 

11 

23 

2.31 

13 

u 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

o 

AW 

6 

12 

25 

2.50 

14 

u 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

9 

AW 

6 

13 

27 

2.69 

15 

• 4 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

9 

AW 

7 

14 

29 

2.91 

1G 

44 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

o 

3 

7 

15 

31 

3.10 

17 

u 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

8 

16 

33 

3.29 

18 

4 4 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

8 

17 

34 

3.46 

19 

u 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

9 

18 

36 

3.65 

20 

a 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

o 

o 

AW 

3 

3 

3 

9 

19 

38 

3.84 

21 

u 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

10 

20 

40 

4.04 

22 

44 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

o 

A* 

3 

4 

4 

10 

21 

42 

4.23 

23 

44 

0 

0 

1 

1 

O 

o 

3 

3 

4 

4 

11 

22 

44 

4.42 

24 

44 

0 

0 

1 

1 

o 

o 

M 

3 

3 

4 

4 

11 

23 

46 

4.62 

25 

44 

0 

0 

1 

1 

_o 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

12 

24 

48 

4.81 

26 

44 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

12 

25 

50 

5.00 

27 

'.4 

0 

0 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

5 

13 

26 

52 

5.20 

28 

44 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

5 

13 

27 

53 

5.39 

29 

44 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

14 

28 

55 

5.58 

1 mo. 

0 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

14 

29 

58 

5.83 

2 nios. 

1 

2 

3 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

29 

58 

1.17 

11.67 

3 

44 

2 

3 

5 

7 

9 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

44 

88 

1.75 

17.50 

4 

4 ( 

2 

4 

7 

9 

12 

14 

16 

18 

21 

23 

58 

1.17 

2.33 

23.33 

5 

44 

3 

6 

9 

12 

15 

17 

20 

23 

26 

29 

73 

1.46 

2.91 

29.17 

G 

44 

4 

7 

11 

14 

18 

21 

25 

28 

32 

35 

88 

1.75 

3.50 

35.00 

1 year. 

7 

14 

21 

28 

35 

42 

49 

56 

63 

70 

1.75 

3.50 

7.00 

70.00 


TEN PER CENT. 


Time. 

$1 

ip AW 

$3 

$4 

$5 

$6 

$7 

$8 

$9 

$10 

$25 

$50 

100 

1,000 

4 days. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

5 

11 

$1.10 

8 “ 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

o 

5 

11 

22 

2.19 

12 “ 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

o 

2 

3 

3 

8 

16 

33 

3.28 

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0 

0 

1 

2 

9 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

11 

22 

44 

4.38 

20 “ 

0 

1 

2 

O 

2 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

14 

27 

55 

5.48 

24 “ 

0 

1 

o 

o 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

6 

17 

33 

66 

6.57 

28 “ 

0 

1 

o 

Aw 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

7 

19 

38 

77 

7.67 

1 mo. 

'1 

1 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

21 

42 

83 

8.33 

2 mos. 

2 

3 

5 

6 

8 

10 

12 

13 

15 

17 

42 

83 

1.67 

16.G7 

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2 

5 

( 

10 

13 

15 

17 

20 

23 

25 

62 

1.25 

2.50 

25.00 

4 “ 

3 

6 

10 

12 

17 

20 

23 

27 

30 

33 

83 

1.67 

3.33 

33.33 

5 “ 

4 

7 

13 

15 

21 

25 

29 

33 

37 

42 

1.04 

2.08 

4.17 

41.67 

6 “ 

5 

10 

15 

2Q 

25 

3Q 

35 

40 

45 

50 

1.25 

2.50 

5.00 

50.00 

1 year. 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

GO 

70 

80 

90 

1.00 

2.50 

5.00 

1000 

100.00 














































































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* Some States, not here mentioned, only legalize and recognize the Standard United States bushel, without reference to wejgnt. 


















































































650 


THE HEIGHT OF MOUNTAINS. 


THE HIGHEST MOUNTAINS 

Names of Mountains. 

Mount Everest (Himalayas).. 

Sorata. the highest mountain in America .. 

Illimani. 

Chimborazo. 

Hindoo-Koosh. 

Cotopaxi, highest volcano in the world- 

Antisana.,. 

St. Elias, highest mountain in 1ST. America . 

Popocotepetl, volcano. 

Mt. Roa, highest mountain in Oceanica- 

Mt. Brown, highest peak Rocky Mountains, 
Mont Blanc, highest mount.in Europe, Alps, 

Mont Rosa, next highest peak of Alps. 

Limit of perpetual snow at the . 

Pincliinca. 

Mount Whitney. 

Mount Fail-weather. 

Mount Shasta. 

Pike’s Peak. 

Demavend, highest of Elburz Mts.,volcano, 

Mount Ophir. 

Fremont’s Peak, Rocky Mountains. 

Long’s Peak, Rocky Mountains. 

Mount Ranier. 

Mount Ararat. 

Peak of Teneriffe. 

Miltsin, highest of Atlas Mountains. 

Mount Hood. 

Mount Lebanon. 

Mount Perdu, highest of the Pyrenees. 

Mount St. Helen’s. 

Mount iEtna, volcano. 

Monte Corno, highest of the Appenines_ 

Sneehattan, highest Dovrefield mountains . 

Mount Sinai ... 

Pindus, highest mountain in. 

Black Mountain, highest mountain in. 

Mount Washington, highest White Mount’s, 

Mount Marcy. highest mountain in. 

Mount Hecla, volcano. 

Ben Nevis, highest mount, in Great Britain, 
Mount Mansfield, highest of Green Mount’s, 

Peaks of Otter. 

Mount Vesuvius. 

Round Top, highest of Catskill Mountains . 


OF THE WORLD. 

Country. Feet. 

Thibet. 29,002 

Bolivia.25,380 

Bolivia.21.780 

Ecuador.21.444 

Afghanistan. 20,600 

Ecuador.19.408 

Ecuador. 19.150 

Canada. 18.000 

Mexico.17.735 

Hawaii.16.000 

Canada.15.900 

Savoy.15,766 

Savoy.15,380 

Equator.15.207 

Ecuador.15.200 

California.15,000 

Alaska.14.796 

California.14.450 

Colorado.14.320 

Persia.14.000 

Sumatra.13.800 

‘Wyoming.13.570 

Colorado.13.400 

Wash. Territory. 13.000 

Armenia.12,700 

Canary Islands .. 12.236 

Morocco.12.000 

Oregon.11.570 

Syria.11.000 

France.10.950 

Oregon.10.150 

Sicily..10.050 

Naples. 9,523 

Norway. 8,115 

Arabia. 8.000 

Greece. 7,677 

North Carolina .. 6.476 
New Hampshire . 6,234 

New York . 5.467 

Iceland. 5,000 

Scotland. 4.379 

Vermont. 4.280 

Virginia’. 4.260 

Naples. 3,932 

New York. 3,804 


Miles. 
5i 
5 
45 
H 
3£ 
3J 
3i 

ai 

3} 
3 
3 
3 
3 

2 * 
2| 
25 
21 
2! 
2 | 
2| 
2 § 
2| 
2* 
2 $ 
25 

si 

2J 
2i 
25 
2 

n 
n 

i£ 

n 

H 

H 

n 
n 

i 
i 

£ 
£ 
£ 
£ 
1 


NUMBER OF PLANTS AND QUANTITY OF SEED TO USE. 


Asparagus roots .—1000 plants to bed 
4 by 225 feet. 

Beans.—1 qt. plants 150 feet of row. 
Beets .— 1 ounce plants 150 ft. of row. 
Cabbage .— 1 ounce gives 2.500 plants. 
Celery .— 1 ounce gives 7 000 plants. 
Cucumber .— 1 ounce for 150 hills. 
Ziettuce. — 1 ounce gives 7,000 plants. 


Melon .— 1 ounce for 120 hills. 

Onion .—Four pounds to the acre. 
Radish .— 1 ounce to 100 ft. of ground 
Spinach .— 1 ounce to 250 ft. of row. 
Squash .— 1 ounce to 75 hills. 

Tomato .— 1 ounce gives 2,500 plants 
Turnip .— 1^ pounds to the acre. 
















































































OCEANS, SEAS, BAYS, LAKES, AND RIVERS, 


651 


THE OCEANS, SEAS, BAYS, AND LAKES OF THE WORLD. 


Oceans. Sq. Miles. 

Pacific, about.80.000.000 

Atlantic, “ 40,000,000 

Indian, “ 20.000,000 

Southern, “ 10.000.000 

Arctic, “ 5,000.000 

Note.—T he seas, hays, gulfs, &c., 
connected with each ocean, are in¬ 
cluded in the foregoing estimate. It 
may be proper to remark, however, 
that the exact superficial extent of 
the several oceans is not known 
with certainty, nor the exact propor¬ 
tion of land and water. 


Length 

Seas. in Miles. 

Mediterranean, about.2,000 

Caribbean, about.1.800 

China, “ 1,700 

Red, “ 1.400 

Japan, .1,000 

Black, “ 932 

Caspian, “ 640 

Baltic, “ 600 

Okhotsk, “ 600 

White, “ 450 

Aral, “ 250 


Bays. 


Length. 

Miles. 

Hudson’s, about. 


....1,200 

Baffin’s, “ 



Chesapeake, “ 


.... 250 

Lakes. 

Length. 

Width. 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Superior. 

..380.... 

.120 

Baikal. 

..360... 

.35 

Michigan. 

.330.... 

. 60 

Great Slave. 

..300.... 

.45 

Huron. 

..250.... 

. 90 

Winnipeg. 

..240.... 

. 40 

Erie. 

..270.... 

. 50 

Athabasca. 

..200.... 

.20 

Ontario. 

.180.... 

. 40 

Maracaybo. 

..150.... 

. 60 

Great Bear. 

.150.... 

. 40 

Ladoga. 

..125.... 

. 75 

Cli am plain. 



Nicaragua. 

.120.... 

. 40 

Lake of the Woods 

,.. 70.... 

.25 

Geneva . 

.. 50.... 

. 10 

Constance. 

.. 45.... 

. 10 

Cayuga . 

.. 36.... 

. 4 

George... 

.. 36.... 

. 3 


THE LONGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD. 

Rivers. Locality. Rise. Discharge. Miles. 

Missouri.N.America.. Rocky Mountains.Gulf of Mexico . 4,194» 

Mississippi... N.America.. Lake Itaska.Gulf of Mexico. 3,200 

Amazon.Brazil.Andes.Atlantic Ocean. 3,800 

Hoang-Ho_China..Koulkoun Mountains .. Yellow Sea.3,000 

Murray.Australia ... Australian Alps.Encounter Bay. 3,000 

Obi ..Siberia.Altaian Mountains.Arctic Ocean... 2,800 

Nile.Egypt,Nubia Blue Nile, Abyssinia... Mediterranean . 2,750 

Yaug-tse-Kia. China.Thibet...China Sea.2,500 

Lena.Siberia.Heights of Irkutsk_Arctic Ocean... 2,500 

Niger.Soudan.Base of Mt. Loma.Gulf of Guinea . 2.300 

St. Lawrence. Canada.River St. Louis.Glf.St.Lawrence 1,960 

Volga.Russia.Lake in Volhonsky.Caspian Sea_1,900 

Maykiang_Siam.Thibet.Chinese Gulf... 1,700 

Indus.Hindostan .. Little Thibet.Arabian Sea-1,780 

Danube.Germany ... Black Forest.Black Sea.1,630 

Mackenzie ... N.America.. ItiveF Athabasca.Arctic Ocean ... 2,500 

Brahmapootra Thibet.Himalaya.Bay of Bengal.. 1.500 

Columbia_N.America.. Rocky Mountains.Pacific Ocean .. 1,090 

Colorado.N.America.. San Taha.Gulf of Califor’a 1,000 

Susquehanna. N.America.. Lake Otsego.Chesapeake Bay 400 

James.N.America.. Allegheny Mountains.. Chesapeake Bay 500 

Potomac.N.America.. Gt.Black’Bone Mount’ll Chesapeake Bay 400 

Hudson.N.America.. Adirondacks,Mt.Marcy Bay of N.York . 325 

















































































































652 


CHURCHES IN THE UNITED STATES, 


STATISTICS OF CHURCHES IN THE UNITED STATES. 


Denominations. 

Church 

Organi¬ 

zations.. 

Church 

Edifices 

Church 

Sittings. 

Church 

Property 

Baptist (regular).. 

14,474 

12,827 

3,997,116 

$39,229,221 

Baptist (other). 

1,355 

1,105 

363,019 

2,378,977 

Christian... 

3,578 

2,822 

865,602 

6.425,137 

Congregational... 

2,887 

2,715 

1,117,212 

25.069,698 

Episcopal (Protestant). 

2,835 

2,601 

991,051 

36,514,549 

Evangelical Association. 

815 

641 

193,796 

2,301,650 

Friends. 

692 

662 

224.664 

3.939,560 

Jewish. 

189 

152 

73.265 

5.155.234 

Lutheran. 

3,032 

2,776 

977,332 

14.917,747 

Methodist. 

25,278 

21.337 

6,528,209 

69,854.121 

Miscellaneous. 

27 

17 

6,935 

135.650 

Moravian (Unitas Fratrum). 

72 

67 

25,700 

709,100 

Mormon. 

189 

171 

87,838 

656,750 

New Jerusalem (Swedenborgian). 

90 

61 

18,755 

869.700 

Presbyterian ‘(regular). 

6,262 

5.683 

2,198.900 

47,828,732 

Presbyterian (other). 

Reformed Church in America (late 

1,562 

1,388 

499,344 

5,436,524 

Dutch Reformed) . 

Reformed Church in the United 

471 

468 

227,228 

10,359,255 

States (late German Reformed) 

1.256 

1,145 

431,700 

5.775.215 

Roman Catholic. 

4,127 

3,806 

1.990,514 

60.985.566 

Second Advent. 

225 

140 

34.555 

306,240 

Shaker. 

18 

18 

8,850 

86.900 

Spiritualist. 

95 

22 

6,970 

100,150 

Unitarian. 

331 

310 

155,471 

6.282.675 

United Brethren in Christ. 

1,445 

937 

265,025 

1,819,810 

Universalist. 

719 

602 

210,884 

5.692.325 

Unknown (Local Missions). 

26 

27 

11,925 

687.800 

Unknown (Union). 

409 

552 

153,202 

965,295 

Total—All Denominations. 

72,459 

63,082 

21,665,062 

$354,483,581 


GENERAL COUNCILS. 


A.T). 

Jerusalem .A gai n st Judaizers 51 

Arles .Against Donatists 314 

Nice .First (Ecumenical 325 

Constantinople, Arian.337 

Rome .Atlianasiau.342 

Sardis .Against Arius ... 347 

Constantinople ,Second (Ecumen’l 381 


'Ephesus .Third 

Chalcedon .Fourth 

Constantinople,Yifth 
Constantinople,Sixth 

Nice .Seventh 

Constantinople, Eigh th 

Rome .First Lateral*_1123 

Rome Second “ —1139 


431 

451 

553 

681 

787 

870 


A.T). 

Rome .Third Lateran.. .1179 

Rome .Fourth “ 1215 

Lyons .Empe’r Frederick 

deposed.1243 

Lyons .Reunion of Greek 

Latin churches 1274 

Vienna .15th (Ecumenical,1312 

Pisa .Popes Elected & 

Deposed.1409 

Constance .Huss condemned 

to he burnt_1414 

Basle .18th (Ecumenical.1431 

Rome .Fifth Lateran,1512-17 

Trent .Oecumenical. .1545-63 

Rome . (Ecumenical .. 1869-70 









































































PRICES OF COMMODITIES, 


653 


PRICES OF COMMODITIES FOR FIFTY-THREE YEARS,-1825-77. 

Showing the Average Price of the Articles named in the New York Market , in 
the month of January of each year. 


u 

Beef, 

Fx 

O) 

+-> 

-+3 

a 

<D 

- <3 

q U 

-2 

afrj 

s® 2 

<D 

Mesa. 

M 

a 

* 

o +5 
O e 
< 

q , 
o 1 

1 

P3 c3 
O u 


Bbl. 

ft 

Bush. 

Ton. 

ft 

4825 

8 

78 

15 

1 

01 

10 

00 

164 

1826 

9 

16 

15! 


90 

12 

00 

164 

1827 

9 

02 

174 


93 

12 

00 

144 

1828 

9 

14 

15! 

1 

15 

11 

50 

144 

1829 

9 

21 

13| 

1 

63 

11 

50 

124 

1830 

8 

99 

134 

1 

04 

12 

00 

12 

1831 

8 

50 

14! 

1 

25 

7 

50 

10 

1832 

9 

46 

154 

1 

26 

12 

50 

13 

1833 

9 

38 

154 

1 

19! 

9 

25 

13 

1834 

9 

17 

14 

1 

06 

6 

00 

11! 

1835 

11 

08 

174 

1 

05 

6 

00 

114 

1836 

10 

97 

194 

1 

78 

8 

00 

ll! 

1837 

13 

49 

19 

1 

77! 

10 

50 

11 

1838 

14 

70 

20 

1 

92 

9 

00 

10! 

1839 

14 

81 

19 

1 

244 

8 

25 

104 

1840 

13 

02 

174 

1 

06 

7 

50 

10 

1841 

9 

01 

H4 

1 

03 

8 

00 

104 

1842 

7 

39 

Hi 

1 

25 

8 

50 

9 

1843 

7 

15 

84 


884 

5 

75 

84 

1844 

5 

62 

10! 

1 

00 

5 

25 

64 

1845 

8 

21 

134 

1 

02! 

5 

50 

64 

1846 

7 

54 

13 

1 

31 

5 

50 

71 

i 2 

1847 

11 

44 

16 

1 

02! 

6 

50 

r-l 
‘ 2 

1848 

9 

88 

16 

1 

25 

5 

75 

7 

1849 

11 

68 

15 

1 

224 

5 

95 

5! 

1850 

9 

08 

154 

1 

25 

5 

75 

11! 

1851 

8 

86 

14! 

1 

20 

6 

75 

104 

1852 

10 

72 

18! 

1 

09 

5 

25 

84 

1853 

8 

87 

18 

1 

32 

5 

25 

8! 

1854 

10 

94 

194 

o 

04 

6 

75 

11* 

1855 

11 

47 

22! 

o 

** 

57 

7 

25 

9 

1856 

8 

57 

224 

2 

14 

5 

95 

104 

1857 

12 

87 

‘224 

1 

75 

6 

50 

84 

1858 

10 

48 

184 

1 

37 

5 

50 

74 

1859 

7 

59 

19 

1 

40 

5 

25 

134 

1860 

9 

00 

16 

1 

45 

5 

50 

15 

1861 

6 

00 

14 

1 

44 

5 

75 

284 

1862 

5 

50 

15 

1 

38 

4 

75 

19! 

1863 

12 

00 

22 

1 

53 

8 

50 

214 

1864 

14 

00 

24 

1 

82! 

9 

75 

31 

1865 

20 

50 

45 

1 

85 

10 

00 

44 

1866 

20 

00 

30 

1 

874 

8 

50 

45 

1867 

18 

00 

30 

3 

00 

5 

50 

18J 

1868 

32 

00 

45 

2 

45 

5 

00 

114 

1869 

28 

00 

40 

1 

70 

5 

50 

11 

1870 

27 

00 

30 

1 

30 

5 

50 

104 

1871 

27 

00 

20 

1 

42 

9 

00 

12 

1872 

21 

00 

15 

1 

50 

4 

50 

16 

1873 

21 

00 

16 

1 

67 

6 

00 

17! 

1874 

22 

00 

27 

1 

65 

6 

00 

19 

1875 

21 

00 

29 

1 

25 

5 

25 

19 

1876 

23 

00 

26 

1 

30 

5 

50 

18 

1877 

20 

00 

28 

1 

47 

3 

00 

20 


Corn. 

Cotton, 

Upland 

P +3 

£ g 

Hams. 

r-i L* 

cs f; 

c ij 

Iron, 

Bar. 

Bush. 

ft 

Bbl. 

ft 

ft 

Ton. 


42 

14 

5 

13 

9! 

8! 

87 50 


74 

13! 

4 

80 

94 

9 

97 50 


70 

94 

5 

14 

104 

8 

92 50 


57 

9 

5 

58 

94 

8 

82 50 


59 

10 

6 

45 

9! 

8 

80 00 


54 

94 

4 

984 

9! 

74 

73 75 


58! 

10 

5 

71 

10! 

6 

76 25 


75 

84 

5 

76! 

9! 

54 

72 00 


81! 

104 

5 

564 

94 

7 

75 00 


594 

11 

4 

98 

9! 

7! 

75 00 


74 

164 

5 

864 

9! 

64 

68 75 


904 

15 

7 

494 

12! 

94 

75 00 

1 

06 

16 

9 

14 

12! 

74 

98 75 


86 

114 

7 

96 

12! 

64 

87 50 


92 

14 

7 

30 

ll! 

64 

88 75 


594 

84 

5 

294 

10 


82 50 


52 

94 

5 

584 

7! 

6 

73 75 


67 

Pi 

5 

57 

6! 

6 

61 25 


594 

7 

4 

854 

8 

4 

58 75 


43 

8 

4 

67 

9 

64 

57 50 


514 

5 

4 

934 

6 

4 

63 75 


74 

04 

5 

06 

64 

6 

78 75 


80 

10 

6 

684 

10! 

64 

76 25 


77 

7! 

5 

96 

7J 

5 

70 00 


64! 

6 

5 

51 

84 

4! 

50 00 


61 

11 

5 

55 

8 

44 

43 75 


644 

134 

4 

52 

8 

54 

40 50 


70! 

8 

5 

00 

94 

8! 

5 

34 50 


684 

9* 

5 

78 

5 

67 50 


824 

10 

8 

89! 

7! 

44 

67 50 

1 

01 

7 

8 

76 

8! 

44 

58 25 


93 

9 

6 

42 

9 

84 

60 50 


734 

13 

5 

78! 

10! 

10 

56 25 


61 

9 

4 

294 

8! 

6! 

53 75 


80! 

11 

4 

11 

8! 

64 

46 50 


914 

11 

4 

30 

9! 

74 

42 25 


73 

12 

5 

35 

8 

54 

41 25 


67 

37 

5 

50 

6 

84 

53 00 


75 

66! 

6 

05 

8 

9 

78 75 

1 

26 

75 

7 

00 

ll 

13! 

105 00 

1 

95 

70 

10 

00 

20 

194 

125 00 


95! 

51! 

8 

75 

164 

m 

94 00 

l 

10! 

29 

11 

00 

12! 

10 

90 00 

1 

20 

16 

9 

55 

12 

H4 

85 00 


90 

26 

6 

00 

15! 

114 

85 00 

1 

12 

25g 

4 

85 

15 

104 

75 00 


80 

15! 

6 

25 

11 

114 

75 00 


78 

20 

6 

40 

9! 

li 

105 00 


66 

204 

6 

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94 

9! 

110 00 


84 

16! 

6 

00 

10 

7! 

160 00 


97 

14! 

4 

50 

11 

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135 00 


71 

13! 

4 

35 

124 

8 

135 00 


59 

124 

5 

50 

104 

9f 

131 00 


a o 
P o . 
j oPh 


b£l 


Ton. 
42 50 
65 00 

50 00 

51 00 

52 50 
45 00 

42 50 

43 75 
42 50 
42 75 
40 25 
40 25 
65 00 
52 50 
33 75 

33 75 
36 25 

34 50 

27 25 

32 00 

30 50 

39 00 

33 50 
36 25 

25 50 

23 50 
22 25 
20 15 

31 00 
38 00 

28 75 

32 50 
30 50 

26 50 

26 50 

24 50 
20 50 
22 00 

33 00 

44 00 

50 00 

51 50 

47 00 
36 00 

40 50 

33 00 

34 00 
34 00 

48 00 
42 00 
38 00 
32 00 

27 50 




























































t 


654 RATE OF MORTALITY.—PETROLEUM. 


RATE OF MORTALITY IN AMERICAN CITIES.—NUMBER OF 
DEATHS PER ANNUM OUT OF 1,000 INHABITANTS. 



1875. 

9 months. 

1876. 

1 year. 

1877. 

1 year. 

1878. 
10 mos. 

Baltimore . 

21.23 

21.26 

21.25 

19.19 

Boston ____........ 

25. 

23.58 

20.43 

20.85 

Brooklvn . 

25.91 

24.92 

21.61 

20.23 

Buffalo N. Y . 

16.61 

10.43 


Charleston S. C. 

34.60 

30.72 

24.34 

28.96 

China, wo . 

20.29 

20.42 

18.24 

15.75 

riTipinuflli ... 

20.39 

23.10 

17.81 

16.59 

Payton O .. 

14.22 

14.04 

12.29 

13.07 

Tietroit,, Mich. 

15.97 

14. 


Fdmira "N". Y. 

17.01 

15.56 

14.53 

18.66 

Frie Pa . 

18.74 

13.40 

13.71 

13.10 

"Knoxville, Tenn. 

14.25 

12.92 

14.72 

"Memphis, Tenn. 

29.79 

24.78 

26.06 


Mobile, Ala. 

Milwaukee, Wis. 

22. 

14.64 

24.34 

18.78 

24.14 

16.84 

21.19 

13.43 

Nashville, Teim. 

- 43.17 

31.82 

29.57 

21.77 

Newark, N. J. 

New Haven, Conn. 

20.29 

20.79 

27.15 

17.89 

23.17 

19.66 

18.18 

New Orleans, La. 

27.80 

26.89 

34.83 

32.42 

New York. 

29.79 

27.23 

24.38 

25.47 

Paterson, N. J. 

30.94 

26.72 

24.28 

21.24 

Petersburg, Va. 

31.06 

31.31 

24.46 

Philadelphia. 

24.35 

24.51 

19.02 

18.20 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 

21.69 

21.90 

23.87 

23.41 

Providence, It. I. 

18.94 

18.30 

18.81 

19.47 

Heading, Pa. 

19.55 

27.95 

22.50 

Richmond, Va . 

24.97 

22.18 

21.93 

19.05 

Rochester, N. Y. 

24.39 

21.27 

18.41 

14.82 

San Francisco. 

19.9.8 

18.89 

19.86 

15.5G 

Selma, Ala. 

22.53 

16.87 

19.62 

30.81 

St. Louis . 

16.19 

13.48 

11.69 

12.42 

Syracuse, N. Y. 

10.26 

13 20 

11.33 

Toledo, O . 

24.90 

14.80 

13.54 

12.32 

"Washington, D. C. 

Wheeling, W. Va. 

29.03 

18.06 

25.81 

21.35 

24.39 

16.78 

27.28 

YonkersrN. Y. 

19.29 

23.37 

17.81 

14.40 


AMERICxlN PETROLEUM. 

Twenty years ago this article was little known. The first artificial well 
was sunk in August, 1859. Now there is an annual production in this 
country of about 15,060,000 barrels (600,000,000 gallons), aud from $10,000,000 
to $60,000,000 worth is exported to other countries annually,—our exports 
ranging in importance, according to valuation—first, cotton ; second, flour 
and grain; third, hog products (lard, hams, and salt pork); and fourth, pe¬ 
troleum. There are more than 10.000 oil-wells flowing or being sunk, and 
probably over $10,000,000 invested in the business, in one way and another. 
Fifteen 'million barrels (forty gallons to a barrel) of this oil would fill 
9,600,000.000 lamps holding half a pint each, or about seven such lamps for 
every man, woman, and child on our globe. All this has come to light, from 
the bowels of the earth, in less than twenty years, during which time wa 
have not only used all the petroleum we have wanted ourselves, hut have 
sent to other lands nearly $500,000,000 worth, at the custom-house valuation. 

























































NEWSPAPERS ANt> PMomOAL& * 665 


NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS IN THE UNITED STATES, 

18504280. 


States 

and 

Territories. 

1850. 

1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

No. 

Circula¬ 

tion. 

No. 

Circula¬ 

tion. 

No. 

Circula¬ 

tion. 

No. 

Alabama. 

60 

34,282 

96 

93,595 

89 

91.165 

114 

Arizona. 





1 

280 

1 () 

Arkansas. 

9 

7.250 

37 

39.812 

56 

29,830 

103 

California. 

7 

4,619 

121 

229,893 

201 

491,903 

310 

Colorado. 





14 

12,750 

81 

Connecticut. 

46 

52,670 

55 

95,536 

71 

203^725 

128 

Dakota. 





3 

1 652 

67 

Delaware. 

10 

7,500 

14 

16,144 

17 

20.860 

24 

Distr't of Columbia 

18 

100,073 

13 

69,510 

22 

81,400 

39 

Florida. 

10 

5,750 

22 

15.500 

23 

10,545 

40 

Georgia. 

51 

64,155 

105 

180,972 

110 

150,987 

186 

Idaho. 





6 

2 750 

11 

Illinois. 

107 

88,050 

286 

356,159 

505 

1,722.541 

863 

Indiana. 

107 

63.138 

186 

159,381 

293 

363,542 

429 

Iowa. 

29 

22,500 

130 

89.240 

233 

219,090 

518 

Kansas. 



27 

21,920 

97 

96 803 

303 

Kentucky. 

62 

79,868 

77 

179,597 

89 

197,130 

183 

Louisiana. 

55 

80,288 

81 

120,650 

92 

84,165 

100 

Maine. 

49 

63,439 

70 

126,169 

65 

170,690 

103 

Maryland. 

68 

124.779 

57 

122,244 

88 

235,450 

138 

Massachusetts. 

209 

718.221 

222 

1.368,980 

259 

1,692,124 

392 

Michigan. 

58 

52,690 

118 

128,848 

211 

253,774 

418 

Minnesota. 



49 

32,554 

95 

110,778 

209 

Mississippi. 

50 

30,555 

73 

88,737 

111 

7b 868 

106 

Misgom’i. 

61 

70,235 

173 

354,007 

279 

522.866 

471 

Montana. 





10 

19,580 

16 

Nebraska. 



14 

9,750 

42 

31,600 

179 

Nevada. 





12 

11*300 

31 

New Hampshire ... 

38 

60,226 

20 

19,700 

51 

173,919 

82 

New Jersey. 

51 

44,521 

90 

162,016 

122 

205,500 

200 

New Mexico. 

2 

1,150 

2 

1,150 

5 

1,525 

18 

New York. 

428 

1,624,576 

542 

6,034,636 

835 

7,561,497 

1,241 

North Carolina_ 

51 

35,252 

74 

79,374 

64 

64.820 

121 

Ohio. 

261 

389,463 

340 

1,121,682 

395 

1,388,367 

660 

Oregon . 

2 

1,134 

16 

27,620 

35 

45,750 

64 

Pennsylvania. 

310 

984,777 

367 

1,432,695 

540 

3,419,765 

866 

Rhode Island. 

19 

24,472 

26 

49,690 

32 

82,050 

37 

South Carolina. 

46 

53,743 

45 

53,870 

55 

80.900 

77 

Tennessee. 

50 

67,672 

83 

176.908 

91 

225.952 

170 

Texas. 

34 

18,205 

89 

108,038 

112 

55.250 

254 

Utah. 



2 

6,300 

10 

14,250 

17 

Vermont. 

35 

45.961 

31 

47^415 

47 

71,390 

76 

Virginia *. 

87 

87,768 

139 

301.622 

114 

143,840 

177 

Washington Ter’ry 



4 

2,350 

14 

6,785 

27 

West Virginia *_... 





59 

54,432 

99 

Wisconsin. 

46 

33,015 

155 

139,145 

190 

343.385 

319 

Wyoming. 





6 

1,950 

10 








Total. 

2.526 

5,142,177 

4,051 

13,663.409 

5.871 

20.842.475 

10,101 


* In 1850 and 1860 Virginia included West Virginia. 









































































































Explanation.— The large figures at the top of the columns show the rate of wages per day, and the smaller figures 
the rate per hour or per day. For example, to find the rate per hour at $1.50 per day, begin with the figure 1, in the leftdiand 
column showing the number of hours, and trace toward the right to the column headed by $1.50, where 15 cents is found 
the rate of pay for one hour’s labor at $1.50 per day. In like manner the rate for several hours or days mav be found ’ 


666 TABLE OF WAGES BY THE BAY. 


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T^YIBIjTG OF WAGrias by a'UK WEEK 

_COMPUTED on a basis of ten hours’ labor PElt day. 


'TABLE OF WAGES BY THE WEEK. 65? 


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& 

15 

CO 

rH 

09 

r 

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1.50 

1.80 

2.10 

2.40 

2.70 

$3.00 

6.00 

9.00 

12.00 

15.00 

17.00 i 18.00 

Explanation. The lar^e figures at the top of the columns show the rate of wages per week, and the smaller figures 
the rate per hour or per day. For example, to find the rate per hour at $8 per week, begin with the figure 1, in the left-hand 
column showing the number of hours, and trace toward the right to the column headed by $8, where 13% cents is found, the 
rate oi pay for one hour s labor at $8 per week. In like manner the rate for several hours or days may he found. 

$17 

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&$8 OClCtfPAMONS OF THE FEOFLJU 


THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES IN THE UNITED STATES. 


Denomination. 

Seminaries. 

! 

Professors, j 

Students. |l 

Denomination. 

Seminaries. 

Professors. 

Students. 

"Roman Catholic_ 

18 

96 

575 

Un sectarian. 

2 

17 

120 

Protestant Episcopal. 

16 

65 

263 

Reformed (Dutch)- 

2 

5 

40 

Presbyterian_ 

16 

82 

674 

Universalist. 

o 

9 

48 

Baptist. 

16 

62 

772 

African Meth. Episc’l. 

1 

6 

8 

T/nthcran__ 

13 

38 

252 

Mennonite. 

1 

4 

50 

Con o-rp (ration al 

9 

64 

347 

Methodist. 

1 



Methodist Episcopal. 

7 

46 

383 

Moravian. 

1 

3 

i9 

Christian. 

3 

4 

31 

New Jerusalem. 

1 

1 


Reformed. 

3 

8 

62 

Union Evangelical.... 

1 

4 

32 

United Preshvterian . 

3 

11 

65 

Unitarian. 

1 

6 

19 

Cumberland Presby’n 

2 

11 

61 

United Brethren. 

1 

2 

33 

Free-Will Baptist_ 

2 

10 

43 




— 

Meth. Episc’l. (South). 

2 

8 

68 1 

Total. 

124 

562 

3965 


OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The tables of the census of 1870 exhibit interesting statistics on tbe 
employments -which divide the industry of our people. The population of 
the United States over ten years of age was shown to amount to 28,228,945, 
of which number 14,258,866 were males. There were returned as engaged 
in all classes of occupations a total of 12,505,923, of which number 10,669,635 
were males, and 1,836,288 females. In the census of occupations it will be 
seen that by far the greater number of inhabitants over ten years of age 
were returned as engaged in some class of labor. Grouping tho results of 
the more detailed table of diversified occupations, it is shown that they 
were distributed in the following four great classes of occupations, 
namely:— 


Engaged in Agriculture. 5,922,471 

Engaged in Manufactures and Mechanical and Mining Industries, 2,707,421 

Engaged in Professional and Personal Services. 2,684,793 

Engaged in Trade and Transportation.1,191,238 

Total.12,505,923 


It will be seen that the pursuits of agriculture occupy 46.31 per cent, or 
something less than half the population; manufacturing industries, 21.64 
per cent of all classes of occupations; professional and personal services, 
21.46 per cent; and trade and transportation 9.53 per cent of the whole. or 
less than one tenth, 


















































AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY 


ABBREVIATIONS USED IN WRITING AND PRINTING, | 


ABBREVIATIONS USED IN WRITING AND PRINTING. 


A. A. 8. (Academics Ameri- 
canes Socius.) Fellow of 
the American Academy. 

A. B. ( ArtiumBacccUaureus .) 

Bachelor of Arts. 

A. B. 8. American Bible So¬ 
ciety. [fore Christ. 

A. C. ( Ante Christum.) Be- 

Acct. Account. 

A. D. (Anno Domini.) In 
the year of our Lord. 

Adjt.' Adjutant. 

A(ljt.-Qen. Adjutant-General. 

lEt, IE. (jEtatis.) Of age; aged. 

A. & F. B. 8. American and 
Foreign Bible Society. 

A. H. M. 8. American Home 
Missionary Society. 

Al., Ala. Alabama. 

A. M. (Artium Afagister.)— 
Master of Arts.—(Ante Me¬ 
ridiem.) Before noon.— 
(Anno Mundi.) In the year 
of the world. 

Am., Amer. American. 

An. (Anno.) In the year. 

Anon. Anonymous. 

Ark. Arkansas. 

A.-S. Anglo-Saxon. 

A. 8 . 8 . U. American Sunday 
School Union. 

A. T. S. American Tract So¬ 
ciety ; American Temper¬ 
ance Society. 

Att., Atty. Attorney. 

Atiy.-Gen. Attorney-General. 

A. U.C. (Anno Urbis Conditoe.) 
In the year from the build¬ 
ing of the city [Rome], 

[ish America. 

B. A. Bachelor of Arts; Brit- 

B. C. Before Christ. 

B. C. L. Bachelor of Civil Law. 

B. D. Bachelor of Divinity. 

Bd. Bound. 

Bds. Bound in boards. 

Bk. Bank; Book. 

B. L. (Baccalaureus Legum.) 
Bachelor of Laws. 

B. M. (Baccalaureus Medi¬ 
cines.) Bachelor of Medicine. 

Brig. Brigade; Brigadier. 

Brit. Britain; British. 

C. (Centum.) A hundred; 
Cent; Congress. 


C., Cap. (Caput ) Chapter. 
Cal. California; Calends. 
Capt. Captain. 

Gath. Catholic. [Pleas. 

C. C. P. Court of Common 
C. E. Civil Engineer. 

Cent., Ct. (Centum). A hund¬ 
red. 

C. H. Court-House. 

0. J. Chief Justice. 

Co. County; Company. 

C. 0. D. Collect on Delivery. 
Col. Colonel’; Colossians. 
Con. (Contra.) Against, or 

in opposition. 

Con. Cr., C. C. Contra, Credit. 
Cong., C. Congress. 

Conn., Ct. Connecticut. 

Cr. Credit; Creditor. 

Ct. Cent; Court. 

Cur. Current, or this month. 
Cwt. (Centum and weight.) 
Hundred-weight. 

D. , d. (Denarius.) Penny. 
D. C. District of Columbia. 

D. C. L. Doctor of Civil Law. 
1). D. (Divinitatis Doctor ) 

Doctor of Divinity. 

Del. Delaware ; Delegate. " 
Del. (Delineavit.) He drew it. 
Dep., Dept. Department. 
Dep. Deputy. 

Dept., Dpt. Deponent. 

Dft., Deft. Defendant. 

D. G. (Dei Gratia.) By the 
Grace of God. 

Diet. Dictator; Dictionary. 
Dist.-Atty. District-Attorney. 
D. M. Doctor of Music. 

Do. (Ditto.) The same. 
Dols., $. Dollars. 

D. P. Doctor of Philosophy. 
Dr. Doctor: Debtor; Dram, 
i). V. (Deo Volente.) God will¬ 
ing. 

Dwt. (Denarius and weight.) 
Pennyweight. 

E. East; Earl; Eagle. 
Ecdus. Ecclcsiasticus. 

Ed. Edition; Editor, 

E. G., e. g. (Exempli Gratia.) 

For example. 

E. Lon. East Longitude. 

E. N. K. East North-east. ] 
Eng. England; English. 


Ep. Epistle. 

E. 8. E. East South-east. 
Esq., Esqr. Esquire. 

Et al. (Et alii.) Andothers. 
Et »l.(Et alibi.) And elsewhere. 
Etc., Ac. (Et ccetera.) And 
others; aud so forth, 

Fahr. Fahrenheit, [of Arts. 

F. A.S. Fellow of the Society 
F. II. 8. Fellow of the Histor¬ 
ical Society. 

FI., Flor., Fa. Florida. 

Fo., Fol. Folio. 

F. R. G. 8. Fellow of the Royal 
Geographical Society. 

F. R. 8. Fellow of the Royal 
Society. 

Ga. Georgia. 

G. B. Great Britain. , 

Gen. General; Genesis. 

Gov. Governor. 

II., h., hr. Hour. 

Hag. Haggai. 

H. B. M. Her Britannic Majesty 
llhd. Hogshead. 

H. M. His or Her Majesty. 

U. jH. 8. His or Her Majesty's 

Ship or Service. 

Hon. Honorable, 

II. R. House of Representatives 
!£. R. H. His or Her Royal 

Highness. 

la. Iowa. [place. 

lb. , Ibid.t lbidem.)Xn the same 
Id. (Idem.) The same. 

I. e., 1. e. (Id est.) That Is. 

I.H.S. ( Jesus Hominum Salva- 

tor.) Jesus the Saviour ofMeu 

III. Illinois. 

In. Inch ; Inches. 

Ind. Indiana. 

Ind. Ter. Indian Territory. 
Inst. Of the present month. 
Int. Interest. [passage. 
In trans. (In transitu.) On the 

I. T. Indian Territory. 

J. C. D. ( Juris Civilis Doctor.) 
Doctor of Civil Law. 

J. D. (Jurum Doctor.) Doc¬ 
tor of Laws. 

i. P. Justice of the Peace, 
Jr., Jun. Junior. 



















AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 

660 ABBKEVIATIONS EXPLAINED, 


J, U. D. ( Juris Utriusque Doc¬ 
tor.) Doctor of both Laws; 
i. e., Canon and Civil Law. 
Ky. Kentucky. 

L., lb. ( Libra.) Pound weight. 

L., 1., £. Pound Sterling. 

La. Louisiana. 

Lat. Latitude; Latin. 

L. I. Long Island. 

Lib. Librarian. (Liber.) Book. 
Lieut., Lt. Lieutenant. 
Lieut.Col.Lieutenaut-Colonel. 
LL.B. (Legum Baccalaureus.) 

Bachelor of Laws, [of Laws. 
LL.D. (Legum Doctor.) Doctor 
Lon., Long. Longitude. 

L. S. (Locus Sigilli.) Place 
of the Seal. 

L. S. D., I. s. d. Pounds, shil¬ 
lings, pence. 

M. , Mon. Monday. [Academy. 

M. A. Master of Arts: Military 
Mass., Ms. Massachusetts. 

M. B. (Medicines Baccalaure¬ 
us,) Bachelor of Medicine. 

M.B. (Musicas Baccalaureus.) 

Bachelor of Music. 

M. C. Member of Congress; 

Master Commandant. 

M. D. (Medicines Doctor.) 

Doctor of Medicine. 

Md. Maryland. 

Me. Maine. 

M. E. Methodist Episcopal. 
Mem. (Memento.) Remember. 
Mem. Memorandum. 

Messrs., MM. (Messieurs.) 

Gentlemen; Sirs. 

Meth. Methodist. 

Mex. Mexico, or Mexican. 
Mich. Michigan; Michaelmas. 
Minn. Minnesota, [tentiary. 
Min. Plen. Minister Plenipo- 1 
Hiss. Mississippi. 

Mo. Missouri; Month. 

Mons. Monsieur or Sir. 

H. P. Member of Parliament; 
MS. Manuscript. 

MSS. Manuscripts, 

N. A. North America. 

N. B. New Brunswick ; North 
Britain;— (Nota bene.) Mark 
well; take notice. 

N. C. North Carolina. 

N.E. New England; North-east 
Neb. Nebraska. 

N. F. Newfoundland. 

N. H. New Hampshire. 

N. J. New Jersey. 

N. Lat., N. L. North Latitude. I 
N. M. New Mexico. 


N. N. E. North-North-east. 

N. N. >V. North-North-west. 
Nonpros. (Nonprosequitur.) 

He does not prosecute. 

N. P. Notary Public; New 
Providence. 

N. S. New Style; Nova Scotia. 
N. T. New Testament. 

N. W. North-west. 

N. Y. New York. 

O. Ohio ; Oxygen. 

Ob. ob., (Obiit.) Died. 

Ont. Ontario. 

Or. Oregon. 

O. S. Old Style (before 1752j. 

O. T. Old Testament. 

Oz., oz. Ounce, or ounces. 

P. E. Protestant Episcopal-!] 
P.E.I. Prince Edward Island. 
Per an. (Per annum.) By the 

Year. 

Per cent., per et. (Per cen¬ 
tum.) By the hundred. 

Ph. D., P. D. (Philosophies 
Doctor) Doctor of Philosophy 
Pinx., Pxt. (Pinxit.) He or 
she painted it. 

P. M. (PostMeridiem.) After¬ 
noon ; Postmaster. 

P. M. O. Postmaster-General. 
P. P. C. (Pourprendre conge.) 

To take leave. 

P. Q. Province of Quebec. 
Prof. Professor. [the time. 
Pro tem. (Pro tempore.) For 
Prox. (Proximo.)Next month. 

P. S. Privy Seal. (Post scrip- 
turn.) Postscript. 

Ps. Psalm, or Psalms. 

Q. S., q. s. ( Quantum suf- 
ficit.) A sufficient quantity. 

<Ju.,Qy.,q. (Quaere.) Query. 
(J. Y., q. v. (Quod vide.) 
Which see;—( Quantum vis.) 
As much as you please. 

R. (Rex.) King;— (Regina.) 
Queen. 

R. A. Royal Academy; Royal 
Academician; Royal Artil¬ 
lery ; Rear Admiral. 

R. E. Royal Engineers. 

Uec. Sec. Recording Secretary 
Ref, Ch. Reformed Church. 
Reg. Prof. Regius Professor. 
Hep., Uepub. Republic. 

Ilev. Reverend; Revelation. 
R. I. Rhode Island. 

R. N. Royal Navy, 

Rom, Romans. 

Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic. 


R. R. Railroad. 

lit. Hon. Right Honorable. 
Rt. Rev, Right Reverend. 

S. South ; Shilling; Sunday. 

5., St, Saint. 

S. A. South America. 

S. C', South Carolina. 

Sc., Sculp. (Sculpsit.) He, or 
she, engraved it; Sculpture. 
S. E. South-east. 

Sec., Sect. Secretary; Section. 
Serg., Serjt. Sergeant. 

S.J.C. Supreme JudicialCourt. 
Sol.-Gen. Solicitor-General. 
S. P. A. S. (Societatis Philo¬ 
sophical Americanos Socius.) 
.’Member of the American 
Philosophical Society. 

Sq., Sqr. Square, [namely. 

55., ss. (Scilicet.) To wit; 
S. S. E. South-South-east. 

S. S. W. South-South-west. 

S. T. D. (Sacrce Theologias 
Doctor.) Doctor of Divinity. 
Ster., Stg. Sterling. 

S. T. P.(Nacr« Theologias Pro¬ 
fessor ^Vrofes^or of Theology 
Supt. Superintendent. 

S. >V. South-west. 

Tenn, Tennessee. 

Tex. Texas. 

Lit. (Ultimo.) Last month. 
U, S. United States. 

C. 8. A. United States Army; 

United States of America. 

U. S. M. United States Mail; 

United States Marine. 

U. S. N. United States Navy. 
U. S.S. United States Ship. 

U. T. Utah Territory. 

Y,, Yl,, Yid. (Vide.) See. 

Y., vs. (Versus.) Against. 
Ya. Virginia. 

V. -C. Vice-Chancellor. 

Viz.( Videlicet. )To wit; Namely 

V, R. ( Victoria Regina.) 
Queen Victoria. 

Y t. Vermont. 

IV. Welsh ; West. 

W. I. West India; West Indies. 
Wis. Wisconsin. 

IV. Lon. West Longitude. 

W. Vju West Virginia. 

Xmas., Xm. Christmas. 

Xu., Xtian. Christian. 

Y., or Yr. Year. 

Yd. Yard;—Yds. Yards. 










AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


A-l 661 .ESTHETE 


SUPPLEMENT 

OP 

ADDITIONAL WORDS AND DEFINITIONS, 

COMPRISING ALL THE WORDS OP ANY IMPORTANCE NOT CONTAINED IN THE BODY OP THE BOOK, 

A LARGE PROPORTION OF WHICH ARK 

NOT TO BE FOUND IN ANY OTHER DICTIONARY. 


A1 

Al(»wun),<i. registry-mark de¬ 
noting a ship of the first or 
highest class; hence, colloq., 
the very best; first-rate. 

Ahalone (ab-a-lo'ne),n. a shell 
found on the coast of Califor¬ 
nia, worked into ornaments. 

Abandon (a-ban du), n. unre¬ 
served devotion to a particu- 
larobject, taste, emotion,&c. 

Abandonroent(a-ban'dn-ment) 
n. the yielding to a passion, 
taste, object, or emotion. 

Abanga (a-ban'gab), n. the 
fruit of a West Indian palm. 

Abas (a-bah'), a French excla¬ 
mation, equivalent to Eng¬ 
lish “ Down with.” 

Abeam fa-hem'), ad .ina line at 
right angles to a vessel’s keel. 

Abey (a-ba'). n. kindof mahog¬ 
any found in St. Domingo. 

Abiogenesis (a-bi-o-jen'e-sis), 
n. living beings developed 
from dead matter ; sponta¬ 
neous generation of life. 

Abiogenist (a-bi-oj'e-nist), n. 
a believer in abiogenesis. 

Ablogeny (a-bi-oj'e-ne), n. the 
same as Abiogenesis. 

Able-bodied (a'bl-bod'id), a. 
noting a seaman of sound 
body, skilled in seamanship. 

Abloom (a-bloom'), ad. or a. 
in full bloom ; blooming. 

Aborted (a-bort'ed), a. noting 
an organ slightly developed. 

Aborticide(a-bor'te-sid),n. de¬ 
stroying fcetus in the womb. 

Abortient (a-bor'shent), a. 
sterile; barren; unfruitful. 

Absinthiale (ab-sin'the-at), v. 
to impregnate with absinthe. 

Absolutist (ab'so-lu-tist), a. 
characterized by absolutism; 
absolute; despotic. 

Absolvable (ab-solv'a-bl), a. 
capable of being absolved. 

Absorptivity (ab-sorp-tiv'e-te) 
n. capacity for absorption. 

Abstainer (ab-stan'er), n. one 
who abstains from liquors. 


Accessive (ak-ses'siv), a. ac¬ 
cessory ; additional. 

Accumulation (ak-kli-ma-ta'- 
shun), n. acclimation; ac¬ 
climatization. 

Accrescent (ak-kres'sent), a. 
growing larger; increasing. 

Acetaled (as'e-tat-ed), a. com¬ 
bined with acetic acid. 

Acetify (a-set'e-fy), v. to be 
changed into acid or vinegar. 

Acetin (as'e-tin), n. an ether 
derived from glycerine. 

Acetone (as'e-ton), n. a color¬ 
less, limpid, very inflamma¬ 
ble liquid, of peculiar odor. 

Achromatopsy (a-kro-ma-top'- 
se), n. incapacity to distin- 
guishcolors; color-blindness. 

Acidific (as-id-if ik), a. render¬ 
ing acid ; causing acidity. 

Acidimetric (a-sid-e-met'rik), 
a. relating to the measure¬ 
ment of the strength of acids 

Acidulated (a-sid'u-lat-ed). a. 
slightly imbued with acid. 

Aciduient (a-sid'u-lent), a. 
somewhat sour; acidulous. 

Acierage (as'er-ij), n. coating 
metal plates with steel. 

Acierate (as'er-at), v. to con¬ 
vert into steel. [barnacle. 

Acorn-shell (a'korn-shel), n. a 

Acosmism (a-koz'mizm), n. de¬ 
nying existence of the world. 

Acosmist(a-koz'mist),n. denier 
of the existence of the world. 

Acousticailylakow'stik-al-le), 
ad. as regards acoustics. 

Acoustician (a-kow-stish'an), 
n. one versed in acoustics. 

Acoustics (a-kow'stiks), n. the 
scieuce of sound, including 
vibrations of elastic bodies. 

Acrobatic (ak-ro-bat'ik), a 
pertaining to an acrobat. 

Acrofism (ak'ro-tizm), n. ab¬ 
sence or defect of pulse. 

Acting (akting), a. discharg¬ 
ing the duties of another. 

Adam’s-apple (ad'amz-ap'pl), 
n. a variety of banana. 


AESTHETE 

Adiathermlc(a-di-a-ther'mik), 
a. not pervious to heat. 

Adipsous(a-dip'sus), a. tending 
to quench thirst, as fruits. 

Adjuratory (ad-jiir'a-to-re), a. 
pertaining to adjuration. 

Admissive (ad-mis'siv), a. of 
the nature of admission. 

Adinittable (ad-mit'ta-bl), a. 
that may be admitted. 

Admittedly (ad-mit'td-le), ad. 
by admission; confessedly. 

Adobe (a-do'ba), n, a brick 
baked in the sun. 

Adonis (a-do'nis), n. a foppish 
young man; a dandy; atop. 

Advance (ad-vansc ), n. a sum 
of money paid in advance. 

Advanced (ad-vanst'), a. im¬ 
bued with new ideas. 

jEoIiis (e'o-lus), n. the god of 
the winds; a portable engine 
for changing the air in rooms. 

.Eon (e'on), n. an immeasura¬ 
ble period of time ; an eon 

jEpiornis (ep-e-or'nis), n. a gi¬ 
gantic bird, now extinct, 
remains of which have been 
found in Madagascar. 

Aeriferous (a-er-ifer-us), a. 
conveying air; air-bearing. 

Aerognosy (a-er-og'no-se), n. 
the science of the properties 
and phenomena of the air. 

Aeroklinoscopc (a-er-o-klin'o- 
skop), n. a device to show 
the way the wind blows, and 
to exhibit variations in bar¬ 
ometric pressure. 

Aerolithology (a-er-o-le-thol'- 
o-je), n. science of aerolites. 

Acrophobia (a-er-o-fo'be-ah), 
n. a disorder accompanying 
hydrophobia, hysteria, &c. 

.Esthcsiographytes-the-se-og'- 
ra-fe),».descriptiou ofsenso- 
rial apparatus of the body. 

dSstliesodic (es-thc-sod'ik), a. 
conveying sensory impulses. 

.Esthete (es-thet';, n. one who 
affects a peculiar propriety 
of manner, taste, dress, etc. 






















AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


2ESTHETIOIAN 662 AMPEI 


.Esthetician<es-the-tish , an),n. 
a person of aesthetic tastes. 

,Estheticism(es-thet'e-sizm),n. 
aesthetic principles,taste,&e. 

Estival (es'te-val), a. relating 
to or occurring in summer. 

Estivation (es-te-va'shun), n. 
dormant state of some ani¬ 
mals during the hot season. 

Afferent (af fer-ent), a. noting 
nerves thatcon vey sensations 
to the nervous centers. 

AfflliabIe(af-fii'e-a-bU,a. capa¬ 
ble of being affiliated. 

Aflow (a-flo'), ad. or a. in a 
flowing state. [of foam. 

Afoam (a-fom'), ad. in a state 

Africander (af-re-kan'dr), n. a 
native of South Africa, of 
European descent. 

Africanization(af-re-kan-i-za'- 
shun), n. negro ascendency. 

Africanize (afre-kan-iz), v. to 
place under negro domination 

Afterdamp(af'tr-damp), n. gas 
emitted in coal-mines, very 
fatal to life ; choke-damp. 

After-years (af'tr-yerz), n. pi. 
after-times; later times. 

Agamic (a-gam'ik), a. noting 
any mode of reproduction 
without union of the sexes. 

Agamogcnesis (ag-a-mo-jen'e- 
sis), n. reproduction without 
the sexes; parthenogenesis. 

Agamogeneiic (ag-a-mo-je- 
net'ik), a. pertaining toaga- 
mogenesis. [bling agate. 

Agatine (ag'a-tin), a. resem- 

Agave (a-ga've), n. American 
aloe, from the juice of which 
the liquor pulque is made. 

Age (aj), v. to grow old; to 
show the effects of age. 

Agedness (aj'ed-nes), n. state 
of being aged or old. 

Ageless (aj'les), a. having no 
age or limits of duration. 

Agenrsic (aj-e-nes'ik), o. per¬ 
taining to agenesis. 

Agenesis(a-jen'e-sis) n. incapa¬ 
bility of producing offspring. 

Aging (aj'ing), n. the process 
of growing old or older. 

Agnostic (ag-nos'tik), n. one 
who professes to know noth¬ 
ing in regard to the being of 
a God, Ac.;— a. professing in¬ 
ability to judge of God, &c. 

Agnosticism (ag-nos'te-sizm), 
n. inability to affirm or deny 
in regard to God, &c. 

Agriologist (ag-re-ol'o-jist), n. 
a student of human customs. 


Agrlology(ag-re-ol'o-je),n.the 
comparative study of man¬ 
kind in the natural state. 

Ahead (a-hed'), ad. farther for¬ 
ward ; in advance ; onward. 

Ai (ah'e), n. an ape-like ani¬ 
mal of South America. 

Air-bath(air'bath),n. a meth¬ 
od of drying bodies in air of 
any required temperature. 

Air-brake (air'brak), n. a rail¬ 
road brake operated bymeans 
of compressed air. 

Air-cushion (air-kush'un), n. 
a cushion inflated with air. 

Air-drain (air'dran), n. cavity 
between the external wallsof 
a building, for ventilation. 

Air-flue (air'flu), n. a flue for 
conveying air to the various 
parts of a building. 

Air-machine(air 'ma-sben'), n. 
an apparatus to regulate and 
purify the air in mines, &c. 

Air-trnnk(air'trunk),n. a tube 
passing from the ceiling of a 
room to the open air. 

Air-valve(air'valv), n. a valve 
in the boiler of a steam-en¬ 
gine, to prevent a vacuum 
when thesteamiscondensing 

Alarm-gauge (a-larm'gaj), n. 
a device in a steam-engine to 
show when the steam is too 
strong or the water too low. 

Albata (al- ba'tah), n. a com¬ 
pound of tin, zinc, nickel, 
and copper ; German silver. 

Albescence (al-bes'sense), n. 
the process of growing white. 

Albicant (al'be-kant), a. grow¬ 
ing white; albescent. 

Albinotic (al-be-not'ik), a. af¬ 
fected with albinism. 

Albion (al'be-un), n. the an¬ 
cient name of Great Britain. 

Albronze(al'bronz),n. mixture 
of copper and aluminum. 

Albumlnine (al-bu'me-nin), n. 
the substance of the cells in¬ 
closing the white of eggs. 

Albuminoids (al-bu'me-noydz) 
n. pi. a class of substances 
found in all livingorganisms. 

Alcoholism (al'ko-hol-izm), n. 
disease caused by the exces¬ 
sive use of alcoholic liquors. 

Alderinniiic (al-dr-’man'ik). a. 
appropriate to an alderman. 

Alethoscope (a-leth'o-skop),n. 
optical instrument through 
which pictures are viewed. 

Alew!fe(al'wif),n. a fish of the 
herring kind; a gaspereau. 


Alfalfa (al-fal'fa), n. a plant of 
the clover family. 

Algoid (al'goyd), a .resembling 
or of the nature of seaweed. 

Algonquin (al-gon'kin),o. not¬ 
ing a tribe of Indians. 

Algonquins (al-gon'kinz),n.pJ. 
family of American Indians. 

Algous (al'gus), a. relating to, 
or of the nature of, seaweed. 

Alienage (al'yen-aj), l n. the 

Alienism (al'yen-izm), 5 state 
of being an alien. 

Alienist (al'yen-ist), n. a phy¬ 
sician who makes a special ty 
of insanity;— a. relating to 
insani ty, or to the study of it. 

Alligator-apple (al'le-ga-tr- 
ap'pl), n. a West Indian 
fruit of narcotic properties. 

Alligator-pear (al'le-ga-tr- 
pare),n..a West Indian fruit. 

Alkalify (al-kal'e-fi), t>. to be¬ 
come changed into an alkali. 

Allocation (al-lo-ka'shun), n. 
apportionment; assignment. 

Allottee (al-lot-te'), n. one to 
whom anything is allotted. 

Alpen (alp'en), a. belonging to 
the Alps; alpine. 

Alpenstock (alp'en-stok), «. a 
strong iron-pointed staff, 
used in climbing the Alps, Ac 

Alphabetize (al'fa-bet-iz), v. to 
arrange alphabetically. 

Althcrn (alt'born), «. instru¬ 
ment like the French horn. 

Al(ruism(al'tru-izm),n.regard 
for the rights, interests, feel¬ 
ings, and well-beingof others 

Altruist (al'tru-ist), n. a pro¬ 
moter of the welfare ofothers. 

A llruistic(al-tru-is'tik), a. per¬ 
taining to altruism. 

Amarin (am'a-rin), n. the bit¬ 
ter principle of vegetables. 

Amateuri*h(am-a-tewr'ish),a. 
like an amateur. [love. 

Amative (am'a-tiv), a.given to 

Ameer (a-meer'), n. the title of 
a Mohammedan prince. 

Ameliorative (a-mel'yo-ra-tiv) 
a. producing amelioration. 

Amenomnnin (a-me-no-ma'ne- 
ah),n.a gay form of insanity. 

Amenorrhoea (a-men-o-re'ah), 
n. absence or stoppage of the 
menstrual discharge. 

Amnion (am'ne-un), n. inner 
membrane which surrounds 
the fetus in the womb. 

Amplii (am'fe). prefix in words 
of Greek origin, signifying 
around, about, Ac. 
















AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


AMPHIflEAN 663 AQUATIHTA 


Amphigean (am-fe'je-an),a.re¬ 
lating to or extending over 
all the zones of the globe. 

Anemia (a-ne'me-ah), «. a 
diminution of the quantity of 
blood in the human system. 

Anemic (a-nem'ik),a. pertain¬ 
ing to ansemia; bloodless. 

Aneuiotrophy(an-e-mot'ro-fe) 
n. a deficiency of blood. 

Anesthesia (an-es-the'zhe-ah) 
n. loss of sensation. 

Anesthetlcs(au'es-thet'iks), n. 
pi. agents that produce in 


Animism (an'im-izm), n. the 
doctrine of spiritual beings 
Annlhilalionist (an-ni-hi-li' 
shuu-ist),ji. abeliever in the 
annihilation of man at death 
Annihilatory (an-nl'hi-la-tO' 
re), a. tending to annihilate 
or destroy; destructive. 
Anonyme (an'o-nim), n. an 
assumed or false name. 
Anonymity (an-o-nim'e-te), ti¬ 
the stateof being anony mous 
A.ntagonixe(an-tag'o-aiz),v. to 
actin opposition; to combat. 


sensibility to pain, as ether. I Antaphrodisiac (ant-af-ro- 


».* 


Anaesthetize (an-es'the-tiz), v. 
to put under the influence of 
an anaesthetic. 

Anamniota (an-am-ne-6'tah), 
n.pi.the group of vertebrates 
in which the fetus is desti¬ 
tute of an amnion. 

Anamorphism (an-a-mor'fizm) 
n. progression from a lower 
type to a higher one. 

Anchor-ice (ank'ur-ice), n. ice 
formed at the bottom of a river 

Android (an'droyd), a. resem 
bling a man or male. 

Androphngoui(an-drof'a-gus), 
a. addicted to cannibalism 

Anelectric (an-e-lek'trik), a. 
not electric 

inemoscope (a-nem'o-skop), 
n. an instrument toshow the 
direction of the wind. 

Angle-bar (ang'gl-bar), 

Angle-iron (ang'gl-i'urn) 
bar ofironrolledtotheshape 
of the letter L, designed to 
form the joints of plate-iron 
for girders, boiler-plates,Ac. 

Anglican(ang'gle-kan), a. not¬ 
ing the high church party 
of the church of England. 

Anglicauism(ang'gle-kan-izm) 

m. the principles of the high 
church party, of England. 

Anglo (ang'glo), aprefixsigni¬ 
fying English. 

Anglo-American (ang'glo-a- 
mer'e-kan), n. an American 
born of English ancestors. 

Anglomania(ang'glo-ma/ne-ah 

n. excessive attachment to 
England or her institutions. 

Anglophobia (ang'glo-fo'be-ah 
71 . insanehatredof England. 

Angola (an-go’lah), n. a light 
cloth made from the wool of 
the Angora goat. 

Angola-seeds (an-go'lah-sedz), 
n. pi. small red seeds of wild 
liquorice used for beads, &c. 


dizh'yak), a. having quality 
of quelling sexual desire. 

Antaphrodltle ant-af-rodit'ik 
n. same as Antaphrodisiac 

Antenatal (an-te-na'tal), a. 
before or preceding birth, 

Antenavc (an'te-nav;,n. porch 
at tha entrance of a church. 

Antennal (an-ten'nal), a. of or 
pertaining to the antennae 

Antennules(an-ten'nulz),n.pA 
the smaller pair of antennaa. 

Antliography (an-thog'ra-fe), 
n. a description of flowers. 

Anthropogenetic (an-thro-po- 
je-net'ik), a. pertaining to 
the origin of mankind. 

Anthropogeny (an-thro-poj'e 
ne), n. the origin and devel¬ 
opment of mankind. 

Anthropoid (an'thro-poyd), a. 
resembling aman; man-like. 

Anthropomorphic(an-thro-po- 
mor'fik), a. characterized by 
human qualities. 

Anthropomorphism (an-thro- 
po-mor'fizm), n. ascription 
of human qualities to God. 

Anthropopathlcal(an-thro-po- 
path'e-kal), a. subject to hu¬ 
man feelings and passions. 

Anthropophagist (an-thro- 
pofa-jist), re. a cannibal. 

Anthropophuism (an-thro-po- 
fu'izm), re. the nature of man 

Antilithic (an-te-lith'ik), a. 
tending to prevent or destroy 
stones in the bladder. 

Antiparalytlcfan-te-par-a-lit'- 
ik), n. medicine or remedy 
against paralysis. 

Antipathetic (an-tip-a-thet'ik) 
resulting from antipathy. 

Antiperistaltic (an-te-per-e- 
stal'tik), a. noting an un¬ 
natural or reversed action of 
the alimentary canal. 

Antiphurinie(an-te-fdr'iuik)a. 
counteracting poison. 


Antlpcriodic (an-te-pe-re-od r - 
ik), n. a medicine or remedy 
against periodic ailments. 

Antipodal (an-tip'o-dal), a. on 
the opposite side of the earth. 

Antipodism (an-tip'o-dizm), n 
condition of being antipodal. 

Antiquarianize (an-te-kwa're- 
an-iz), v. to pursue anti¬ 
quarian researches. 

Antixymie (an-te-zim'ik), a. 
preventive of fermentation. 

Aphasia (a-fa'zhe-ah), n. loss 
of the memory of words. 

Aphasic (a-fa'zik), a. relating 
to or affected by aphasia. 

Aplomb (a-pldm'), n. down¬ 
rightness of manner; self- 
possession; coolness. 

Apo (ap'o), a prefix in word3 
of Greek origin, signifying 
from, away from, off. 

Apogainic (ap-o-gam ik), a. 
characterized by apogamy. 

Apogamy (a-pog'a-me), n. ab¬ 
sence or loss of reproductive 
power, as in certain plants. 

Apotheosize (ap-o-the'o-siz),v. 
to elevate to the dignity of a 
divinity; to deify. 

Appnritional (ap-pa-rish'un- 
al), o. pertaining to or re¬ 
sembling an apparition. 

Appellability (ap-pel-la-bil'e- 
te), n. capability of appeal. 

Appellable (ap-pel'la-bl), a. 
capable of being appealed. 

Appellate (ap-pel'lat), a. relat¬ 
ing to appeals. 

Appendicular (ap-pen-dik'u- 
lar), a. noting those parts of 
the skeleton, as the limbs, 
attached to the axial column. 

Appetizcr(ap-pe-tiz'er),n. that 
w-hich excites an appetite. 

Apple-bee (ap'pl-be), > n. a 

Apple-cut (ap'pl-kut),) collec¬ 
tion of young people to cut 
up apples for drying. 

Apple-borer (ap'pl-bor'er), n. 
a worm infesting apple trees. 

Apple-brandy (ap'pl-bran'de), 
n. applejack; cider-brandy. 

Apple-butter(ap'pl-but'tr), n. 
sauce made of apples stewed 
down in cider. 

Applejack (ap'pl-jak), n. a liq¬ 
uor distilled from fermented 
apple-juice; apple-brandy. 

Aquatics(a-kwat'iks),n. collec¬ 
tive name for aquatic sports. 

Aquatint (a'kwa-tint), ) 

Aqualinta (a-kwa-tin'ta). j n ' 
engraving by aquafortis. 

















AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


ARBOREAL 664 AZTJLINE 


Arboreal (ar-bo're-al), a. fre¬ 
quenting or inhabiting trees. 

Arborized (ar'bor-izd), a. fig¬ 
ured like a tree; arborescent. 

Arbor vitas (ar'bor vi'te), n. 
ramifications in the human 
brain, resembling a tree. 

Archaist (ar'ka-ist), n. an ar¬ 
chaeologist; an antiquarian. 

Archbrick (arch'brik), n. a 
wedge-shaped brick used in 
the construction of arches. 

Archebiosis (ar-ke-be-6'sis), n. 
the origin of living from non¬ 
living matter; abiogenesis. 

Architectonics (ar-ke-tek-ton'- 
iks), n. arranging of knowl¬ 
edge into a system ; capacity 
for organizing knowledge. 

Architectonic (ar-ke-tek-ton'- 
ik),a.havingscientific,archi¬ 
tectural, or constructive skill. 

Arctogeal (ark-to-je'al),a. not¬ 
ing colder parts of the earth. 

Ardassine (ar'das-sin), n. very 
fine variety of Persian silk. 

Are (dr), n. a measure of su¬ 
perficies equal to 100 square 
meters, or 119.6 square yards 

Areul(a're-al), a- pertaining to 
area, or superficial extent. 

Arenated (ar'e-nat-ed), a. 
ground into sand. 

Arenicoie (a-ren'e-kol), n. ani¬ 
mal or plant living in sand. 

Aretaics(ar-e-ta'iks),n. partof 
ethics relating to virtue. 

Argentate (ar'jen-tat), «. salt 
of argentic acid and a base. 

Argonaut (ar'go-not), n. one of 
the pioneer settlers of Cali¬ 
fornia, who went in 1849. 

Arius (a're-us), n. a species of 
catfish found on the coast 
of South America. 

Arming-press (arm'ing-pres), 
n. a bookbinder’s tool for 
stamping titles on books. 

Armor-plated (ar'mor-plat'ed) 
a. covered with iron plates 
for defense, as a ship of war. 

Armure (ar'mur), n. a twilled 
woolen fabric,surface-ribbed. 

Army-worm (ar'me-wurm), n. 
a voracious caterpillar, ap¬ 
pearing in vast numbers. 

Arrow-wood (ar'ro-wood), n. 
a shrub of which Western 
Indians make their arrows. 

Arta (dr'ta), «. a remarkable 
species of catfish found in 
Ceylon waters, having the 
power of moving on laud by 
means of its side fins. 


Arteritis (ar-te-ri'tis), n. In* 
flamruation of an artery, 

Artotype (ar'to-tip), n. a pic¬ 
ture produced by artotypy. 

Artotypy (ar-tot'e-pe), n. pro¬ 
cess of taking pictures on a 
film of sensitized gelatine. 

Ash-cake (ash'kak), n. a corn- 
cake baked in the ashes. 

Asininity (as-e-nin'e-te), n. ob¬ 
stinate stupidity; assishness. 

Asphyxiated (as-fiks'e-at-ed), 
a. suffering from or in a state 
of asphyxia. 

Asphyxiation (as-fiks-e-a'shun) 
n. state of asphyxia. 

Aspiratory (as-pir'a-to-re), a. 
pertaining to breathing. 

Assegai (as-se-gi'), n. a kind of 
javelin used by the Caffres, 
Zulus, &g., of South Africa. 

Assish (ass'ish), a. resembling 
an ass; stupid ; asinine. 

Assishness (ass’ish-nes), n. ob¬ 
stinate stupidity, [starfish. 

Asteridian (as-ter-id'ynn), n. a 

Asthenia (as-then'e-ah), n. 
bodily weakness; debility. 

Astrogeny (as-troj'e-ne), n. the 
creation of the heavens. 

Astucity (as-tu'se-te), n. as¬ 
tuteness ; craftiness. 

Asymmetric(as-im-met'rik),a. 
not symmetrical. 

Asymmetrical (as-im-met'rik- 
al), a. unsymmetrical. 

Atajo(a-ta'ho),w. [Sp.] a drove 
of pack-mules. 

Athermancy (a-ther'man-se), 
n. impermeability to heat. 

Athlete (ath'let),n. one devot¬ 
ed to athletic exercises. 

Athletics (ath-let'iks), n. ath¬ 
letic exercises and sports. 

Atmologic (at-mo-loj'ik), } 
Atmological(at-mo-loj'ik-al) 5 
a. pertaining to atmology. 

Atmology (at-mol'o-je), n. de¬ 
partment of physical science 
which treatsofaqueous vapor 

Atmolyzation (at-mol-e-za'- 
shun), n. separation of gases. 

AtmoJyze(at'mo-liz),t;. to sep¬ 
arate gases and vapors. 

Atmolyzer (at'mo-liz-er), n. an 
instrument for separating 
gases from one another. 

Atinolysis(at-mol'e-sis),n. sep¬ 
aration of gases of different 
densities from one another. 

Atom (at'om), «. the smallest 
particle of matter. 

Atomicity (at-o-mis'e-te), n. 
condition in regard to atoms. 


Atomistic (at-o-mis'tik), o.per- 

taining to atoms. 

Atomization (at-om-e-za'shun) 
n. act of reducing to atoms. 

Atomize (at'om-iz), v. to re¬ 
duce to atoms. 

Atrahiliar (at-ra-bil'e-ar), a. 
atrabilious; atrabiliary. 

Altai (at'tl), n. waste matter 
from mines; refuse; rubbish. 

A<fitudinize(at-te-tu'de-niz)t;. 
to assume affected attitudes. 

Audiplione (aw'de-fon), n. an 
ins trumen t to enable the deaf 
to hear, by conveying the 
sensation of sound to the au¬ 
ditory nerve through the 
medium of the teeth. 

Audition (aw-dish'un), n. the 
act or sense of hearing. 

Auditorium (aw-de-to're-um), 

n. the part of a theater or 
public hall in which the au¬ 
dience is placed. [the ear. 

Aural(aw'ral), a. pertaining to 

Auriscope (aw're-skop), n. in¬ 
strument lor examining the 
interior parts of the ear. 

Auriscopy (aw-ris'ko-pe), n. 
examination of the ear by 
means of the auriscope. 

Anrite(aw'rit), n. salt consist¬ 
ing of aurous acid and a base. 

Auroral (aw-ro'ral), a. relating 
to dawn, or to the aurora. 

Autogenetic (aw-to-je-net'ik), 

o. self-generated or produced. 

Autogenous (aw-toj'e-nus), a. 

self-generated; autogenetic. 

Automorphic (aw-to-mor'fik), 
a. patterned after one’s self. 

Autonomy (aw-ten'o-me), n. 
self-government; political 
independence. 

Autophngi (aw-toffa-ji), n. pi. 
birdswhich.soonashatched, i 
obtain food for themselves. 

Autophngous (aw-tofa-gus), 
a. feeding one’s self. 

Autotype(aw'to-tip),n. picture 
taken by means of autotypy. 

Autotypy (aw-tot'e-pe), n. a 
photographic process of fine- 
art printing, or phototyping. 

Avian (av'e-an), a. relating to, 
or of the nature of, birds. 

Avicular (a-vik'u-lar), a. per¬ 
taining to birds. 

Awesome (aw'sum), a. full of 
awe; awful; appalling. 

Awn (awn), n.the beard ofsuch 
plants as barley. 
Azuline(azh'u-lin),n. fine blue 
color, produced from aniline. 









AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 

BABA 665 BEGGAR’S-LICE 


B. 

Baba (ba'ba), n. a kind of cake 
tilled witli plums. 

Babbitt metal (bab'itmet'l), n. 
alloy ofcopper, tin, aud zinc. 

Baby-farm (ba'be-farm), n. a 
house where board and at¬ 
tendance for babes are offered 

Baby-farming(ba be-farm'iug) 
«. keeping a baby-farm. 

Bachelorhood(bach'e-lor- hood) 
n. state of being a bachelor. 

Backbone (bak-bon'), n. moral 
stamina; firmness of purpose 

Backing (bak'ingl.n. the act of 
supporting and encouraging 
another in a difficulty, &c. 

Back-pressure (bak-presh'ur), 
n. resistance to the piston of 
a steam-engine by waste 
steam or by the atmosphere. 

Back-settler (bak-set'lr), n. a 
settler in the remote and 
wild parts of a country. 

Back-stream (bak'stretn), n. a 
side current in arivcr, flow¬ 
ing up-stream. 

Backwoods (bak'woodz), n. pi. 
partly cleared lauds of a 
newly settled country. 

Bnegage-master(bag'gaj-mas'- 
tr), n. man on a railroad who 
takes charge of baggage. 

Baggy (bag'ge), a. bulged out 
Hke a bag. [mercial traveler. 

Bagman (bag man), n. a com- 

Bah (bah), interj. an exclama¬ 
tion of contempt or disgust. 

Balance-sheet (bal'anse-shet), 
ji. a sheet having Dr. and Cr. 
account, striking a balance. 

Biilanisin (bal'a-nizm), n. the 
application of a pessary. _ 

Balanitis (bal-a-ni'tis), ?i. in¬ 
flammation of the glans penis 

Baleen(ba-len'),n. platesof the 
palate of whalebone whales. 

Baling-press (bal'ing-pres), n. 
a press used for compressing 
goods into bales. 

Bulk (bawk), v. to stop abrupt¬ 
ly or turn aside, as a horse. 

Balky (bawk'e), a. apt to balk. 

Balloon-fish (bal-loon'fish), n. 
a fish which inflates itself 
with air; the globe-fish. 

Ballooning (bal-loon'ing), n. 
running up stock beyond its 
value by fictitious salt3, &c. 

Bandcrlllero (bau-der-el-ya'- 
ro),n. in a Spanish bullfight, 
one who sticks a dart with a 


small flag Into a bull’s neck. 

Bandicoot (ban'de-koot), n. a 
species of rat found in India 
aud Australia. 

Bandmaster (band'mas-tr), n. 
conductor of a musical band. 

Bandoline (ban'do-lin), n. a 
preparation for the hair. 

Bang-up (bang'up), a. of su¬ 
perior quality; first-rate. 

Banjo(ban'jo)nmusical instru¬ 
ment resembling the guitar. 

Bank (bank), v. to deposit, as 
money, in a bank; to cover 
with small coal or ashes, as 
a fire iu a furnace. 

Bantingism (bant'ing-izm), n. 
a dietary system designed to 
reduce corpulence. 

Bari!adoes-cherry(bar-ba'duz- 
chcr-re),n. West Indian tree, 
yielding pleasant, tart fruit. 

Barbadoes-tar(bar-ba'duz-tar) 
n. a kind of bituminous oil 
used i n medicine and surgery 

Bnrbolinc(bar'bo-tin),n. mode 
of ornamenting pottery-ware 

Barege(ba-razh ) n. gauze-like 
material for dresses, veils,&c 

Barkentine (bfirk'en-tin), n. a 
bark rigged as a schooner. 

Barograph (bar'o-graf), n. an 
instrument for recording 
changes in the air. 

Barrel-vault (bar'rl-volt), n. 
a simple semicircular vault. 

Barrette (bar-ret'), n. the 
square red cap of a cardinal. 

Barwood (bar'wood), n. a red 
wood used as a dyewood. 

Bashl-bazouk(bash'e-ba-zook') 
n. a Turkish irregular soldier 
who acts as a skirmisher, &c. 

Basso (bas'so), n. the bass-or 
base part; p singer of base. 

Basswood(bas'wood),n. Amer¬ 
ican linden; whitewood. 

Bate (bat), 71 , an alkaline 
lixivium made of the dun? 
of animals, used in tanning. 

Balhbrick (bath'brik), n. a 
block of compressed sand, 
taken from the bed of the 
river near Bath, England. 

Bnthchair (bath'char), n. a 
band-chair in which an in¬ 
valid is wheeled about. 

Bath-metal (bath'met'l), n. an 
alloy of copper and zinc. 

Bathometer (bath-om'e-tr), n. 
an instrument used for deter¬ 
mining depths in the sea. 

Bathybius (ba-thib'e-us), n. a 
plastic,gelatinous, proteina¬ 


ceous, half-living matter, at 
the bottom of the sea. 

Bathymetric (bath-e-met'rik), 
a. pertaining to bathymetry. 

Bafhymefry(ba-thim'e-tre), n. 
the art of deep-sea sounding. 

Batswing(bats'wing),H. a form 
of gasburuer giving a jet in 
shape of a bat’s wing. 

Batten (bat'tn), n. a skylight- 
shutter ; a flap. 

Battens (bat'tnz), n. pi .hoards 
used for flooring, &c. 

Bawbee(baw'be)n. oldScottish 
coin of the value of one cent. 

Bay brrry(ba/ber-re) w. ashrub 
having fragrant leaves. 

Bayberry-tallow (ba’ber-re- 
tal'lo), n. a green wax con¬ 
stituting the outer coating of 
the bay berry; myrtle-wax. 

Bay-icc(ba'ice),«. ice of recent 
formation, in bays, &c. 

Bay-leaf (ba'lef), n. leaf of the 
bay-tree. [a lake. 

Bayou (bi'oo), n. the outlet of 

Haywood (ba'wood), n. name 
for Honduras mahogany. 

Beachcomber(betsh'k6m-er)n. 
a long wave rolling on the 
beach ; a vagabond sailor. 

Beach-wagon (betsh'wag'on), 
n. a light open wagon, with 
two or more seats. 

Bead (bed), v. to form bead-like 
bubbles, as liquors. 

Beading (bed'ing).n. a mould¬ 
ing formed to represent beads 

Beading (bed'ing), n. a prep¬ 
aration for causing liquor to 
form beads in a glass. 

Beady (bed'e), a. bead-shaped; 
small, clear, and globular. 

Beak (bek), n. a policeman. 

Bear (bar), v. to depress or 
lower the price of stock* or 
shares, by false reports, &c. 

Bearing-rein (bar'ing-ran), n. 
acheckrein used to make a 
horse bold his head up. 

Bcaucatclier (bo'katsh'er), n. 
a small flat curl worn on the 
temple by women. 

Beefvrood (bef'wood),n. a red- 
colored wood from Australia. 

Beeswing (bez'wing), n. crust 
of tartar formed on wines 
which have been long kept. 

Befog (be-fog'), v. to mystify. 

Befrizzed (be-frizd'), a. having 
the hair frizzled. 

Befuddle(be-fud'dl), r.to cloud 
and confuse, as with liquor. 

Beggar’s.lice (beg'garz-lis), n, 












AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY 


BEGONIA 666 BLASTEMA 


pi. prickly seeds of a plant, 
which adhere to the clothing. 

Begonia (be-go'ne-ah), ft. a 
genus of hothouse plants. 

Begum (be'gum), u. an F.ast- 
Iudiau lady of bigh rank. 

Bejuco (ba-hu'ko), ft. a thin, 
pliable, reed-like twining 
plant, of tropical America. 

Belaying-pin(bela.'ing-pin),n. 
a strong pin round which 
ropes are belayed in a ship. 

Bellbird (bel'bir’d), ft. an Aus¬ 
tralian bird, with a tinkling 
voice heard over two miles. 

Bellbuoy (bel'bwoy), n. a buoy 
having a bell attached, used 
to mark a rock, shoal, &c. 

Bel leek (bel-lek'), ft. a green- 
glazed Irish pottery-ware. 

Bellflower (bel'tlow-er), ft, a 
choice variety of apple. 

Bellows-flsh (bel'loz-fish), ft. a 
spiny fish ; the trumpet-fish. 

Belongings (be-long'ings), ft. 
pi. what belong* to a person 
or thing; personal property. 

Belting (belt'ing), ft. system 
of belts from a steam-engine 
to the machinery of a factory. 

Beluga (be-loo'gah), n. the 
white sturgeon, which fur¬ 
nishes isinglass and caviare. 

Bench-show (bentsh'sho;, «. 
an exhibition of dogs, &c. 

Bend (bend), ft. form of a ship 
from the keel upward. 

Bender (bend'er), n. a spree; a 
frolic; a jollification. 

Benjamin (ben'ja-miu), ft. a 
kind of English overcoat. 

Benthamic (ben-tham'ik), a. 
pertaining to beuthamism. 

Benthamism (ben'tham-izm), 
ft. the greatest happiness of 
the greatest number. 

Benthamite (ben'tham-it), n. 
a believer in benthamism. 

Benzoline (ben'zo-lin),«. fluid 
obtained from coal tar. 

Berg (berg), n. a towering 
mass or mountain of ice. 

Bergilt (her'gilt), ft. a fish re¬ 
sembling the perch. 

Berlin-wool (ber'lin-wool), w. 
a kind of fine worsted yarns. 

Berlin-work (ber'iin-wurlt), n. 
embroidery of berlin-wool. 

Bertha (ber'tba), ft. a kind of 
cape worn by ladies. 

Besique (ba-zek'), «. a French 
game at cards. 

Bethel (beth'l), ft. a house of 
worship for seamen. 


Bibliolater (bib-le-ol'a-tr), ft. 
a worshiper of the Bible. 

Bibliolatrist (bib-le-ol a-trist) 
ft. one given (o bibliolatry. 

Bibliolatry (bib-le-ol'a-tre),ft. 
excessive or superstitious 
reverence for the Scriptures. 

Biconcave (bl-kon'kav), a. con¬ 
cave on both sides. 

Biconvex (bi-kon'veks), a. con¬ 
vex on both sides, as a lens. 

Bicyele (bi'sik-1), n. a vehicle 
with large wheel in front and 
a small one behind, between 
which is the sent for the rider 

Bicycling (bi'sik-ling), n. act 
or art of riding on a bicycle. 

Bicyclist (bi sik-list), ft. one 
who rides on a bicycle. 

Biela’s comet (be'la’s kom'ctl, 
a short-period comet, which 
returns every 6 X A years. 

Biforked (bi'forkt), a. having 
two pron ; two-forked. 

Bile-du< t (bil'dukt), n. a pas¬ 
sage for bile ; he tic duct. 

Biliousness (bil'y s), ft, 
the state o' being bilious. 

Bimctalism (bi-mct'al-izm). n. 
the use of two metals of fixed 
relative valu's, as currency. 

Bimetalist(bi met'al-ist),n. an 
advocate 01 bimetalism. 

Bimetallic (bi-me-tal'lik), a. 
consisting of two metals. 

Biobiast(bi'o- last),ft. minute 
mass o( living protoplasm. 

Biogenesis (bi-o-jen'e-sis), n. 
doctrine t at living matter 
arises from living matter. 

Biogenetic (bi-o-je-net'ik), a. 
pertaining to bi genesis. 

Biogenist(bi-oj'e-nist), ft. a be¬ 
liever in biogenesis. 

Biogeny (bi-oj'e-ue), «. origin 
of life from pre-existing life. 

Biological (bi-o-loj'ik-al), a. 
pertaining to biology. 

Biologist (bi-ol'o-jist), ft. a stu¬ 
dent of biology. 

Biology (bi-ol'o-je), n. the sci¬ 
ence of living organisms, 
whether animal or vegetable. 

Bioiytic (bi-o-lit'ik), a. de¬ 
stroying or impairing life. 

Blomagnelie (bi-o-mag-net'ik) 
a. relating to biomagnetism. 

Biomagnetism (bi-o-mag'uet- 
izm), n. animal magnetism. 

Biometry (bi-om'e-tre), ft.cnl- 
culation of the length of life. 

Bioplasm (bi'o-plazm), n. the 
germinal self-propagating 
matter of living beings. 


Bioplasmic (bi-o-plaz'mik), a. 
pertaining to or consisting of 
bioplasm; bioplastic. 

Bioplast (bi'o-plast), ft. a mi¬ 
nute particle of bioplasm. 

Biopiastic (bi-o-plas'tik), a. 
pertaining to bioplasm. 

Biotaxy (bi'o-taks-e), «. the 
systematic classification o’ 
animals and plants. 

Biotite (bi'o-tit), ft. a mag¬ 
nesia-iron variety of mica. 

Birk (birk), ft. the birch trei. 

Birthmark (birth'mark), ft. a 
congenital mark on the skin 
from some prenatal cause. 

Birthroot (birth'root), ft. a 
plant of the lily family. 

Bise (bez), n. a cold northwest 
wind on the Mediterranean. 

Bisexnal(bi-seks'u-al), a. char¬ 
acterized by two sexes. 

Bisque (bisk), ft. a soup made 
with shellfish. 

Bissextile year (bis-seks'til 
yer),leapyear—every fourth 
year, having S66 days. 

Bitter-cress (bit'tr-kr’es), ft. a 
plantofthegenusCVirciaminc 

Bitternut (bit tr-nut), ft. the 
swamp hickory,an American 
tree of the walnut family. 

Bitts (bits), «. pi. vertical pro¬ 
jections in the deck of a ship, 
for securing ropes, Ac. 

Blackbird (blak'burd), «. the 
grackle,or American starling 

Blackcap (blak'kap), ft. Amer¬ 
ican titmouse; thechicadee. 

Blaek-liole (blak'hoi),ft. adark 
dungeon in a prison. 

Black-listtblak'list),ft. a list of 
persons deserving censure or 
punishment. 

Black-maria tblak-ma-ri'ah), 
si. the close van in which 
prisoners are conveyed from 
one city prison to another. 

Black-sheep (blak'shep),ft. one 
cf a family guilty of loose con¬ 
duct, and unlike the others. 

B!nck-silver(blak'sil-vr),ft. an 
ore of silver, consisting of sil¬ 
ver, sulphur, and antimony. 

Blackstrap (blak'strap), ft. a 
mi x ture of gin and molasses. 

Blanch (blansh), v. to scald or 
parboil vegetables or fruit,to 
remove their hulls or 6kins. 

Blase (blah-za'), a. surfeited or 
palled, as with pleasure, &c. 

Blastema (blas-te’ma), n. fluid 
capable of forming animal 
and vegetable tissues. 















AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


BLASTHOLE. 667 BKAIZE 


Blasthole (blast'hol), n. hole 
in the bottom of a pump. 

Blastogenesis(blas-to-jen'e-sis) 
n. increase of organisms, 
by budding or gemmation. 

Blather (blatb'er), v. to talk 
nonsense; to babble. 

Blazing.star (blaz'ing-star),n. 
plant named from its flower. 

Blets (bletz), n. pi, spots _ou 
decaying fruit. 

Blindfish (blind'flsh), n. a ge¬ 
nus of fishes found in the 
Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. 

Blizzard (btiz'zrd), n. a blind¬ 
ing snowstorm, with violent 
wind and extreme cold. 

Blockage (blok'ij), n, a block¬ 
ing or closing up. 

Bloodgullty (blood'gil'te), a. 
guilty of murder. 

Bloodmoney (blud'mun'ne) ,n. 
money paid to a witness for 
testifying on a murder-trial. 

Bloedwood (blood'wud), n. log¬ 
wood, so called from its color. 

Blow (bio), v. to boast; to brag. 

Blueback (blu'bak), n. a spe¬ 
cies of trout found in Maine. 

Bluebottle (blu'bot-tl),n.plaut, 
having blue bottle-shaped 
flowers; the cornflower. 

Bluecap (blu'kap),n. the blue¬ 
bonnet, or blue-titmouse. 

Blue-curls (blu'kurlz), n, an 
American plant of the mint 
family; bastard pennyroyal. 

Blue-devils (blu'dev'lz),??. low¬ 
ness of spirits; hypochondria 

Blue-eyed-grass (blu'id-gras), 
n. a plant of the iris family, 
with delicate blue flowers. 

BIuefl»h(blu'fish),H.fish allied 
to the mackerel, but larger. 

Blue-grass (blu'gras),n. a val¬ 
uable kind of pasture-grass, 
which attains it3 greatest 
perfection in Kentucky. 

Bluejay (blu'ja), n. a beautiful 
American bird, with bluish 
feathers of changiug hue. 

Bluejoint (blu'joynt), n. a 
kind of grass common on wet 
grounds in North America. 

Bluellght (blu'lit), n. a light 
used as a signal in ships, itc. 

Bluepill (blu'pil), n. a pill of 
prepared mercury, [vitriol. 

Bluestone (blu'ston), n. blue 

Bluespar (blu'spar), n. a min¬ 
eral of an azure blue oolor. 

Bluetangle (blu'tang-gl), n, 
the same as Danglebervy, 

Eluff (bluf), v. to bluster ; to 


overawe n. bullying talk. 

Blunderhead (blun'dr-hed), n. 
a stupid, awkward fellow. 

Blunging(blunj'ing),n. process 
of softening clay for the pur¬ 
pose of making earthenware. 

Blunt (blunt), n, money; cash. 

Bob (bob), n. English slang 
name for a shilling. 

Bobbery (bob'er-re),n. a noisy 
squabble; a tumult. 

Bobolink (bob'o-link), n. an 
American singing-bird,—the 
reed-bird, rice-bird, or rice¬ 
bunting, [the bobolink. 

Boblincolis (bob'ling-kun), n. 

Bobwhile (bob'wlnt), n. the 
popular name of the North 
American partridge or quail. 

Bock-bier(bok'ber),n. a strong 
sort of lager-beer. 

Body-snatcher (bod'e-snatsh'- 
er), n. a resurrectionist. 

Bmly-snatching(bod'e-snatsh- 
ing), n. act of stealing bodies 
from the grave fordissection. 

Boer (bd'er),«.aSoufh-African 
farmer of Dutch origin. 

Bogle (bo'ge),n.a kind of four- 
wheeled railroad-truck. 

Bogus (bo'gus), a, spurious; 
counterfeit;— n. a mixture of 
rum and molasses. 

Bogwhert (bog'hwurt), n. the 
whortleberry. 

Bogwood (bog'wood), n. hard 
jet-black wood found in peat 
bogs,—m ade into ornamen ts. 

Bohemian (bo-he'me-an), n. a 
literary man or artist of ir¬ 
regular or dissolute habits. 

Bohemian ism (bo-he'me-an- 
izm)n. literary vagabondism 

Bolide (bo'lid), n. a large and 
brilliant shooting-star. 

Bolt (bolt), n. a sudden spring 
or start to one side; deser¬ 
tion of one’s political party. 

Bolter (bolt'er), n. a deserter 
from a political party. 

Bonanza(bo-nan’za),n". a min¬ 
ing term signifying an abun- 
danceofore; hence,success, 
prosperity, good fortune. 

Boneash (bon'ash), ) n, the 

lloneblaek (bon'blak), ) resi¬ 
due from calcined bones. 

Bonecave(bon'kav),n.acavein 
which fossil remains of pre¬ 
historic animals are found. 

Boneset (bon'setbn. medicinal 
plant of sudorific and tonic 
properties, [the tunny kind. 

Bonito (bo-nS'to), n. a fish of 


Bonn© (bon), n. a nursemaid. 

Bonspiel(bon'spel),«. arnatch 
at the game of curling. 

Bon-vivant (bong / ve-voug'),’n. 
a jovial companion. 

Boof (boof), n. peach-brandy. 

Boodle (boo'dl), n. money. 

Boohoo (boo'hoo), v. to weep 
aloud; to blubber; to bawl. 

Bookmaker (book'mak-er), n. 
a sporting man who keeps 
a record of his bets. 

Bookplate (book'plat), n. label 
on a book to indicate owner¬ 
ship or place in a library. 

Boom (boom), n. an enthusias¬ 
tic and spontaneous popular 
movement in favor of a per¬ 
son, thing, or cause. 

Boomerang (boom'er-ang),n. a 
missile weapon used by the 
natives of Australia. 

Bootlirk (boot'lik), n. a lick¬ 
spittle ; a toady. 

Bort (bort),«. fragments from 
diamonds in cutting, [grove. 

Bosk (bosk), n. a thicket; a 

!>oss(bos),t>. to govern ; to rule. 

Boston (bos'tn), n. a game at 
cards, played by four persons 
with two full packs of cards. 

Bothersome (both'er-sum), a. 
causing bother; vexatious. 

Bottle-holder (bot'tl-hold'er), 
n. an attendant on a prize¬ 
fighter, to supply him with 
water, sponge off blood, &c. 

Bottom (bot'tm), n. rich, allu¬ 
vial,flat land, near a stream. 

Bottom fact (bot'tm fakt), the 
whole truth in a matter. 

BoniUi(b6ol-ye')ti.stewed beef, 
served with sauce. 

Bottle (bool), n. a decoration of 
tortoise-shell and brass- 

Bourbon (boor'bun),n. an anti¬ 
quated, obstinate politician. 

Bourbonlsm (b6or'bun-izm),M. 
antiquated political notions. 

Bow-oar (bou'or), n. the oar 
nearest the bow of the boat. 

Bowse (bowz), n. a drinking- 
bout; a carouse;— v. to drink; 
to revel; to carouse. 

Boxberry (boks'ber-re),M. the 
wintergreen ,or checkerberry 

Boyeott(boy'kot),v. to have no 
dealings or communications 
with ; to refuse to sell to, and 
decline to buy from; to re¬ 
fuse to work for or to employ. 

Braise t (braz), v. to stew, a3 

Braize ) beef, vegetables, &c., 
in a close-covered kettle. , 

















' * 


AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


BKAISER 668 BYZANTINE 


I Braiscr (brazier), n. a close- 
covered kettle for stewing. 
Braising ? (braz'ing), n.aslow 
Braizing 5 process of stewing. 
Braneh-piJol(branch-pi'lot) n. 

a commissioned pilot. 
Brandied (bran'did), a. mixed 
or treated with brandy, [new 
Brand-new(brand'nu), a. quite 
Brant (brant), n. a wild goose. 
Brazen age (bra'zn-aj), prehis¬ 
toric age of the world which 
succeeded the silver age. 
Breadroot (bred'root), n. root 
resembling the beet, growing 
near the Rocky Mountains. 
Breadwinner (bred'win-nr), n. 

one who supports a family. 
Break(brak), v. to degrade or re¬ 
duce to a lower rank. 
Brenkbone(brak'bon), n. fever 
causing pains in the bones. 
Breakdown (brak'down), n. a 
failure ;—a riotous dance. 
Breasibeam(brest'bem), n. the 
front crossbeam of a locomo¬ 
tive frame; the buffer-beam. 
Breastbone (brest'bon), n. the 
bone to which most of the ribs 
are attached, in front. 
Breasthooks(brest'hooks)«.p£. 
iron or timber knees connect¬ 
ing the two sides of a ship. 
Breast wheel (brest'whel), n. a 
wheel turned by the force of 
water . v with its center. 
Breeze (brez), n. refuse from 
burnin: coke or charcoal. 
Breezy(br6z'e),a.bri.sk; lively. 
Breloque(bra-lok),n.a trinket. 
Bretzel (bret'zl), . hard 
brittle cake in ormofariug. 
Brewing (broo'in, , n. extrac¬ 
tion of malt liquor fromgrain 
Bric-a-brac (brik'ah-brak'), «• 
a collection of articles of ver- 
tu, as of china, curios, Ac. 
Brimmer (brim’r), n. a drink¬ 
ing-cup full to the brim. 

Brit (brit), n. a Ssh of the her¬ 
ring kind, 1 to 4 inches long. 
Broad-arrow (brod-ar'ro), n. a 
British government-mark on 
materials used in the nation¬ 
al ships, dockyards, &c. 
Broadbill (brod'bil), n. a spe¬ 
cies of wild duck. 
Broadbrim (brod'brim), n. a 
sportive name for a Quaker. 
Broad-gauge (brod'gaj).a.not- 
ingarailroadwhosewidth is 
4 feet &H inches or upward. 
Broken (bro'kn), p. a. shat¬ 
tered in body ; infirm;—de¬ 


graded in rank; cashiered. 

Browulography (brom-a-tog'- 
ra-fe),n. description of foods. 

Brouiutology(brom-a-toTo-je), 
n. a treatise on the nature, 
quality, and uses of food. 

Bromism (bro'mizm), n. con- 
ditiou of the system induced 
by the use of bromine. 

Bro nco (bronk'ko), n. cross be-1 
tween a horse and mustang. 

Bronze age (bronz'aj), prehis¬ 
toric age characterized by 
implements and ornaments 
of copper or brass, which 
succeeded the stone age. 

Browubread (brown'brcu), n. 
bread made of wheat or rye 
mixed with maize. 

Brown-thrasher (brown- 
thrash'er), n. a song-bird ol 
the thrush family. 

Brumous (broo'mus),a. foggy. 

Brusquerle (brus'ke-re), n. 
bluntness of speech cr man¬ 
ner ; brusqueness. 

Bubo (bu'bo), n. an inflamed 
swelling in the groin. 

Buck(buk),n. arualc American 
Indian ; also, a male negro. 

Buckshot (buk'shot), n. coarse 
shot, used for large game. 

Buffalo-berry (buf'fa-lo-ber're) 
n. a shrub bearing edible, 
acid, scarlet berries. 

Buffalo-chips(bufffa-lo-chips), 
n. dry dung of buffaloes, used 
as fuel on the prairies. 

Buffalo-clover (buf'la-lo-klo'- 
vr), n. a species of clover 
common on the prairies. 

Buffalo-fish (buffa-Jo-fish), n. 
the American gar-pike. 

Buffalo-grass (buf'fa-lo-gras), 
n. a species of short grass 
on which the buffaloes feed. 

Buffalo-nut (buffa-lo-nut), n. 
a shrub of the sandal-wood 
family; the oilnut. 

Buffer (buffr), n. a good- 
humored, jolly old fellow. 

Buffo-singer(buf'fo-sing'er),r?. 
a singer of comic songs in 
opera-bouffe. [protuberant 

Bulgy (bulj'e), a. bulging out: 

Bull (bull), t;. to raise the price 
of stocks, illegitimately. 

Bullbrier (bull-bri'er), n. a 
large species of brier from 
the root of which the West¬ 
ern Indians make bread. 

Buildoze(bull'd6z),t;. to intim¬ 
idate; to overawe; to bully. 

Bulldozer (bull'doz-er), n.one 


who intimidates another by 
violent and unlawful means. 

Bulletin-hoarU(bul'le-in-bord) 
n. a board on which an¬ 
nouncements are posted. 

Biillbeiuled (bull'hed-ed), a. 
obstiuate; unyielding. 

Bulluut (bull'nut), >i. a large 
kind of hickory-nut. 

Bullvv hacker(bull-whak'er).«. 
slangnamefor acattle-diover 

Buminer (bum'mr).n.a spong¬ 
er; a drunken loafer. 

Burl (burl), n. a knot in wood. 

Burlap (bur'lap), n. a coarse 
fabric made of juteerhemp. 

Burning-bush(burn'ing-bush) 
n. an ornamental shrub, 
bearing crimson berries. 

Burnoose (bur-noos'), M.aloose 
cloak worn by women. 

Burnt-ear(burnt'er), ji. disease 
in grain, resembling smut. 

Bur-oak (bur'ok), n. a kind of 
oak, yielding aclose-grained, 
tough, durable timber. 

Bus (bus), n. an omnibus. 

Busby (buz'be), n. a tall, mili¬ 
tary bearskin cap. 

Bushbenn (bush’ben), n. the 
common low garden-bean. 

Bushelman (hush'l-man), n. a 
tailor’s assistant for repairs. 

Bushman(bush'man),«. one of 
a degraded, stunted race of 
South-African savages. 

Bushwhaeker(bush'whack-er) 
n.a guerilla, robber, &c.,who 
lurks among bushes. 

Bushwhacking (bush'whack- 
iug), n. making one’s way 
through bushes; — fighting, 
robbing, &c., among bushes. 
Butterfly-shell(but'tr-fli-shel) 
«.a beautifulUDivalveshell, 
resembling a butterfly. 

Butterine(but'tr-in), n. oleo¬ 
margarine,—artificial but¬ 
ter, made from animal fat. 

Butter-scotch (but'tr-skotsh), 
n. kind of candy, composed 
mainly of sugar and butter. 

Buttonball (but'tn-ball), n. a 
large tree; the buttonwood. 

Buttonhole (but'tn-hol), v. to 
detain ip close conversation. 

Buttons (but'tnz), n. a name 
for a boy employed as a page. 

Buttonwood (but'tn-wood), n. 
the Western plane-tree. 

Byzantine (biz'an-tin), a. re¬ 
lating to Byzan tium,or to the 
Eastern empire, of which it 
was the capital. 



















AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


CABLE 669 CENTRALIZE 


c. 

Cable (ka/bl), v. to send a mes 
sage by telegraphic cable. 

Cablegram (ka'bl-gram), n. a 
message by telegraphic cable. 

Cablc-laid(ka'bl-lad) a.twisted 
in the style of a cable. 

Caeaine (ka-ka.'in),n. essential 
principle of cacao. 

Cacbou (ka-shoo'), n. aconfec- 
tion to sweeten the breath. 

Cachuca (ka-tshu'ka),?z. lively 
dance by a man and woman. 

Cabinet-picture (kab'e-net- 
pikt'yur),n.apicture of small 
size, for close inspection. 

Cad (kad), n. a mean, vulgar, 
affected fellow; a snob. 

Cadaver (ka-da'vr),’n. a dead 
human body; a corpse. 

Cadmium (kad'me-um), n. a 
white, soft, tin-like metal. 

Cadre (ka'dr), n. the frame or 
skeleton of a regiment, &c. 

Caesar (se'zr), n. general name 
for an emperor; a kaiser. 

Cacsarism (se'zr-izm), n. per¬ 
sonal rule; imperialism. 

Caffeine (kaf’e-in), n. a bitter 
crystalline alkaline base, 
found in tea, coffee, &c. 

Caffre-bread (kaf fr-bred),n. a 
plant found in Africa, from 
which bread is made. 

Calmw (ka'how), n. a bird of 
Bermuda, the shearwater. 

Calamites(kal'a-mits, or kal-a- 
mi'tez ),n pi. fossil reed-like 
plants found in coal. 

Calcareous rocks (kal-ka're-us 
roks)rocks composedof shells 
and coral. 

Calcaria (kal-ka're-ah), n. ru¬ 
dimentary legs in snakes. 

Calcic (kal'sik), rt. chief con¬ 
stituent of shells and coral. 

Calcification (kal-se-fe-ka'- 

shun), n. change into lime. 

Calcified (kal'se-fid), a. formed 
of lime or calcareous matter. 

Calcify (kal'se-fi), v. to change 
into lime. [of lime. 

Calcite (kal'slt), n. carbonate 

Calibration(kal-e-bra'shun),n. 
the measurement of tubes. 

Caliclum (ka-lis'e-um), n. fun¬ 
gus patches on damp wood. 

Callus (kal'lus), n. hardened 
skin; hard depositon abone. 

Calmativc(kam'a-tiv), n. medi¬ 
cine for soothing the system. 

Calorescence (kal-o-res'ens),n. 
conversion of heat into light. 


Calorle(kaFo-re),n.the French 
unit of measure of heat. 

Calorimeter(kal-o-rim'e-tr) ,n. 
instrument to measure heat. 

Calving (kav'ing),n. breaking 
off of icebergs from glaciers. 

Camisole (kam'e-sol), n. dress¬ 
ing-jacket; straight-jacket. 

Campanile (kam'pa-nil),n. the 
upper part of a cupola. 

Campbellite (kam'bel-it), n. 
oneof asectwhorejectcreeds, 
taking the Bibleas theirguide 

Camwood (kam'wood), n. ared 
dyewood; barwood. 

Cannabin (kan'na-bin), n. sub¬ 
stance obtained from hemp. 

Canaille (ka-nal'), n. name for 
shorts, or low grades of flour. 

Canned (kand), p. a. preserved 
in airtight cans. 

Cannel-coal(kan'nl-kdl) n.coal 
used for gas-making, &c. 

Cannery fkan'ner-e), n. a place 
for canning meat, fruit, &c. 

Canoist (ka-noo'ist), n. one who 
manages a canoe. 

Ca»t (l*ant), n. hypocritical re¬ 
ligious pretence; slang talk. 

Cantatrice (kan-ta-tre'che), «. 
a female professional singer. 

Cantores (kan-to'rez), n. pi. a 
general name for song-birds. 

Canyon (kan'yon), n. deep nar¬ 
row gorge, with steep sides. 

Cantilena (kan-te-la'na), zt. a 
little song; a melody. 

Cantine (kan-ten'), n. case of 
bottles and glasses for liquors. 

Cantiniere (kan-ten-yar'), n. a 
female sutler; a vivandiere. 

Cantor (kan'tr), n. the leader 
or precentor of a choir. 

Cape!(ka'pl), n. rockof quartz, 
hornblende, and schorl. 

Capillaries(kap'il-la-riz),u.p(. 
system of veins and arteries. 

Capitalization (kap'e-tal-e-za'- 
shuu), n. the conversion into 
capital, as stock or money. 

Capsicum (kap'se-kurn), n. a 
plant from which Cayenne 
pepper is obtained. 

Carafe (ka-raf'),n.glass water- 
bottle for the table or toilet. 

Caramel (kar'a-mel), «. a kind 
of confection. 

Carbolic acid (kar-bol'ik as'id) 
n.acid obtained from coal-tar 

Carnivora (kar-niv'o-ra),ndJj. 
flesh-eating animals. 

Cnrpetbaggerfkar'pet-bag'gr), 
n. a political adventurer in a 
part of the country where he 


does not naturally belong. 

Carpus (k^lr'pus), n. the small 
bones forming the wrist. 

Carrara (kar-rah'ra), a. noting 
a marble used for statuary. 

Carry(kar're),n.a portage from 
one river or lake to another, 
round waterfalls, rapids, &c. 

Cashineret (kash'me ret), n. a 
fabric resembling cashmere. 

Cassolette (kas-so-let'), n. a 
perforated scent-box. 

Cassowary (kas'so-wa-re), n. a 
bird found in New Guinea. 

Cast-steel (kast'stel), n. steel 
fused and cast into bars. 

Catalpa (ka-tal'pa),n. atreeof 
southwestern states, whose 
wood is of great durability. 

Catalytic (kat-a-lit'ik) ,n. medi¬ 
cine to purify the blood. 

Catbird (kat'bird), n. a bird 
allied to the mocking-bird. 

Catblock (kat'blok),n. block to 
raise the anchor to cathead. 

Catclidrain (katch'dran), n. a 
drain across a declivity, to 
intercept surface-water. 

Cathead (kat'hed), n. projec¬ 
tion from the bow of a ship. 

Catnap(kat'nap),n.short sleep. 

Catoptrics(ka-top'triks),«. sci- 
enceof the reflection of light. 

Cattle-plague (kat'tl-plag), n. 
contagious distemper affect¬ 
ing cattle and sheep. 

Caudate (kaw'dat), a. belong¬ 
ing to the tail; caudal. 

Cave (kav), n. the falling in of 
the top of a mine, &c. 

Cavendish (kav'en-dish), n. a 
particular sort of tobacco. 

Cavette (ka-vet'), n. a small 
concave molding. 

Cavort (ka-vort'), v. to bound; 
to frisk ; to prance. 

Cayman (ka'man), n. a reptile 
of the crocodile kind. 

Ceiba (sa'e-ba), n. the silk-cot¬ 
ton tree, of tropical America. 

Celebre(se-leb'r),<t.celebrated. 

Cello (chel'lo), n. a violoncello. 

Celt (selt), n. a prehistoric im¬ 
plement of stone or bronze. 

Centennial (sen-ten'ne-al), n. 
commemoration of an event 
which occurred a hundred 
years previous; a centenary. 

Centralism (sen'tral-izm), n. 
doctrine of a supreme cen¬ 
tral governmental power. 

Centralize (sen'tral-Iz), v. to 
combine detached elements 
into one force or power ; to 















AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


CENTURY-PLANT 670 CL APE 

increase central authority. 

Century-plant (sen'tu-re- 

plsnt), n. plant that lowers 
once in a hundred j .ars. 

Cepheus(st'fe-us), n. one oftne 
northern constellations. 

Cerebration (ser-e-bra'shun), 
n. the workiugsof the brain. 

Ccrebro-spinal (ser'e-bro-spp- 
nal), a. relating to the brain 
and spinal cord. [brain. 

Cerebrum (ser'e-brum), n. the 

Cerise (se-rez'), a. c. ;rry-col¬ 
ored ; of a cherry color. 

Cetacea (se-ta'sha),n.pt. aquat¬ 
ic animals, as whales, Ac. 

Chablis (shab-le'), n. a white 
wine made in France. 

Chaff (chaf), n. insincere or 
sportive talk ;— v. to ridicule 
or befool a person by talk. 

Chaffer (chaffr), v. to talk 
much and idly ; to chatter. 

Chaffering (chaf fr-ing),£>. <6 a. 
chirping; chattering. 

Chaffinch (chaffinsh), n. a 
bird of the finch family. 

Chalet (*ha-la'), n. a summer 
hut on amountain. 

Chamber-music <ckam'br-mu'- 
zik), n. music suited for a 
select or private assembly. 

Chain pak (cham'pak), n. a tree 
of India, having a rich odor. 

Chancre (shank'er), n. a ve¬ 
nereal sore, or ulcer. 

Chausonnette (shou'son-net), 
n. a little song; a ditty. 

Chanterelle (shan-ter-el'), n. 
an edible mushroom. 

Charivari (sha-re'va-re’), n. a 
serenadeof discordant music 

Charqui (char'ke), n. strips of 
beef dried in the sun. 

Chartography(ehar-tog'ra-fe), 
n. art of constructing maps. 

Chat (chat), n. popular name 
of a genus of small birds; as, 
fallow-cftaf, stone-chaf, Ac. 

Chatelaine (shat'e-lan), n. an 
ornamental watchguard, Ac. 

Chattiness (chat'te-nes)n. talk¬ 
ative disposition or habits. 

Chauvinism (sho'vin-izm), n. 
fanatical patriotism. 

Chauvinist (sho'vin-ist), n. an 
intense patriot or partisan. 

Chauvlnistic(sho-via-is'tik),a. 
intensely partisan. 

ChecUerberry (chek'er-ber're), 
n. a creeping plant whose 
foliage and brightredberries 
have au aromatic flavor. 

Checkstring (chek'string), n. 

a string in a carriage to call 
the attention of the driver. 

Cheek (chek), n. cool impu¬ 
dence ; insolent conduct. 

Cheeky (chek'e), a. saucy; for¬ 
ward ; impudent; insolent. 

Cheeper (ehep'er), n. a name 
given to young gamebirds. 

Chef (shaf), n. a head-cook. 

Chef-d’oeuvre (sha-doo'vr), n. 
a masterpiece, as in art, &c. 

Chelonia (ke-16'ne-ah), n. pi. 
tortoises and turtles. 

Cheloniphagous (ke-lon-ifa- 
gus), a. feeding on turtles. 

Chenille (she-nel'), n. silken 
cord for trimming dresses. 

Cheroot (she-root'), n. a kind 
of cigar of delicate flavor. 

Cherry-bird (cher'e-bird), n. 
the American waxwing. 

Cherry-bounce(cher'e-bowns), 
n. cherry brandy and sugar. 

Cheviot (chev'e-ot), n. a rough 
woolen fabric for clothing. 

Chiaroscuro(ke-a-ro-sku'ro),n. 
the distribution of light and 
dark colors in paintings. 

Chic (shek), n. style; knack; 
manner ;— a. stylish. 

Chiffchaff (chif'chaf), n. small 
European song-bird.[picker. 

Chiffonier (shif-fon-er'),«.. rag- 

Chignon (sheu'yon)i backhair 
of a lady, natural or artificial 

Chigo (che'go), n. a small kind 
of West-Iudian sand-flea. 

Chills (chils), n. pi. moulds of 
metal in which iron is cast. 

Chimney (chim'ne), n. in min¬ 
ing, a rich spot in a lode. 

Chimney-swallow (chim'ne- 
swol lo), n. a species of swift, 
building nests in chimneys. 

Chimpanzee (chim-pan'ze), n. 
the African orang-outang. 

Chineapin (chink'a-pin),w. the 
dwarf chestnut. 

Chinchbug (chinch'bug), n. a 
bug resembling the bedbug. 

Chipmunk (chip'munk), n. the 
small striped squirrel. 

Chipper (chip'pr), a. lively; 
cheerful ; talkative; gay. 

Chippewa* (cliip'pe-waz), n.pl. 
a tribe of American Indians. 

Chipping-bird (chip'ing-bird), 
«. a sparrow of small size. 

Chiropody (ki-rop'o-de), n. art 
oftreatingdiseaseofthe feet. 

Chokeberry (chok'ber-re),«. a 
shrub related to the apple. 

Choker berry (chok'cher're),?!. 
an astringent wild-cherry. 

Choker (chok'er), n. a cravat. 

Chop (chop), n. sort; quality. 

Chordee (kor-de'),«. a painful 
affection of the penis. 

Chores (ehorz), ?i. pi. the odd 
jobs of a household. 

Christmas-tree (kris'mas-tre), 
n. a small evergreen tree, set 
up about Christmas time. 

Chromatism (krd'ma-tizm), n. 
aberration of rays of light. 

Chromatypy(kro-mat'e-pe), n. 
chromatype photography. 

Chromc-red(krom-red') ,n. pig¬ 
ment obtained from red lead. 

Chromism (kro'mizm), n. un¬ 
natural color of flowers, Ac. 

Chromo (kro'rno), n. abbrevia- 
ation for chromo-lithograph. 

Chromogen(kro'mo-jen), n. the 
coloring-matter of vegetables 

Chromo-lilliograph (kio'rno- 
lith'o-graf), n. a lithographic 
picture in oil-colors. 

Chromo-lithography (kro'mo- 
le-thogra-fe), «. production 
of lithographs in oil-colors. 

Chromometer (kro-mom'e-tr), 
n. device for ascertaining the 
chemical constitution of a 
body, based on its color. 

Chromo-pin, tograpliy(krd'mo- 
fo-tog'ra-fe), n. art <f j re¬ 
ducing i ’ored photographs. 

Chromo-typography (kro'mo- 
ti-pog'ra-fe),n. the art or pro¬ 
cess of printing in colors. 

Chronopher (kron'o-fer),f> in¬ 
strument ' signaling -e. 

Chronoscope (kron'o-skoi,, n. 
apparatus for measuring the 
velocity <f projectiles, Ac. 

Chuckle (chuk'l), n. a short, 
suppressed laugh. 

Chucklehead (chuk'l-hed), n. 
a numskull; a dunce. 

Chueksteak (chuk'stf.k), n. 
beefsteak cut from between 
the neck and the collar-hone. 

Ci-devant (se-de-vong'), a. for¬ 
mer; previous; late. 

Cigaret (sig-a-ret'), it. a paper 
tube filled with fine tobacco. 

Cirri (sir'ri), n. pi. twining ap¬ 
pendages, tendrils, Ac. 

Cirrus (sir'rus), n. small light 
clouds. [herring kind. 

Cisco (sis'ko), n. a fish of the 

Civet-cat (siv'et-kat), n. a 
small carnivorous animal. 

Clnim(klam),n. a miner’s term 
for a located spaceofground. 

Clape (klap), h. golden-wiuged 
woodpecker, or flicker. 















AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 

CLAQUE 671 ' COSMOPOLITE 


Claqne (klak), n. a band of 

persons hired to applaud. 

Claqueur (klak'ur), n. a hired 
or interested applauder. 

Clarence(klar'ense), n. aclose, 
light, four-wheeled carriage. 

Clasp lock (klasp'lok), n. a lock 
that secures itself by a spring 

Clear-stuff (kler'stuf), n. name 
for lumber clear of knots. 

Clientage (kli'en-tij), ? n. cli- 
Clientele (kli'en-tel), 5 ents 
collectively; body of clients. 

Clove (klov), n. a gorge in a 
mountain; a ravine; a gap. 

Coach (koch),t>. to prepare one 
to pass any ordeal; to train. 

Coalheaver (kol'hev'r), n. one 
who loads and unloads coal. 

Coaloil (kol'oil), n. petroleum, 
from beingderived from coal. 

Coalpasser (kol'pas-er), n. one 
who passes coal to a furnace. 

Conmings (kom'ingzJ.M. raised 
edges of the h atches of a sh ip. 

Coastline (kost'lln), n. the line 
or boundary of a seacoast. 

Coati-mundi(ko-at'e-moon'de), 
n. an animal of South Amer¬ 
ica, similar to the raccoon. 

Coccyx (kok'siks), tt. terminal 
portion of the spinal column. 

Coccygeal (kok-sij'e-al), a. con¬ 
nected with the coccyx. 

Cochlea (kok'le-ah), n!"spiral 
cavity of the internal ear. 

Cock-of-thc-plains(kok-of-the- 
plans), n. a species of grouse 
found near the Pacific coast. 

Cock-of-thc-rock (kok-of-the- 
rok),n.South-American bird 
of brilliant orange plumage. 

Cockshy (kok'shi), ». object to 
throw sticks, stones, Ac., at. 

Cocktail (Uok'tal), n. spirits 
sweetened, flavored, and iced 

Cocky (kok'e), a. conceited; 
self-assertive; swaggering. 

Codi Ha tko-dil'la), n. coarsest 
part of flax or hemp; tow. 

Coiffure (Uoif'fur), n. style of 
dressing the hair. 

Coidchisel (kold'chiz-l), n. a 
stout, blunt steel chisel, tem¬ 
pered to cut cold metal. 

Coldcream(k61d'krem),n.olnt- 
mentmadeof white wax,rose¬ 
water,almond-oil,and borax. 

Colcoptera (kol-e-op'te-ra), n. 
pi. insects of the beetle kind. 

Collard (kol'lard), n. a kind of 
openMeaved cabbage. 

Collodion (kol-16'de-un), n. a 
solution of guncotton iu 


ether and alcohol. 

Collodionize (kol-16'de-un-iz), 
v. to treat with collodion. 

Colorado-beetle (kol-o-ra'do 
be'tl), n. a small, yellowish, 
destructive kind of beetle. 

Color-blind (kul'ur-bliud), a. 
unable to distinguish colors. 

Color-blindness (kul'ur-blind- 
nes), n. inability to distin¬ 
guish colors; daltonism. 

Color-sergeant (kul'ur-sar'- 
jent), n. sergeant who car¬ 
ries the colors of a regiment. 

Colostrum(ko-los'truin), n. the 
first milk of animals after de¬ 
livery ; mixture of turpen¬ 
tine and the yolk of an egg. 

Comedown (kum'down), n. a 
sudden descent; a downfall. 

Commode (kom-mdd'),n. a con¬ 
venience for a bedroom. 

Commonish (kom'mn-ish), a. 
somewhat common. 

Compas*-p!ant(kum'pas-plant) 
n. a plant growing on the 
"Western prairies, having five 
leaves resembling the spread 
fingers of the human hand, 
which present their edges 
north and south,—the rough 
side facing the east, and the 
smooth side facing the west. 

Compsognathus (komp-sog'- 
nath-us), n. a reptile which 
hops like a bird. [nal ear. 

Concha (kong’ka), n. the exter- 

Concretianism (kon-kre'shan- 
izm), n. the doctrine that 
body and soul are generated 
and grow together. 

Conductivity (kon-duk-tiv'e- 
te), n. quality of conducting. 

Confederacy (kon-fed'er-a-se), 
n. a general name for South¬ 
ern States during the war. 

Confidcucc-man (kon'fe-dense- 
man), n. plausible swindler. 

Consensus(kon-sen'sus),n.har¬ 
mony ; unanimity; concord. 

Consomme (kong-som-ma'j, n. 
a kind of strong broth. 

Constabulary (kon-stab'u-la- 
re),n. the body of constables; 
constables collectively. 

Contango (kon-tang'go), n. in¬ 
terest charged by brokers. 

Contretemps (kon'tr-tong), n. 
[Fr.] unexpected accident. 

Conventionalize (kon-ven'- 
shun-al-iz), v. to establish. 

Convivium (kon-viv'e-um), n. 
a convivial gathering. 

Coolwort (kool'wurt), n. a 


plant of tonic properties. 
Cooper (koop'er), ». a mixture 
of porter and stout. 

Cop (kop), n. a policeman;—so 
called from copper badges 
formerly worn. 

Copperbell (kop'pr-bel), n. a 
name of the copperhead snake 
Copperhead (kop'pr-lied), n. a 
venomous serpent of the rat¬ 
tlesnake kind, [oring matter. 
Coralline (kor'al-lin),n. redcol- 
Cordelier (kor'de-ler), n. a ma¬ 
chine for rope-making. 
Cordeliere (kor-de-ly-ar'), n. a 
black knotted neckerchief. 
Cordillera (kor-dil-le'raj, n. a 
series of ranges of mountains 
Corespondent (ko-re-spou'- 
deut), n.an associate in asuit 
at law; a joint respondent. 
Corinthian (ko-riu'the-an), n. 

order of Grecian architecture 
Corked (korkt), a. tasting of 
the cork ;—said of wine. 
Cornbread(korn'bred),n.bread 
made of Indian-corn meal. 
Corncrneker (korn-krak'er), n. 

a native of Kentucky. 
Corncrake (korn'krak), > n. a 
Corncrow (korn'kro), J bird 
which frequents cornfields. 
Corn-exchange (korn'-eks- 
chanj), n. place where grain 
is sold by samples. 
Cornfritter(korn'frit'tr) ? n. a 
Coriioyster(korn'oys'tr) 5 kind 
of fritter made of batter of 
grated green Indian corn. 
Cornsheller (korn'shel-erj, n. 
a machine to separate corn 
from the cob. 

Cornshuck(korn'shuk),n.husk 
covering ears of Indian corn. 
Cornstarch (korn'starch), n. a 
preparation of Indian corn. 
Corporealism(kor-po're-al-izm 
n.doctrine that the body isthe 
only existence; materialism. 
Corpuscle (kor'pus-sl), n. an 
ultimate organic body; a" 
protoplasmic cell. 

Corral (kor-ral'), n. inclosure 
for cattle ;— v. to surround 
and inclose ; to coop up. 
Correctible (kor-rek'te-bl), a. 

capable of being corrected. 
Corsage (kor'sej), n. the waist 
of a woman’s dress. 

Cosey (kO'ze), n. covering for a 
teapot, to retain the heat. 
Cosmopolitan (koz-mo-pol'e-tn 
Cosmopolite(koz-mop'o-lit),n. 
man ofeularged,liberal views 











1 

AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 

COTTON ADE 

672 

CUTTER-BAR 

Cottonade (kot'tn-ad), n. stout 
thick fabric of cotton cloth. 

Cotton-belt (kot'tn-belt),n. ex¬ 
tent of territory adapted to 
the cultivation of cotton. 

Cotton.boll (kot'tn-bol), n. the 
pod of the cotton-plant. 

Cotton.llannel (kot'tn-flan'nl), 
n. heavy twilled fabric of 
cotton cloth, with plush nap. 

Cottonmoth (kot'tn-moth), n. 
the same as Cotton-worm. 

Cottonmouth (kot'tn-mowth), 
n. a poisonous serpent. 

Cotton-press (kot'tn-pres), n.a 
machine for pressing raw 
cotton into bales. 

Cotton-seed(kot'tn-sed), n. the 
seed of the cotton-plant. 

Cotton-waste (kot'tn-wast), n. 
refuse of a cotton-factory. 

Cotton-worm( kot'tn-wurru), n. 
a destructive worm infesting 
the growing plants of cotton. 

Cotton-zone (kot'tn-zon),n.the 
girdle of the earth within 
which cotton can be grown. 

Count (kownt), n. a terrapin 
over seven inches in length. 

Coupler (kup'ler), n. a hook to 
unite railroad-cars. 

Cousinship (kuz'n-ship),n. the 
relationship of cousins. 

Cowbird (kow'bird), n. one of 
the American starlings. 

Cowboy (kow'boy), n. a cattle 
drover; a herder. 

Cowper’s Glands, glands situa¬ 
ted between the prostate and 
the bulb of the urethra. 

Cowtree(kow'tre),n.a plant of 
Brazil, from which a kind of 
milk is obtained. 

Coxalgia (koks-al'je-ah) n.pain 
in the hip; hip-joint disease. 

Coyote (koy'ot), n. the small 
barking prairie-wolf. 

Crabwood(krab'wood),n.light 
cabinet wood from Guiana. 

Crackled(krak'ld),p.a. having 
cracked surface, as pottery. 

Craekleware (krak'l-war), n. 
the same as Cracklin. 

Cracklin(krak'lin),n. akindof 
china with cracked enamel. 

Cracksman (kraks'man), n. a 
burglar by force or violence. 

Cradle-hole (kra'dl-hol), n.lit- 
tle gully across a sleigh -track 

Crane (kran), t>. to stretch the 
neck forward, to see better. 

Cranial (lcra'ne-al), a. belong¬ 
ing to the cranium, or skull. 

Craniotomy (kra-ne-ot'o-me), 

«. operation in obstetrics. 

Crank (krank),n.ill tempered, 
odd, or half-crazy person. 

Cranky (kra/t't'e), a. ill-hu¬ 
mored ; whimsical; ond. 

Crash (krash), n. a coarse kind 
of linen of unbleached hemp. 

Crayon (kra'un), n. pencil of 
carbon used in producing 
electric light, &c. 

Craze (kraz),«. a defect in the 
glaze of earthenware which 
causes it to crack. 

Creamery (krem'er-e), n. place 
where milk and its products 
are prepared for market. 

Creeper (krep'er), n. a small 
iron frying-pan ; a spider. 

Cremate (kre-mat'), v. to con¬ 
sume a dead body by fire. 

Cremationist(kre-ma'shun-ist) 
n. one who believes in burn- 
ingthe bodiesofdeadpersons. 

Crematory (krem'a-to-re), n. 
a furnace for the purpose of 
burning dead human bodies. 

Crepitant (krep'e-tant), a. 
crackling; rattling. 

Crescentic(kre-sen'tik).a. hav¬ 
ing the form of a crescent. 

Cretonne (kre-ton'),M.a strong 
white fabric of hemp and flax 

Cretonnes (kre-tonz'), n. pi. 
prints of gay patterns. 

Cribbing (krib'bing),n. plank¬ 
lining of the shaft of a mine. 

Crinkly (krink'le), a. having 
crinkles; wavy. [maker. 

Crispin (kris'pin), n. a shoe- 

Crith (krith),n. unitof weight 
of aeriform substances. 

Croaker (krok'er),n.small fish 
found on the Atlantic coast. 

Crooked whisky, whisky on 
which the internal-revenue 
tax has been evaded. 

Crookneck (krook'nek), n. a 
kind of curved-neck squash. 

Croon (kroon), v. to sing in a 
low tone; to hum. [a horse. 

Cropper (krop'pr), n. fall from 

Crops (krops), n. parts above 
the shoulder of an ox. 

Croquet (kro-ka/), n. an out¬ 
door game played with long 
mallets and wooden balls. 

Croquette (kro-ket'), n. a ball 
of minced meat, &c., fried. 

Crosshones (kros'bonz), n. hu¬ 
man thighbones crosswise. 

Crosscut (kros'kut), n. a level 
cut across a vein in a mine. 

Crossing (kros'ing), n. mixing 
ofbreeds; an intersection of 

roads ; walk across a street. 

Crosslode (kros'lod), n. a lode 
crossing the main lode. 

Croton-oil(kro'tn-oil), n. an oil 
forming a powerful cathartic, 
and also used externally. 

Crown-antler(krown'aut-lr),n. 
highest branch of stag's horn 

Crown-wheel (krown'wliel), n. 
a wheel having teeth cut on 
the edge of the rim. 

Crumbly (krum'ble), a. easily 
crumbled; friable; brittle. 

Cruorine (kroo'o-rin), n. the 
coloring-matter of the blood. 

Crush-hat (krush'hat), n. a 
soft compressible hat. 

Cryptonym (krip'to-nim), n. a 
secret or concealed name. 

Crystalline lens, the fibrous, 
doubly convex lens in the eye 

Crystalloids (kris'tal-oydz), n. 
pi. resemblances to crystals. 

Cucujo (ku-koo'ho),a firefly 
found in tropical America. 

Cucumber-tree (ku'kum-br- 
tre), n. a tree whose fruit 
resembles a cucumber. 

Calls (kulz), n. pi. refuse tim¬ 
ber, fish, oysters, apples, &c. 

Cult (kult), n. particular form 
of worship or religious belief. 

Culture (kult'yur), n. high 
civilization; refinement. 

Cultus fkul'tus), n. cult; cul¬ 
ture ; worship. 

Cundurango(kun-du-rang'go), 
n. vine growing in Ecuador. 

Cunner (kuu'nr), n. the salt¬ 
water perch; the chogset. 

Cupric (ku'prik), a. pertaining 
to or obtained from copper. 

Curare (ku-ra re), n. resinous 
substance used by Indians 
for poisoning their arrows. 

Curarize (ku'ra-riz), v. to poi¬ 
son with curare. 

Curassow (ku-ras'so), n. a bird 
resembling a turkey. 

Curios (ku're-oz), n.pl. curiosi¬ 
ties, or articles of virtu. 

Curviform (kurv'e-form), a. 
curved in shape or outline. 

Cush (kush), n. a preparation 
of boiled crackers. 

Cutpidore (kus'pe-dor), «. an 
earthenware vessel to receive 
waste matter; a spittoon. 

Cuteness (kut'nes), n. acute¬ 
ness; sharpness; smartness 

Cutis (ku'tis), n. layer of true 
skin beneath the epidermis. 

Cutter-bar (kut'tr-bar), n. bar 
to fasten cutting-tools. 








AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


CYANINE 673 DENTUKE 


Cyanine (si'a-nin), n. the blue 
coloring-matter of flowers. 

Cymric (kim'rik), a. Welsh;— 
n. Welsh language. [race. 

Cymry (kim're), n. the Welsh 

Cypress-vine (si'pres-vin), n. 
'an American climbing plant. 

Cysted (sis'ted), a. in a cyst. 

Cysticle(sis'te-kl),n.smallcyst. 

Cytode (si'tod),n. the simplest 
form ofindependeut life. 

Cytogenesis (sit-o-jen'e-sis), n. 
the development of cells in 
organic structures. 

Cytogenetic (sit-o-je-net'ik), a. 
pertaining to cell-formation. 

Cytogenous (se-toj'e-nus), a. 
producing or forming cells. 

Cvtogeny (se-toj'e-ne), n. cell- 
formation ; cytogenesis. 

Cytoplasm (si'to-plazm), ti¬ 
the same as Protoplasm. 

Cznrdom(zar'dom), jj. the rule 
or authority of the Czar. 

Czurist (zar ist), n. an adher¬ 
ent or partisan of the Czar. 

Czarevna (za-rev'nah), n. wife 
or consort of the czarowitz. 

Czech(tshek),n.oneof a branch 
of the Slavonic race. 


D. 

Dado (dah'do), n. imitation 
wainscoting of paper or wood. 

Dagos(da'g6z),w.pZ.namegiven 
in Louisianato Italians, Por¬ 
tuguese, ami Spaniards. 

Daintify(dan'te-fy) u.to render 
dainty, delicate, or fastidious 

Dairy-farm (da*re-farm), n. a 
farm where dairy-produce is 
chiefly raised. 

Dairy-prod uce (da'reprod'us), 
inil’k,butter,cheese, cream &c 

Daltonism (dal'tn-izm), n. in¬ 
ability to distinguish colors. 

Dangleberry (dang'g!-ber-re), 
n. a kind of whortleberry. 

Danites (dan'its), n.pi. a secret 
association of Mormons. 

Danseuse (dou-sooz ), n. a fe¬ 
male dancer in public. 

Darbies (dar'bez), n. hand¬ 
cuffs, or fetters; manacles. 

Darwinian (dar-win'e-an), a. 
pertaining to Darwinism. 

Darwinism (dar'win-izm), n. 
the doctrine of continuous 
development, based on the 
theories of natural selection, 
struggle for existence, and 
survival of the fittest. 


Dash (dash), n. a single trial of 
speed on a racecourse. 

Dashy (dash'e), a. ostenta¬ 
tiously fashionable; showy. 

Davyuin (da've-um),w, asilver- 
white, hard metal. 

Dawdle (daw'dl), v. to waste 
time by trifling. 

Deadbeat (ded'bet), n.a plausi- 
bleswindler; an artful rogue. 

Deadbroke (ded'brok), a.with- 
out money. 

Deadhead (ded'hed), n. one 
who obtains privileges with¬ 
out payment. 

Deadheat (ded'het), n.a race in 
which two competitors come 
in even. 

Deadhouse (ded'house), n. a 
place for temporary recep- 
tionof unknown dead bodies. 

DendIock(ded'lok),n. a state of 
legislative affairs in which 
no progress can be made. 

Deadset (ded'set), n. a com¬ 
bined attack. 

Deadwall (ded'wal). n. a blank 
wall, unbroken by openings. 

Deadweight (ded'wat), n. a 
weightthatimpedes progress 

Deathlike (deth'lik), «. resem- 
- bling death. 

Deathrate (deth'rat), n. ratio 
of deaths to population. 

Death’s-head (deth’s'hed), n. 
the skull of a dead person. 

Debeige (de-bazh'), n. a kind 
of goods resembling alpaca. 

Debuseope (de'bus-kop), n. a 
modified kind ofkaleidoscope 

Debutant (da-bu-tong'), w.one 
who makes his first appear¬ 
ance before the public. 

Debutante (da-bu-tont'), n. a 
female making her first ap¬ 
pearance before the public. 

Decadent (de-ka'dent), a. fall- 
iugoff; decaying; declining. 

Decagram (dek'a-gram), n. a 
weight of ten grams. 

Deealeomania fde-kal-ko-ma'- 
ne-ah), n. art of transferring 
pictures to china, glass, &c. 

Decaliter (dek-a-le'tr), n. ten 
liters. 

Decarburization(de-kar-bu-re- 
za'shun), n. act, process, or 
result of decarburizing. 

Decarbnrlze (de-kar'bu-riz), v. 
to deprive of carbon. 

Deeaster (dek'as-tr), n. a solid 
measure equal to ten steres. 

Decigram (des'e-gram), n. one- 
tenth of a gram. 


Decimally (des'e-mal-le), ad. 
in accordance with decimals, 
or with the decimal system. 

Decime (da-sem), n. a French 
coin, worth nearly 2 cents. 

Decister (des'is-tr),n, the tenth 
part of a stere,or cubic meter. 

Decitizenize (de-sit'e-zn-iz), v. 
to deprive of citizenship. 

Deckhand (dek'hand), n. a 
worker on the deck of a vessel 

Decollette (da-kol-le-ta'),o.cut 
low in the neck; low-necked. 

Deerberry (der'ber-re), n. a 
plant with large, greenish, 
mawkish berries. 

Deergrnss(der'gras), n. aplant 
with large, showy flowers, 
and bright purple petals. 

Deftbrinate (de-fi'brin-at), v. 
to deprive of fibrin. 

Defibrination (de-fi-bre-na/- 
shun), n. the act or process 
of depriving of fibrin. 

Deflected (de-flekt'ed), a. bent 
downward; curved over. 

Defoliated (de-fo'le-at-ed), a. 
stripped of leaves. 

Deforest (de-for'est), v. to clear 
of forests. 

Defrayal (de-fra'al), n. act of 
defraying or paying, as costs. 

Deglutitory(deglu'te-to-re),a. 
pertaining to deglutition. 

Delaine (de-lane'), n. a fabric 
for ladies’ dress-goods. 

Deliriant (de-lir'e-ant), n. a 
drug which causes delirium. 

Delirifacient(de-lir-e-fa'shent) 
n. any preparation or sub¬ 
stance that causes delirium. 

Demi-monde (dem'e-mond), n. 
a collective name for women 
of doubtful reputation. 

Demobilization (de-mob-e-le- 
za'shun), n. the disarming, 
disbanding, and dismissal of 
troops from active service. 

Demobilize (de-mob'e-liz),!;. to 
disarm, disband, and dismiss 
troops from active service. 

Demonetization (de-mon-e-te- 
za'shun), n. act of divesting 
money of its value. 

Demurral (de-mur'rl), n. hes¬ 
itation in deciding or acting. 

Denseness (dense'nes), n. the 
state or quality of being 
close, compact, or thick. 

Densimeter (den-sim'e-tr), n. 
instrument for ascertaining 
the specific gravity of liquids. 

Denture (der.t'yure). n. an ar¬ 
tificial tooth or set of teeth. 















AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. S 

1 

DEODOKAHT 674 EPILEPTOID. j 

Deodorant(de-o'dr-ant),n. any 

substance which destroys or 
removes disagreeable odors. 
Dermalgia (der-mal'je-ah), n. 

neuralgia of the skin. 
Derringerider’rin-jer))!. short- 
barreled, non-revolving pis¬ 
tol, carrying a large ball. 
Despotize tdes'pot-iz), v. to act 
in a despotic manner. 
Desquamate (des'kwa-mat), v. 
to peel off in the form of 
scales. 

Devastator (dev'as-ta-tr)n. per¬ 
son or thing that devastates. 
Devil’s darning-needle,n. com¬ 
mon nameof the dragon-fly. 
Devilfish(dev'l-fish), n. alarge 
fish of hideous form ;—also 
called sea-devil,fishing-frog, 
bellows-ftsh, goose-fish, <fec, 
Devilment(dev i-mentj,n.. mis¬ 
chief ; deviltry. 

Devilwood (dev'l-wood), n. a 
species of olive growing in 
some of the Southern States. 
Dewberry (dew'ber-re), n. a 
low species of blackberry. 
Dhow(dow),n. a kind of coast 
vessel used in Eastern seas. 
Diactinic(di-ak-tin') k) a. trans¬ 
mitting actinic rays of light. 
Diagnose (di'ag-noz), v. to dis¬ 
cover a disease by diagnosis. 
Diagrammatical a-gram-mat'- 
ik), a. exhibited or illustra¬ 
ted by the aid of a diagram. 
Diamonded (di'mund-ed), a. 

ornamented with diamonds. 
Dinphano (di'a-fan), n. woven 
silk stuff, with colored figures 
Diaphanie (di-af'a-ne), n. an 
imitation of stained glass. 
Dlaphysis (di-af'e-sis), n. the 
middle part of a long bone. 
Dlapnoic (di-ap-no'ik), a. in¬ 
creasing an insensible per¬ 
spiration. 

Diapyetic (di-a-py-et'ik), a. 

promoting suppuration. 
Diastema (di-as-te'ma), n. a 
gap or interval. 
Diathermomctcr (di-a-ther- 
mom'e-tr;, n. an instrument 
for examination of the beat- 
conducting power of liquids. 
Dicker (dik'er), v. to bargain; 

to negotiate ; to barter. 
Diesinker(di'sink-er),n. an en¬ 
graver of dies for coins, <fcc. 
BlfierentiatcCdif-fer-en'she-at'i 
v. to constitute a difference. 
Dilly-dally (diPle-dal'le), t>. to 
loiter,or wastetimeintrifling 

Dimorphic (di-mor'fik), a. oc¬ 
curring under two forms. 
Diinplement (dim'pl-ment), n. 

the state of being dimpled. 
Dingo (ding'go), n. the native 
or wild dog of Australia. 

Elephantlasis(el-e-fan-ti'a-sis) 

n. a disease of the skin, at¬ 
tended with deformity. 

Elite (a-let'), n. a choice or 
select body. [a tumult. 

Kmeute(a-mut'), n. an uproar; 

Emir (e'mir), n. an Arabian 
prince or dignitary. 

Emption (em'shun), n. legal 
power of repurchasing. 

Emu (e'mu), n. a bird of very 
large size, resembling the 
ostrich, found in Australia. 

Eneke’s comet, a comet which 
returns every 3 % years. 

Endocardium (en-do-kar'de- 
um), n. au internal lining 
to the human heart. 

Endogamous(en-dog'a-mus),a. 
marrying within the limits 
of the same family or tribe. 

Endogamy (eu-dog'a-me), n. 
marriage to members of the 
same family or tribe. 

Endoscope (en'do-skop), n. au 
instrument for making ex¬ 
aminations of the bladder. 

Endoskeleton(cn-do-skel'e-tn) 
n.theinternal orbony struct- 
ureofman audothor animals 

Engorged fen-gorjd'), a. con¬ 
gested, as in organ or vessel. 

Ensilage (en'se-toj), n. a mode 
of preserving fresh fodder for 
cattle, oy burying in earth. 

Enteralgia(en-ter-al'ge-ah),n. 
pain in the intestines; colic. 

Enteritis (cn-te-ri'tis), n. in¬ 
flammation of the intestines. 

Entotic (en-tot'ik), a. pertain- 
iug to the interior of the ear. 

Entr’acte (on-trakt 1 ), n. inter¬ 
val between the acts of a play 

Entree (on-tra'), n. a name for 
a side-dish at dinner. 

Entremets vong-tr-ma 1 ), n. a 
food-dainty ; a delicacy. 

Entrepot (ong-tr-po'l, n. a free 
port where goods are re¬ 
ceived and deposited, lor 
exchange or sale. 

Entropy (en'tro-pe), n, loss of 
energy and usefulness. 

Eon (e'on), n. n long period of 
time; an age. 

Eosinc (e'o-sin), n. a rose-red 
fluorescent dyestuff for silk. 

Epical (ep'e-kal), a. containing 
narration; narrative: epic. 

Epigastrium (ep-e-gas'tre-um) 
n. upper part of the abdomen. 

Epileptiform (ep-e-lep'te-form 
a. resembling epilepsy. 

Epileptoid (ep-e-lep'toydt- at 

resembling epilepsy; epileptl. 

E. 

Earwig (er'wig), n. a species 
of caterpillar. 

Ecarte(a-kar-ta'), n. a French 
game at cards. 

Egret (e'gret), n. a small white 
heron; tuft of feathers or hair 

Egyptologist(e-jip-tol'o-jist)». 
one devoted to the study of 
Egyptian antiquities. 

Egyptology (e-jip-tol'o-je), n. 
the science or the study of 
Egyptian antiquities. 

Eidograph (i'do-graf), n. an 
instrument used for the re¬ 
production of drawings. 

Elan (a-lon'), «. passionate 
enthusiasm; ardor; zeal. 

Electric light, light evolved 
from materials heated to in¬ 
candescence by the passage 
through them of an electric 
current. 

Electrogenesis (e-lek-tro-jen'- 
e-sis), n. the production of 
electricity. 

Electrcgenic(e-lek-tro-jen'ik), 

Electrogenetic (e-lek-tro-jo- 
net'ik), a. pertaining to the 
production of electricity. 

Electro-gilt (e-lek'tro-gilt), a. 
gilded by means of voltaic, 
electricity. 

Electro-magnetism (e-lek'tro- 
mag'net-izm),n. the relation 
of electricity to magnetism. 

Elcctrometer(e-lek-trom'e-tr), 
n. instrumentto measure the 
force of an electric current. 

Electrometry (e-lek-trom'e-tre 
n. art or process of making 
electrical measurements. 
Electropathy (e-lek-trop'a-the) 

n. the treatment of diseases 
by means of ’leetriccurrents. 

Eleetrop hone(e-lek'tro-f6n),n. 
mi instrument for producing 
sound by electric currents. 

Electro-plated (e-lek'tro-plat r - 
ed), a■ plated by means of 
voltaic electricity. 

Electrotypic (e-lek-tro-tip'ik), 
<z. pertaining to electrotypy. 

Elegize (el'e-jiz),o. to celebrate 
in elegiac verse; to bewail. 

















AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


EPIOENIS 


875 


GET-UP 


Eplornis (ep-e-or'nis), n. large 
ostrich-iikebird, nowextinct 
Epitaphial (ep-e-taf'e-al), a. 

pertaining to an epitaph. 
Epsom milts a salt of cathar¬ 
tic properties, prepared from 
sea-water. 

Equestrienne ' '-kwes-tre-en'), 
n. a female equestrian. 

Ergo (er'go), ad. therefore; 
consequently. 

Ermine-moth (er'mln-moth), 
n. a species of moth having 
■wings resembling ermine. 
Errata (er-ra'ta), n. pi. errors 
in writing or printing. 
Eruptionai (e-rup'shun-al), a. 

pertaining to eruptions. 
Erythrogen (e-rith'ro-jen), n. 
the base of the coloring mat¬ 
ter of the blood. 

Erythroid (er'e-throyd), a. of 
a red color; reddish. 
Esthetics (es-thet'iks), n. the 
science of taste and beauty. 
Etagere (et-a-zhari), n. a piece 
of furniture with shelves for 
articles of elegance or use. 
Etherize (e'ther-iz), v. to put 
under the influence of other. 
Ethnogeny (eth-noj'e-ne), n. 

the origin ofraces and nations 
Ethnologist (eth-nol'o-jist), n. 

a student of ethnology. 
Etiology (e-te-ol'o-je), n. the 
science or study of causes, 
as exhibited in the structure 
of animals and plants. 
Ethnograph (eth'no-graf), n. a 
history or description of a 
race or tribe of mankind. 
Etude (a-tud'), n. a piece for 
study, in music,fine arts, &c. 
Euchre (u'ker), v. to outwit; 

to bafile; to foil. 

Eudiometer (li-de-om'e-tr), n. 

instrument to measure gases. 
Eudiometry (u-de-om'e-tre),?i. 

the measurement of gases. 
Eugenesic (u-je-nes'ik) ? a. 
Eugenetic (u-je-net'ik) jbreed- 
ing with a different species 
Eugenes!* (u-.ien'e-sis),n. pro¬ 
duction of offspring between 
parents of different species. 
Euphemize (u'fe-nriz),y.to ex¬ 
press in delicate language. 
Euphuism (u'fu-izm), n. an af¬ 
fectation of extra refinement 
Euphuize(u'fu-iz), v. to be fas¬ 
tidious in the useof language 
Eventlessle-vent'les), a. with¬ 
out events; monotonous. 
Everglade (ev'er-glad), n. a 


tractof lowland mostly cov¬ 
ered with water. 

Evolutional (ev-o-lu'shun-al), 
a. relating to evolution. 
Evolutionist (ev-o-lu'shun-ist) 
n. a believer in evolution. 
Ex (eks), a prefix to words, sig¬ 
nifying out of. 

Exacting (eks-akt'ing), a. se¬ 
vere; hard; extortionate. 
Exacliiigness(eks-akt'iug-nes) 
n.themaking ofand insisting 
upon oppressive demands 
Exanimate (eks-an'e-mat), n. 

destitute of life; spiritless 
Excelsior (eks-sel'se-ur), a. 

still higher; ever upward. 
Excretory organs, the skin, 
the lungs, and the kidneys. 
Exogamous (eks-og'a-mus), a. 

marryingoutofthe sam’etribe 
Exogamy (eks-og'a-me),w.pro- 
hibitiou oi marriagebetween 
members of the same tribe. 
Exoskeleton (eks-o-skel'e-tn), 
n. shells oflobsters,crabs,4c. 
Ex-parte (eks-par'te), ct.upou 
or from one side only. 
Expropriate (eks-pro'pre-at) 

^ v. to deprive of property. 
Expropriation (eks-pro-pre-a' 
shun), n. act of depriving of 
orseparating from property. 
Extradite (eks'tra-dit), v. to 
deliver an offender to the 
government under which his 
offence was committed. 

Eyas (fas),?t. a hawk too young 
to leave its nest. 

Eyebolt (i'bolt), n. abolthay- 
ing an eye at one end. 
Eyebriglit (l'brit), n. a herb 
usedmedicinally fortheeyes. 
Eyeglass (i'glas),w.spectacles. 
Eyelids (i'lidz ),n.pl. the folds 
of skin which cover the eyes, 
Eyepiece (i'pes), n. lep'jm nn 
optical instrumentwhich 
the eye is applied,. 


Falling wentlieri 1 rainy or 

snowy time. 

Faubourg fo'boorg), n. a sub¬ 
urb in French cities. 

Faux pas fty.pavr), a false step; 

a mistak", 

Feaze (fez) t.condition of fret¬ 
ful excitement; worry. 
Femur (l'e'rur), n. the thigh¬ 
bone. 


Fiasco (fe-as'ko), n. a failure; 
a blunder. 

Filicide (fil'e-sid), n. the mur¬ 
der of one's own child. 

Fi nil (find), ra.some thin ground; 
a discovery. 

First-C!ass(first-klas),ct. ofthe 
best quality; first-rate. 

Fizzle (Sz'zl),w. a failure. 

Flicker (flik'er),n. the golden- 
beaded woodpecker. 

Fluke (fluk), n. an unexpected 
advantage. 

Foothill (foot'hil), n. a lower 
hill at thefootof amountain. 

Forecast (for'kast),n.a predic¬ 
tion in regard to the future. 

Formalism (for'mal-izm)zi. an 
excessive adherence to form. 

Fourth estate, the whole body 
of journalists. 

Fraud (frawd), n. a deceitful 
person; a deceiver; acheat. 

Fresh (fresh), a. forward; 
bold; impudent. 

Fulminate (ful'me-nat), n. an 
explosive compound of great 
destructive power. 


G. 


Gadabout (gad'a-bowt), n. one 
who rambles about idly. 

Gala-day (ga'la-da), n. a day 
of mirth and festivity. 

Gallinipper (gal'le-nip-pr), n. 
a species of large musquito. 

Gallivant (gal'le-vant), v. to 
play the beau; to beau. 

Galoot (ga-loot'),'/i. a worthless 
fellow; a rowdy. 

Gameness (gambles), n. plucky 
endurance; pluck. 

Gamin (gam'in), n. an unruly 
street-urchin. 

Gaskins (gas'kins),«.pf. inner 
part of she thighs of a horse 

Gassy(gas'se),a.fullot inflated 
conceited, or deceitful talk 

Gastric fever, a fever accom 
panied with severediarrhea 
Gastro-enteritis (gas'tro-en 
te-ri'tis), n. inttammationof 
the intestines. 

Gastritis (gas-tri'tis), n. in¬ 
flammation of the stomach. 

Gastronome (gas'tro-noni), n. 
one fond of good eating. 

Genesis (jen'e-sis),«. the mode 
or conditions ofreproduetiou. 

Geonianey (je'om-an-se),«. the 
rulesofwind and water. 

Get-up (get up), n. combina- 

































AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


GINGI.ES 676 KANAKA 


tion of parts ; style of dress. 

dingles (ling'glz),«. pi. small 
shells, &c.,onthe seashore. 

Clade (glad), n. tract of land 
covered with water, inter¬ 
spersed with bunches of 
grass, &c. 

Glamour (gla'moor), n. fasci¬ 
nation; witchery; charm. 

Gloaming (glom'ing),w.partial 
darkness; twilight; dusk. 

Glower (glow'r), v. to regard 
eagerly; to stare fixedly. 

Glucose ‘(glu'kose), n. a kind 
of sugar obtained from dried 
grapes, honey, and starch. 

Go-ahead (go'a-hed), a. pro¬ 
gressive; pushing; energetic. 

Goatee (goat-e'),w.beard hang¬ 
ing down from the chin. 

Gob (gob), n. a mouthful; also, 
the mouth. 

Go-by (go'by), n. a passing 
without notice. 

Godspeed (god'sped), n. pros¬ 
perous issue; success. 

Goldfinch (gold'finch), n. the 
yellow-bird; the thistle-finch. 

Gourmet (goor-ma), n. a deli¬ 
cate eater; an epicure. 

Gram (gram), n. the unit of 
weight,in the metric system. 

Grape-sugar (grap'shug-ar),M. 
the same as Glucose. 

Grass-widow (gras'wid-o),wife 
livingapartfromher husband 

Grasscloth (gras'kloth), n. a 
fine fabric resembling linen. 

Greenback (gren'bak), n. a le¬ 
gal-tender U. S. bank-note. 

Greenbaclter (gren'bak-er), n. 
an advocate of the issue of 
legal-tender bank-notes. 

Greenbrier (gren'bri-er), n. a 
climbing shrub with a prick¬ 
ly stem, bearing blue-black 
berries; the cat-brier. 

Griffe (grif), n. a half-broed ; 
a mulatto. 

Griping (grip'ing), n. exact¬ 
ing; extortionate; grasping. 

Grilse (grilse), n. a salmon 
under two years old. 

Griqua (gre'liwa), n. the child 
of a Dutch boor and Hotten¬ 
tot female. 

Groschen (grosh'en), n. a Ger¬ 
man coin worth two cents. 

Grouper (groop'er), n. a fish 
of the perch family. 

Grouty (grou'te), a. cross-tem¬ 
pered; surly; irritable. 

Grubby (grub'be), a. greedy ; 
meanly avaricious. 


Guaco Igwaw'ko), n. a South 
American plant used as an 
antidote to serpent-bites. 

Guipure (ge-pur').n. an imita¬ 
tion of antique lace. 

Gulch (gulch), n. a ravine, or 
dry watercourse, [deceived. 

Gullible (gul'le-bl), a. easily 

Gulden (gul'den), n. an Aus¬ 
trian silver coin,worth40cts. 

Gunny (gun'ne), n. a strong, 
coarse cloth, to make sacks. 

Gurry (gur're), n. the offal of 
fish; crude fishoil. 

Gurt (gurt), n. a channel for 
water in a mine. 

Gushing (gush'ing), a. effus¬ 
ively seutimental; demon¬ 
stratively affectionate. 

Guy (gi), v. to sportively de¬ 
ceive : to fool. 

Gynecology (jin-e-kol'o-je), n. 
the science of the nature 
and diseases of women. 

Gyratory (ji'ra-to-re), a. mov¬ 
ing in a circle. 


H. 

Habitue (ah-bit-u-a'),». a con¬ 
stant attendant at a certain 
place. [cod family. 

Hake (hak), n. a seafishof the 

Handicap (han'de-kap), v. to 
burden ; to encumber. 

Hard-up (hard'up),a.destitute 
of money; poverty-struck. 

Haricot (har'e-ko), n. a ragout 
of meat and vegetables. 

Heat (het), n. sexual excite¬ 
ment of animals. 

Heliotype (heie-o-tip), n. a 
sun-picture or photograph. 

Heredity (he-red'e-te),n, trans¬ 
mission of the characteris¬ 
tics of .parents to offspring. 

Hinny (hin'ne).n. offspring of 
a stallion and female ass. 

Hlghfaluten(hi-fa-lu'tn) high- 
flown language; bombast. 

Hood!iim(h66d'ium),n.arough 
fellow ; a young rowdy. 

Hoosier (hoo'zher), n. a native 
of the state of Indiana. 


I. 

Iclithyotomy (ik-the-ot'o-me), 
n. the anatomy of fishes. 

II and (i'lnnd), n, this is the 
proper spelling of Island. 

Impecunious (im-pe-ku'ne-us), 
a. destitute of money ; poor. 


Impecuniosity (im-pe-ku-ne- 
os'e-te), n. the lack of money. 

Impresario (im-pra-sali're-o), 
n. conductor of an opera- 
troupe. 

Insensuous (in-sen'shu-us), a. 
not sensuous; insentient. 

Insistence (in-sist'ence),n. act 
of insisting; persistence. 

Insistent (in-sist'ent), a. per¬ 
sistently urgent. 

Insomnia (iu-som'ne-ah), n. 
want of sleep. 

Insouciance (au-soo-se-ons),n. 
carelessness; indifference ; 
apathy. 

Intellection (in-tel-lek'shun), 
n. intellectual activity. 

Interaction (iu-tr-ak'shun).n. 
mutual or reciprocal action. 

Intermediary (in-tr-me'de-a- 
re),n. go-between; mediator. 

Itemize (i'tem-iz), v. to stote 
in full detail. 


J. 

Jab (jab), v. to thrust. 

Jackass tjak'ass), n. a dolt; a 
very stupid person ; a block¬ 
head. 

Jamboree (jam-bo-re'), n. a 
drunken frolic; a spree. 

Jayhawker (ja'hawk-er), n. a 
lawless armed man; a rob¬ 
ber ; a guerilla. 

Jeu-d’esprlt (zhu'des-pre), n. 
a witticism ; a joke. 

Jibe (jib), v. to suit; to agree; 
to harmonize. 

Jiffy (jif'fe), n. a very short 
time; an instant. 

Jimber-jawed (jim'br-jawd), 
a. having a projecting lower 
jaw. [ium-tremens. 

Jimjains (jim'jams), n. delir- 

Jiinmy (jirn'me), n. a sharp- 
pointed iron lever. 

Johnny-cake (jon'ne-kak), n. 
bread made of the meal of 
Indian corn. 

Jug (jug), n. a prison. 

Julienne (ju-le-en'), n. a kind 
of vegetable soup. 

Junebug (jun'bug), n. abeetle 
which appears in the month 
of June. 


K. 

Kaiser (ki'zr), n. an emperor. 
Kanaka (ka-nah'ka), n. a na- 
tiveofthe Sandwich Islands. 














' -— ---- ' 

AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


KATYDID 677 PHENOMENAL 


Katydid (ki'te-did), n. a spe¬ 
cies of grasshopper. 

Keii (ken), n. a low tavern. 

Khedive (ke-dev'), n. title of 
the viceroy or ruler of Egypt. 

Kid (kid), n. a child ; a boy. 

Kilo (kil o), a prefix implying 
one thousand. 

Kilogram (kilo-gram), n. a 
French measure of weight, 
equal to 1000 grams. 

Kiloliter (kil'o-li-tr), r». a 
French measure of capacity, 
equal to 1000 liters. 

Kilometer (kil'o-me-tr), n. a 
French measure of length, 
equal to 1000 meters. 

Kilostere (ke'lo-ster), n. a 
French measure of solidity, 
equal to 1000 steres. 

Kingbird(king'bird),tt. a small 
bird, noted for it s courage in 
attacking larger birds. 

Kingcrnb (king'krab), n. a 
species of crab, having the 
form of a horse’s foot. 

Kingcup (king'kup), n. the 
buttercup. 

Knick-knack (nik'nak), n. a 
trifle or toy; a gewgaw. 

Knowing (no'ing), a. artful; 
shrewd; sharp. 

Koumiss (koo'mis), n. a spirit¬ 
uous liquor distilled from 
mare’s or camel's milk. 

Kreutzer (kroot'zr), n. a small 
German coin. 

Krooman (kroo'man), n. one 
of a negro race inhabiting 
the coast of Western Africa. 


L. 

Lacrosse (la-kros'), n. a Cana¬ 
dian game at ball. 

Lactein (lak'te-in), n. concen¬ 
trated or solidified milk. 

Lambrequin (lam'ber-kin), n. 
ornamental drapery pendent 
from the top of a wi ndow, &c. 

Landlordism (land'lord-izm), 
n. the ownership of land 
rented to tenants; interest 
and influence of landowners. 

Land-warrant(land-wor'rant), 
n. a government warrant en¬ 
titling a person to a certain 
tract of the public lands. 

Lantern-jawed (lan'tern-jawd) 
n. having a thin face. 

Larcenons(lar'se-nus), ^char¬ 
acterized by larceny. _ 


Lark(lark),n. aprank; a frolic 

Leatheret (leth-er-et'), n. art¬ 
ificial or imitation leather. 

Liabilities (li-a-bil'i-tes), n.pl. 
amount of obligations or in¬ 
debtedness; debts collectively 

Llghtwood (Ht'wood), n. pine 
knots, dry sticks, &c., for 
kindling a fire. 

Li: ;nose (lig'nos), n. an explo¬ 
sive compound of woody fiber 
and nitro-glyceriue. 

Lilypad (lil'e-pad).M. the broad 
floating leaf of the wacer-lily. 

Limelight (lim'lit), n. a very 
brilliant light obtained from 
quicklime. [talk. 

Lingo (liug'o), ». language; 

Linoleum (liu-6'le-um), u. a 
kind of floorcloth made of 
hardened linseed-oil. 

Lithofracteur(lith-o-frak'tur), 
a powerful explosive com 
pound of uitro-glycerine. 

Litterateur (le-ta'ra-tur), n. a 
writer for the press. 

Lobbyist (lob'be-ist), n. a per¬ 
son who frequents the lobby 
of a legislature for the pur- 
poseofinttuencing legislation 

Loony (loon'e), a. crazy; men¬ 
tally unsound. 

Lopsided (lop'sid-ed), a. un¬ 
evenly proportioned; unbal¬ 
anced. 

Love-child (luv'child), n. an 
illegitimate child. 

Lush (lush), n. liquor; drink. 

Lushy (lush'e), a. drunk. 


M. 

Majolica (ma-jol'e-ka), n. a 
soft enameled earthenware. 

Menhaden (men-ha'dn), n. a 
salt-water fish of the shad 
kind; the moss-bunker. 

Menu (me-noo'), n. the bill of 
fare at a banquet. 

Mesa (ma'sah), «. a table-land 
bordered by mountains. 

Miff (mif), n. a slight degree 
of auger. [fended. 

Miffed (mift), a. slightly of- 

Moonglade (moon'glad), n. the 
track of moonlight on the 
water. 

Moony (moon'e), a. dreamily 
sentimental; moonstruck. 

Morccau(mor-so')i n. a morsel; 
a bit. 

Mossbunker (mos'bunk-er), n. 
a fish of the shad kind. 


N. 

Nag v. to tease; to annoy; 
to worry ; to scold. 

Natty (uat'te), a. neatly fine; 
spruce. 

Nickel (nik'l), n. a five-cent 
coin made of nickel. 

Nincompoop(nin'kum-poop),n. 
a silly fool; a blockhead. 

Nobby (nob'be), a. stylish; fash- 
iouable; modish. 

Nonchalance (non-sha-lons'), 
n. indifference; carelessness. 

Nonchalant (non-sha-loug'), a. 
indifferent; careless; cool. 

Nutrient (nu'tre-ent), a. nour¬ 
ishing ; nutritious. 


o. 

Octopus(ok-to'pus),n. akindof 
cuttle-fish having eight arms. 

Oleomargarine (o-le-o-mar'- 
ga-rin), n. artificial butter 
made from animal fat. 

One-horse (wun'hors), a. infe¬ 
rior ; insignificant; limited. 

Open (o'pn), n. open space of 
land in a forest, &c. 

Opera-bouffc (op-er-a-bOofTn. 
a comic opera. 

Oroide (o'ro-id), n. an alloy re¬ 
sembling gold. 

Outre (66-tra'), a. uncommon; 
extravagant. 

Outrigger (owt'rig-gr), n. pro¬ 
jecting rowlock of a boat. 

Outspoken (owt-spok'n), o. 
free-spoken; candid; frank. 


P. 

Papcterle(pap-a-tre'),n. a box 
or case for stationery. 

Parti-colored (par'te-kul'urd), 
a. of various colors ; varie¬ 
gated. 

Part-song (part'song), n. a 
song in two or more parts. 

Passe (pas-sa'y), a. out of use; 
worn ; faded. 

Peritonitis (per-e-to-ni'tis), n. 
inflammation of the lining 
membrane of the abdomen. 

Pesky (pesk'e), a. mischievous; 
troublesome; vexing. 

Petite (pe-teet'), a. small in 
size ; little and neat. 

Phenomenal (fe-nom'e-nal), a. 
extraordinary; exceptional; 
extremely rare. 

















AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


PHILOGYNIST 678 SHINDIG 


Philogynist (fi-loj'e-nist), n. a 
lover of women, [of women. 

Pliilogyny (fi-loj'e-ne), n. love 

Photophono (fo'to-fon), n. an 
apparatus for producing ar¬ 
ticulate speech by the inci 
dence ofbeams oflight flashed 
on a sensitive diaphragm. 

Phylareh (fi'lark), n. the chief 
of a tribe. 

Phylloxera (fll-lox'e-ra), n. a 
species of plant-lice infesting 
grapevines. 

Pliylogenesis(fi-lo-jen'e-sis),w. 
the theory of the development 
of varied races of mankind. 

Phylogenetic ((fi-lo-je-net'ik), 
a. pertaining to the develop¬ 
ment of a race or tribe. 

Phjiogeny (fi-loj'e-ne), n. de- 
scentofatribe; tribaldescent 

Physicisin (fiz'i-sizm), n. the 
science or study of physical 
phenomena, [a negro baby. 

Pickaninny (pik'a-nin-ne), n. 

Pickerel (pik'er-el), n. a fresh¬ 
water fish of the pike family. 

Pie-plant (pi'plant), n. a name 
of the garden rhubarb. 

Pinkeye (pink'i), ?t. a disease 
in horses, resemblingcatarrh. 

Plucky (pluk'e), a. spirited; 
courageous; resolute. 

Possum (pos'sum), n. a com¬ 
mon name for the opossum. 

Potency (po'ten-se), n. poten¬ 
tial power or ability. 

Pyaemia (pi-e'me-ah),?t. blood- 
poisoning caused by the ab¬ 
sorption of pus. 


Qi> 

Qualiog (kwaw'hog), n. a spe¬ 
cies of clam. [money. 

Queer (kwer), n. couuterfeit 
Quod (kwod), n. a prison- 


up; to make over; to renew. 

Rhino (ri'no), n. money; cash. 

Rigor mortis (rig'or mor'tis), 
the stiffness of death. 

Read-agent (rod'-a-jent), n. a 
highway robber. 

Roue (roo-a'), n. a rake; a de¬ 
bauchee ; a libertine. 

Roustabout (rows'ta-bowt), n. 
a deckhaud on a Western 
steamboat; a vagabond. 

Rowdy (row'dc), n. a riotous, 
turbulent fellow. 

Rowdyism (row'de-izm), n. 
noisy blackguardism. 

Royalty (roy'al-te), n. asumof 
money paid to an inventor, 
owner, <fcc., from the product 
of his invention,property',&c. 

Ruche(roosh), n. a delicate ma¬ 
terial of blonde, net, &c. 


B. 

Rabies(ra'be-ez), n. rabidness; 
hydrophobia. 

Racker (ralc'er), n. a horse that 
moves with a racking pace. 

Ramshackle (ram'shak-i), a. 
falling to pieces; loose; old. 

Ranchman (ransh'man), n. a 
cattle-breeder; a herdsman. 

Rattler (rat'lr), n.arattlesuake 

Razor-fish (ra'zr-fish), ) n, a| 

Razor-shell fra'zr-shel), S bi¬ 
valve shellfish shaped like 
the handle of a razor. 

Revamp (re-vamp'), v. to patch! 


B, 

Sage -brnsli(sa j 'brush) ,n .a low, 
irregular shrub, growing on 
the Western plains. 

Sage-chcese(saj'chez),n.cheese 
flavored with sage. 

Sage-cock (saj'kolt), ) n. a 

Sage-grouse(saj'grouce) > large 

Sage-hen (saj'hen), ) spe¬ 
cies of prairie-fowl; thecock- 
of-the-plains. 

Scalawag (skal'a-wag), n. a 
mean scamp ; a scapegrace. 

Scaly (ska'le),<z. mean; shabby'. 

Scrawny (skraw'ne), a. low in 
flesh ; bareboned ; scraggy. 

Serouge(skrowj),v, to squeeze; 
to crowd. 

Scrub-oak (skrub'ok), n. a 
dwarfish species of oak. 

Scrumptious (skrum'shus), a. 
very line or nice ; excellent. 

Scuppernong (slcup'r-nong), n. 
the Southern foxgrape. 

Scurry (skur're), v. to run in 
haste; to scud. 

Seythewhet (sithe'whet), n. a 
species of American thrush. 

Seaeat (se'kat),«. the catfish; 
the sea-wolf; the wolf-fish. 

Seatlevil (se'dev-l),«.. the devil¬ 
fish. [coral. 

Seafcrn (se'fern’t, n. a kind of 

Seagoing (se'go-ing), a. going 
to sea; seafaring. 

Seagrape (se'grap), n. the sar- 
gassum, or gulfweed. [louse. 

Sealotise (sc'lous), n. the lish- 

Searaven (se'ra-vn), n. a fish of 
the bullhead or sculpin family 

Searobin (se'rob-in), n. asmail 


salt-water fish ; the pig-fisfi. 

Seaspider (se'spi-dr), n. a spe¬ 
cies of crab, having long and 
hairy legs; the spider-crab. 

Seatang (se'tang), n.aaediole 
seaweed; taugle. 

Secretive (se-kre'tiv), a. char¬ 
acterized by secretiveness. 

Sectionalism (sek'shun-al-izm) 
n. sectional preference or 
feeling. 

Secularist (sek'u-lr-ist), n. one 
who rejects revealed religion. 

Seedincss (sed e-nes), ti. suab- 
biness; wretchedness. 

Seed-wool (sed'wool), n. cotton 
not cleared of its seeds. 

Seep (sep), v. to drain or ooze 
out slowly. 

Seepage(sep'ij),w. liquid refuse; 
leakage; drainage, [moist. 

Seepy(sep'e), a. oozy; swampy; 

Self-assertive (self-as-sert'iv), 
a. confident in assertion or 
manner, [self-love; egotism. 

Selfisui (self izm), n. excessive 

Septa:mia(sep-te'me-ah),n. poi¬ 
sonous infection of the blood 
from pus or putrid matter. 

Septicteinla (sep-te-se me-ah), 
7 i. the same as Septeemia. 

Scptiferous (sep-tif'er-us), a. 
producing putrid poison. 

Septin (sep'tin), n. a peculiar 
poison in putrefying blood. 

Shaky (shak'e), a. likely to fall; 
tottering; insecure; unsound; 

^ —wavering ; uncertain. 

Shebang (she-bang'), n. a low 
drinking-house; a crib. 

Shedtler-crab(shed'dr-krab)n. 
acrab which hasrecently oast 
its shell; a soft crab.. 

Sheeny (shen'e), n. cant name 
for a Jew. 

Sheep-laurel (sh§p f law-rl), n. 
a plant of poisonous proper¬ 
ties ; also called calf-kill and 
laTnb-kill. 

Sheepshead (shgpsTicd), n. a 
fine, large, salt-water fish. 

Shagbark (shag'bark), Jn.tall 

Sliellbark (shel'bark), y and 
handsome species of hickory. 

Shenanigan(she-nan'e-gau),}i. 
a scheming trick; trickery; 
chaff; foolery; nonsense. 

Shimmer (shim'r), n. a quiv¬ 
ering light; a glimmer. 

Shimmering (sliim'r-ing), a. 
gleaming tremulously; glim¬ 
mering. 

Shindig (shin'dig), n. a riotous 
dance ; a shindy; a spree. 

















AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 

SHINDY 679 THERMOPILE 


Shindy (shin'de), n. a riotous 
spree; a row. 

Shinplnster (shin'plas-tr), n. a 
banknote of less value than a 
dollar. [the heron species. 

Sliitepoke(sl) it pok), 71 .a bird of 

Shotgun (shot'gun)n.asmooth¬ 
bore fowling-piece. 

Si Ik grass (silk'gras), n. aplant 
otherwise called Bear-grass. 

Skipper (skip r), n. a small 
maggot found in cheese. 

Skullduggery (skul-dug'er-e), 
n. underhand plotting. 

Skunk-bear (skunk'bear), n. 
the wolverine; the carcajou. 

Skunk-blackbird (skunk'blak- 
bird), n. the marsh blackbird 

Skuuk-cabbage(skunk'kab-ij), 
n. a strong-scented plant, 01 
repulsive odor. 

Sky-pilot (ski'pi-lot), n. slang 
name lor a clergyman. 

Slabsided (slab'sid-ed), a. hav¬ 
ing thin, flat sides ; lank. 

Slopwork (slop'wurk), n. work 
done cheaply and imperfectly 

Sneaky (snek'e), a. like asneak; 
sneaking, [alcoholic liquor. 

Snifter (smft'er), n. a dram of 

Snippety (snip'et-e), a. ridicu¬ 
lously small; insignificant. 

Sociable (so'sha-bl), n. asocial 
gathering of friends. 

Sockdologer (sok-dol'o-jr), n. a 
heavy finishingb!ow;asettler 

Soft mqney, paper money, as 
distinguished Irom coin. 

Soft-sawder (soft-saw'dr), n. 
flattery; blarney. 

Soft-soap (soft-sop'), n. a kind 
of soap ;—flattery ; blarney. 

Soilpipe (soil'plp), n. a drain 
to carry off night soil. 

Solferino (sol-fe-re'no), n. bril¬ 
liant deep-pink anilinecolor. 

Scmnambular(som-nam'bu-lar 
a. pertaining to sleep. 

Soph (sof), n. an abbreviation 
of Sophomore. 

Soppy (sop'e),a. saturated with 
moisture ; soaked ; sop-like. 

Soupcon (soop'son), n. a very 
small quantity; a taste. 

Spelter (spel'tr), n. crude zinc. 

Spider-crab (spi'dr-krab), n. 
a species of crab having long 
and hairy legs; sea-spider. 

Spirality (spi-ral'e-te), n. the 
state of being spiral. 

Splurge (spiurj), n. a bluster¬ 
ing demonstration ; a dash. 

Spondulicks (spon-doo'liks),n. 
a slang term for money. 


Spooney (spoon'e), a. weakly 
or foolishly fond. 

Spreadeagle (spred-e'gl), a. 
boastingly grandiloquent; 
bombastic; pompous. 

Spruced-up (sproost'up), a. 
madeneator fine; welldressed 

Sternum (ster'num), n. the 
breastbone. 

Stirpiculture (stir'pe-kul-tur), 
n. the breeding of special 
stocks or races. 

Stock(stok),n. to take stockin; 
to feel confidence in. [thick 

Stocky (stok'e), a. short and 

Straight-out(strat'owt)a.pure; 
genuine; unsophisticated. 

Strapped (strapt), a. hardup 
for money. 

Straw bail, woYthless bail. 

Sluckup (stuk'up), a. vain and 
affected; conceited. 

Stnfly(stuffe),a. angry; sulky; 
obstinate. 

Sucrose(soo'kros), n. sugar ob¬ 
tained from beets, corn, <tc. 

Swell-mob (swermob),n. well- 
dressed thieves, who appear 
like gentlemen. 


T. 

Tableaux-vivants (tab'io-ve- 
von), n.pl. [Fr., living pic¬ 
tures], groups of persons so 
dressed and placed as to rep- 
resentpaintings, statuary, &c 

Table-d'liote (tah'bl-dot), n. 
the general table for guests 
at a hotel. 

Tachomeler (tak-om'e-tr), n. 
instrument for measurement 
of velocity of machinery. 

Tantrum(tan'trum),n. a whim 
or burst of ill-humor. 

Tarfuffe (tar-tuf), n. an hypo¬ 
critical devotee. 

Tasimcter (ta-sim'e-tr), n. an 
instrument for detecting or 
measuringminuteextensions 
or movements ofsolidbodies. 

Teak (teek), n. an East Indian 
tree with very durable timber 

Teal (teel), n. a water-fowl al¬ 
lied to the common duck. 

Team (tem), n. a number of 
persons associated in a per¬ 
formance, as in a game, &c. 

Tea-rose (te'roz), n. a delicate 
rose, introduced from China . 

Tea-things (te'things), n. pi. 
a tea-service or tea-set. 

Technic (tek'nik).n. technical 
skill; artistic execution. 


Technicist (tek'ne-sist), w.one 
skilled in any practical art. 

Technique (tek-neek'), n. the 
same as Technic. 

Technism (tek'nizm), n. skill 
in technics; technicality. 

Teltnology (tek-uol'o-je), n. a 
treatise on children. 

Telegrapher (te-leg'ra fr), n. a 
telegraphic operator. 

Telemeter (te-lem'e-tr), n. an 
instrument used for measur¬ 
ing distances. 

Telephony (te-lef'o-ne), n. the 
art or process of reproducing 
sounds at a distance by means 
of the telephone. 

Tendo-aeh i llis (ten-do-a-kil'is) 
n. a tendon connecting the 
heel and the calf of the leg. 

Tensioned (ten'shund), a. ex¬ 
tended, or drawn out. 

Teredo (te-re'do), n. a worm, 
that bores and penetrates the 
bottoms of ships. 

Terpsichore (terp-sik'ore), •ti¬ 
the muse that presided over 
singing and dancing. 

Terry (ter're), v. a material of 
silk and worsted used in up¬ 
holstery. 

Thermally (ther'mal-e), adv. 
with reference to heat. 

Thermal unit, a unit chosen 
for the comparison or calcu¬ 
lation ofthe quantity of heat. 

Thermo-chemistry (ther'mo- 
kem'is-tre)n.thescienceofthe 
relations existing between 
chemical action and the force 
termed heat. 

Thermo-electrometer (ther'- 

mo-e-lek-trom'e-tr), ?t. an in¬ 
strument for measuring the 
strength of an electric cur- 
ren t by the heat which it pro¬ 
duces. 

Thei-moger.ons(ther-moj'e-nus 
ct. producing heat. 

Thermograph (ther'mo-graf), 
n. an instrument which reg¬ 
isters variations in heat. 

Thennology (ther-mol'o-je), n. 
the science of the properties 
and relations of heat. 

Thermo-magnetism (ther'mo- 
mag'net-izm), n. the science 
of the relations of heat and 
magnetism. 

Thenuopbone(ther'mo-f6n),7». 
an apparatus for producing 
sound from heated bodies. 

Therniopile(ther'mo-pn),n.an 
instrument for measuring 























AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


THEBMOSTAT 680 VIPERISH 


minute differences or degrees 
of heat. 

Thermostat (ther'mo-stat), n. 
an electrical apparatus which 
gives an alarm of lire on the 
leastincrease oftemperature. 

Thickhead (thik'hed), n. a stu¬ 
pid person; a blockhead. 

Threnody (thren'o-de), n. a 
song of lamentation. 

Throttle-valve(throtT-valv),w. 
a valve working in a pipe, so 
as to regulate the quantity of 
steam, water, &c., passing 
through in a given time. 

Tic-doulouroux (tik-doo-loo- 
roo'), n. neuralgia in the face 

Toady (tdd'e),n. a mean flatter¬ 
er ; a base sycophant. 

Toggle-joint (tog'l-joint), n. a 
bar jointed in the middle. 

Tomalley (tom-al'le), n. the 
liver of the lobster. 

Tomcat (tom'kat), n. a male 
cat, of large size. 

Tomcod (tom'kod), n. a small 
fish found on the American 
coast; the frostfish. 

Tomfool (tom'fool), n. a great 
fool; a trifier. 

Tomfoolery (tom-fool'er-e), n. 
foolish trifling. 

Tomnoddy (tom'nod-e), n. a 
fool; a dunce; a blockhead. 

Tomtit (tom'tit), n.alittle bird; 
the titmouse. 

Tonite (ton'it), n. an explosive 
compound of great destruc¬ 
tive power. 

Toupee (too-pee'), ». a curl or 
artificial lock of hair. 

Tourmaline (tor'ma-lin), n. a 
mineral of the topaz group. 

Tourniquet (toor'ne-ket), n. a 
bandage applied to prevent 
the flow of the blood through 
an artery. 

Tout-ensemble (toot-ong-song’ 
bl), n. the general effect tak¬ 
en as a whole. 

Trichinous(trik'e-nus), a . per¬ 
taining to or infested with 
trichinae. 

Tricycle (tri'sik-1), n, a three- 
wheeled velocipede. 

Trisection (tri-sek'shun), n. 
divisioninto three equal parts 

Troupe (troop), n. a band or 
company of performers, as in 
opera, &c. [cringing fellow. 

Truckler (truk'lr), n. a servile, 

Tsar (sar), n. the title of the 
emperor of Russia;—a better 
form of spelling czar, &c. 


Tsarina (sah-re'nah), n. the 
title oftheempressofRussia. 

Tsarowit* (.sar'o-wits), n. the 
title of the eldest son of the 
emperor of Russia. 

Tulle (tul), n. a kind of silk 
open-work or lace. 

Tunny (tun'e), n. a fish of the 
mackerel family. 

Turbot (tur'bot), n. a fiat fish, 
with a body nearly circular. 

Turco (tur'ko), f n, an Arab 

Turko (tur'ko), > soldier in the 
French army, or oue dressed 
iu Eastern fashion; a zouave. 

Turcoman (tur'ko-man), ? n. 

Turkoman (tur'ko-man), ) one 
of a nomadic people dwelling 
in Turkestan, and parts of 
Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan. 

Turfite (tur’f'it), ? n. avo- 

Turfmttn (turfman), J tary of 
the turf, or racecourse. 

Turntable (turn'ta-bl), M 
platform capable of revolving 
horizontally on railroads, to 
turn engines, &c., around. 

Twiddle (twid'dl), n. to play 
with or twirl with thefingers. 

Twinliko (twin'lik), a. like a 
twin, or twins. 

Type-writer (tip'ri-tr), n. an 
instrument for reproducing 
manuscripts, &c., in printed 
letters. 


U. 


Umbrena-blrd(um-breVla-bird 
n. a bird of South America, 
having an umbrella-like 
plume adorning its head and 
a tuft of feathers hanging 
from its breast. 

Unconventional (un-kon-ven'- 
shun-al), a. not having re¬ 
gard to conventionalities 
natural. 

Underestimate (un-dr-es'te- 
mat), v. to undervalue;—n. 
too low an estimate ; under 
valuation. 

Ungrudging (un-gruj'ing), a. 
without grudge; liberal 
hearty. 

Union-jack (un'yun-jak), n. 
the national flag of Great 
Britain. 

Unmerchantable (un-mer- 
chant-a-bl), a. not fit for 
market; unsalable. 

Unveracious (un-ve-ra/shus),a. 
withoutregard for truth; uu- 

I truthful. 


Unveraeity (un-ve-ras'e-te), n. 
want of veracity; untruth¬ 
fulness. 

Upgrowth (up'groth), n. new 
growth; upspringing. 

Urcemia (u-re'me-ah), n. a dis¬ 
ease produced by retention 
of urea in the blood. 

Ursemic(u-re'mik) 1 a. pertain- 

Uremic (u-rem'ik) ) ing to or 
tending to produce uraemia. 

Urination (u-re-na'shun), n. 
the act of passing urine. 

Urogenital (u-ro-jen'e-tl), a.re- 
lating to the urinary and 
reproductive organs. 

Urogenitals (u-ro-jen'e-tlz), n. 
pi. collective name for the 
urinary and reproductive 
organs. 

Ureter (u-re'tr), n. atube pass¬ 
ing from the kidney to the 
bladder, conveying urine. 

Uretlira(u-re'thra),n. a tube by 
which the bladder is emptied 

Urinary organs, the kidneys, 
ureters, bladder, urethra. 

Urinomcter (u-re-nom'e-tr).n. 
an instrument for measuring 
the density of urine. 

Usquebaugh (us-kwe-baw'), n. 
the Scotch name for whisky. 

Uterus (u'tr-us), n. the womb. 

Uvula (u'vu-la), n. a prolonga¬ 
tion of the soft palate at the 
back of the mouth.® 

Uxorial (uks-6're-al), a. ex¬ 
cessively fond of a wife. 


V. 

Vaccinin (vak'se-ninj, n. the 

specific matter of cowpox. 

Vacuity (va-ku'e-te), n. lack of 
object or iuterest; mental 
vacancy. 

Vaquero (va-lca'ro), n. a man 
having charge of cattle, &c. 

Varicose (va're-kos), a. dilated; 
swollen. 

Variolin (va-ri'o-lin), n. the 
matter or virus of smallpox. 

Vesicle (ves'e-kl), n. a small 
bladder, [fervor; spirit; life. 

Verve (verv), n. animation; 

Via (vi'ab), adv. by the way of. 

Vim (vim), n. enthusiasm ; en¬ 
ergy; vigor; spirit. 

Vinaigrette (vin-a-gret'), n. a 
sauce made of vinegar,oil, &c 

Vin-ordinaire(van-or-de-nair) 
n. a common French wine. 

Viperish (vi'pr-ish), a. like a 
viper; venomous; malignant. 
























AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 

VODKA 681 ZYMOSIS 


Vodka (vod'ka), «. a Russian 
liquor distilled from rye. 

Yraisemblance(vra-son-blons), 
n. appearance of truth; prob¬ 
ability; likelihood. 


w. 

Wait (wcit), n. a strolling mu¬ 
sician. 

Walkover (wawk'6-vr), n. a 
complete and easy triumph. 

Warpath (war'path),w. warlike 
expedition of the Indians. 

Wastage (wast'aj), n. acciden¬ 
tal wasteof a barrel, box,&c. 

Waterscape (waw'tr-skap), n. 
a view of the sea, lakes, &c. 

Watershed (waw'tr-shed), n. 
the district of country drained 
by a river. 

Waxplant (wax'plant), n. a 
white, fleshy plant, looking 
as if made of wax. 

Westernmost (west'ern-most), 
a. situated farthest toward 
the west. 

Whole-souled (hol'sold), a. 
noble-minded; free-hearted. 

Wideawake (wid’a-wak),<z. on 
the alert; prepared; ready. 

Wing-dam twing’dam), n. a 
dam extending but partly 
across a stream. 

Wintergreen (win'tr-gren), n. 
a plant of the heath family. 

Winter-killed (win'tr-kild), a. 
killed by the cold of winter, 
as wheat, clover, &c. 

Wirepulling (wire'pul-ing), n. 
political intriguiug. 

Wishy-washy (wish'e-wosh'e), 
a. insipid; trashy; weak. 

Woodchuck (wood'chuk), n. a 
species of marmot; the ground 
hog. 

Woodlot (wood'lot), n. a piece 
of land where wood for fuel, 
&c., grows. [of wood. 

Woodrick (wood'rik), n. a pile 

Worm-fence (wurm'fens), n. a 
rail fence laid up in a zigzag 
manner. 

Worrlment (wur're-ment), n. 
trouble; anxiety; worry. 

Worrisome (wur're-sum), a. 
causing worry or annoyance. 

Wrathy (rath'e), a. very angry. 


X. 

Xanthate (zan'thSt), «. a com¬ 
bination of xanthic acid with 
a base. , 


Xanthrophyll (zan'thro-fll), n. 
a bright yellow coloring mat¬ 
ter found in leaves. 
Xerodermia (ze-ro-der'me-ah), 
n. an unnatural dryness and 
harshness ol the skin. [fish. 
Xipliias(zif'e-as) ,n. thesword- 
Xylite (zi'lit), n, a mineral, 
chiefly iron-ore. 

Xylo (zi'lo), a prefix implying 
some relation to wood. 
Xyloid (zi'loyd), a. resembling 
wood. 

Xylene (zi'leen), )n. a hydro- 
Xylole (zi'lol), j carbon pre¬ 
pared from coal naphtha. 
Xylophilous (zi-lofe-lus), a. 
growing upon, or living in, 
decayed wood. ' 

Xylophone (zi’lo-fon), n. a 
musical instrument consist- 
ingofpiecesof wood arranged 
in the order of their notes, 
played on with two little 
wooden mallets. 


Y. 

Yahoo (vah'hoo), «. a raw 
countryman; a greenhorn; a 
lout; a noodle, [suddenly. 

Yank (yank), v. to twitchorjerk 

Yankeedom (yank'e-dm),n.the 
New England States; also, 
the United States. 

Yankeefled(yank'e-fide),a.like 
a Yankee ; Yankee fashion. 

Yankeelnnd (yank'e-land), n. 
New England; also the Unit¬ 
ed States. 

Yawp(yawp), n. a loud outcry; 
— v. to cry out; to bawl. 

Ycleped (e-klept'), j>-p. called; 
named. 

Yearbook (yere'book), n. an 
annual report or summary of 
the statistics or factsof ayear 

Yeasty (yest'e), a. like yeast; 
frothy; foamy. 

Yellowbird (yel'lo-bird), n. a 
small incessorial bird of the 
family of finches. 

Ycllowhummer (yel'lo-ham- 
mr), n. the golden-winged 
woodpecker. [low fever. 

Yellow jack, a term for the yel- 

Yellowjacket (yel'lo-jak-et),n. 
a small but venomous wasp 
of yellow color. 

Yellowlegs (yel'lo-legz), «. an 
American gamebird of the 
snipefamily; thestone-snipe. 

Yellowroot (yel'lo-root), n. a 
root used by the Indians as a 


dye, and formedicalpurpoces 

Yellowthroat (yel'lo-throt), n. 
a small singing bird of the 
warbler species. 

Yellowtop (yel'lo-top),n. a spe¬ 
cies of herdsgrass. 

Yellowwood (yel'lo-wood), n. 
a flowering tree of the locust 
family, having yellow wood 
used for dyeing. 

Yerba (yer'ba), n. a South 
American holly,whose leaves 
are used as tea. » 

Yokel (yo'kl), n. a raw coun¬ 
tryman; a greenhorn. 

Yoni (yo'ni), n. the Hindoo 
name for the female power 
in Nature. 

Yopon (yo'pn), n. a plant found 
iu North Carolina, whose 
leaves are used as tea. 

Younker (yunk'er), n. ayoung 
person; a youngster; a lad. 

Yuca (yu'ka), n. a name of the 
mandioca, or tapioca root. 

Yucca (yuk'ka), n. an Ameri¬ 
can liliaceous plant; Adam’s 
needle. 


z. 

Zeus (zus), n. the supreme di¬ 
vinity in Greek mythology. 

Zither (zith'er), Jn.amusic- 

Zithern(zith'ern), J al instru¬ 
ment, having 28 strings, 
placed on the table before 
the player, and played with 
both hands. 

Zoon (zo'on), n. an individual 
animal, whether mammal, 
bird, &c. 

Zoonic(zo-on'ik),a.relating to, 
or derived from, animals or 
animal substances. 

Zootic (zo-ot'ik), a. containing 
fossil animal remains. 

Zoroastrinn (zor-o-as'tre-an), 
a. pertaining to Zoroaster, 
the founder of the ancient 
Persian religionorParseeism 

Zoroastrianism (zor-o-as'tre- 
an-izm), n. the religious sys¬ 
tem founded by Zoroaster. 

Zounds (zowndz), interj. an 
exclamation expressive of 
anger or wonder. 

Zygoma (zi-go’mah), n. the 
arch at the side of the skull. 

Zymic (zirn'ik), a. relating to 
or producing fermentation. 

Zymosls(zi-m6'sis),n.amorbid 
condition of the blood. 

















1 


AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY, 


682 Historical and Statistical Table of the United States. 

HISTORICAL & STATISTICAL TABLE OF THE UNITED STATES 

AND THE TERRITORIES, 

SHOWING THE AREA OP EACH IN SQUARE MILES AND IN ACRES ; THE DATE OP ORGANIZATION 
OF TERRITORIES; AND DATE OF ADMISSION OF NEW STATES INTO THE UNION. 


The Thirteen Original States. 


New Hampshire 
Massachusetts .. 
Rhode Island ... 

Connecticut. 

New York. 

New Jersey. 

Pennsylvania ... 

Delaware. 

Maryland. 

Virginia. 

North Carolina . 
South Carolina.. 
Georgia. 


Ratified the 


Areas of the States. 


Constitution. 


Sq. miles. 


In Acres. 


June 21, 1788. 
Feb. 6, 1788. 
May 29, 1790. 
Jan. 9, 1788. 
July 26, 1788. 
Dec. 18, 1787. 
Dec. 12, 1787. 
Dec. 7, 1787. 
April 28, 1788. 
June 25, 1788. 
Nov.' 21, 1789. 
May 23, 1788. 
Jan. 2, 1788, 


9,305 

8,315 

1,250 

4,990 

49,170 

7,815 

45,215 

2,050 

12,210 

42,450 

52,250 

30,570 

59.475 


5,955,200 

5.321.600 
800,000 

3.193.600 

31.468.800 
5,001,600 

28,937,600 

1,312,000 

7,814,400 

27,168,000 

33,440,000 

19.564.800 
33,064,000 


States 

Admitted. 


Act organizing 
Territory. 


Kentucky . 

V ermont. 

Tennessee. 

Ohio. 

Louisiana. 

Indiana. 

Mississippi. 

Illinois. 

Alabama. 

Maine. 

Missouri. 

Arkansas. 

Michigan. 

Florida. 

Iowa. 

Texas . 

Wisconsin. 

California. 

Minnesota. 

Oregon. 

Kansas. 

W. Virginia.... 

Nevada. 

Nebraska. 

Colorado. 


Out of Virginia. 
OutofN.H&N.Y 
Out of North Ca. 
Ordinance, 1787. 
March 3, 1805. 
May 7, 1800. 
April 7, 1798. 
February 3, 1809. 
March 3, 1817. 
Out of Mass’tts. 
June 4, 1812. 
March 2,1819. 
January 11, 1805. 
March 30, 1822. 
June 12, 1838. 

Annexed. 

April 20, 1836. 
From Mexico... 
March 3, 1849. 
August 14, 1848. 
May 30, 1854. 
Out of Virginia. 
March 2, 1861. 
May 30, 1854. 
Feb. 28, 189-1. 


Act admitting 
State. 


Feb. 4, 1791. 
Feb. 18, 1791. 
June 1, 1796. 
April 30, 1802. 
April 8, 1812. 
Dec. 11, 1810. 
Dec. 10, 1817. 
Dec. 3, 1818. 
Dec. 14, 1819. 
March 3, 1820. 
March 2, 1821. 
June 15, 1836. 
J an. 26, 1837. 
March 3, 1845. 
March 3, 1845. 
March 1, 1845. 
March 3, 1847. 
Sept. 9, 1850. 
May 4, 1858. 
Feb. 14, 1859. 
Jan. 29, 1861. 
Dec. 31, 1862. 
March 21,1864. 
Feb. 9, 1867. 
March 3, 1875. 


Admission 
took effect. 


June 1, 1792. 
March 4, 1791. 
June 1, 1796. 
Nov. 29, 1802. 
April 30, 1812. 
Dec. 11, 1816. 
Dec. 10, 1817. 
Dec. 3, 1818. 
Dec. 14, 1819. 
March 15,1820. 
Aug. 10, 1821. 
June 15, 1836. 
Jan. 26, 1837. 
March 3, 1845. 
Dec. 28, 1846. 
Dec. 29, 1845. 
May 29, 1848. 
Sept. 9, 1850. 
May 11, 1858. 
Feb. 14, 1859. 
Jan. 29, 1861. 
June 19, 1863. 
Oct. 31, 1864. 
March 1, 1867. 
Aug. 1, 1876. 


Area in 


Area in 


eq.miles 


acres. 


40.400 

9,565 

42,050 

41,060 

48,720 

36,350 

46,810 

56,650 

52,250 

33,040 

69,415 

53,850 

58,915 

58,680 

56,025 

265,780 

56,040 

i58,360 

83,3G5 

86,030 

82,080 

24,780 

110,700 

76,855 

103,925 


25,856,000 

6,121,800 

26,912,000 

26,278, 

31,180,800 

23,264, 

29,958,400 

36,256, 

33,440, 

21,145, 

44,425,000 

34,464,000 

37,705,000 

37.555.200 
35,856,000 

170,099,200 

35,865,000 

101,350,400 

53,353,600 

61.459.200 

52.531.200 

15.859.200 
70,848,000 

49.187.200 
66,512,000 


ORGANIZATION AND AREA OF THE TERRITORIES. 


Territories. 


New Mexico. 

Utah. 

Washington. 

Dakota. 

Arizona. 

Idaho.. 

Montana. 

Wyoming. 

Indian [no territorial government]. 

District of Columbia [no territorial government] 
Alaska.. 


Act organizing 
Territory. 


Sept. 9, 1850. 
Sept 9, 1850. 
March 2, 1853. 
March 2, 1861. 
Feb. 24, 1863. 
March 3, 1863. 
May 26, 1864. 
July 25, 1868. 
June 30, 1834. 
March 3, 1791. 
July 27, 1868. 


Area of Territories. 


Sq. miles. In Acres. 


122,580 
84,970 
69,180 
149,100 
113,020 
84,800 
140,080 
97,890 
64,GOO 
70 

577,390 


78.451.200 

54.380.800 

44.275.200 
95,424,000 

72.332.800 
54,272,000 

93.491.200 

62.649.600 

41.401.600 
44,800 

365,529,600 





























































































AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


The States and Territories of the United States. 683 
THE STATES AND TEKBJTOBIE3 OF THE UNITED STATES. 

_ _ Table showing the number of persons, the area in square miles, the number of fam¬ 
ilies, the number of dwellings, the number of persons and of families to a square mile, 
the number of acres to a person, and the number of persons to a family, census of 1880. 


States and 
Territories. 

No. of 

Persons. 

Areas.* 
sq. miles 

Familie 

Dwell’gs 

1 Persons 
to a 

sq. mile. 

Families 

to a 

sa. mile. 

Acres 
to a 
person 

Persons 

to a 

family. 

Alabama. 

1,262,503 

51,540 

248,961 

240,227 

24.50 

4.83 

26.13 

5,07 

Arizona. 

40,440 

112,920 

9,536 

9,033 

0.36 

0.08 

1,787.06 

4.24 

Arkansas. 

802,525 

53,045 

154,272 

149,377 

15.13 

2.91 

42.30 

5.20 

California. 

804,604 

155,930 

177,508 

161,037 

5.54 

1.14 

115.45 

4.87 

Colorado. 

194,327 

103,645 

41,260 

39,018 

1.87 

0.40 

341.35 

4.71 

Connecticut. 

622:700 

4,845 

136,885 

108,458 

128.52 

28.25 

4.98 

4.55 

Dakota. 

135,177 

147,700 

31,202 

29,324 

0.92 

0.21 

699.29 

4.33 

Delaware. 

146,608 

1,960 

28,253 

27,215 

74.80 

14.41 

8.56 

5.19 

Dist.of Columbia. 

177,624 

00 

34,896 

28,687 

2,960.40 

581.60 

0.22 

5.09 

Florida. 

269,493 

54,240 

54,691 

52,868 

4.97 

1.01 

128.81 

4.93/ 

Georgia. 

1,542,130 

58,980 

303,060 

289,474 

26.15 

5.14 

24.48 

5.091 

Idab5. 

32,610 

84,290 

7,774 

591,934 

7,700 

538,221 

0.39 

0.09 

1,654.27 

4.19i 

Illinois. 

3,077,871 

56,000 

54.06 

10.57 

' 11.64 

5.20 

Indiana. 

1,978,301 

35,910 

391,203 

375,225 

55.09 

10.89 

11.62 

5.06 

Iowa. 

1.624,615 

55,475 

310,894 

301,507 

29.29 

5.60 

21.85 

5.23 

Kansas. 

996,090 

81,700 

197,679 

189,432 

12.19 

2.42 

52.49 

5.04 

Kentucky . 

1,648,6.00 

40,000 

302,031 

286,600 

41.22 

7.57 

15.53 

5.45 

Louisiana. 

939,946 

45,420 

192,833 

174,867 

20.69 

4.25 

30.93 

4.87 

Maine. 

648,936 

29,895 

141,843 

124,959 

21.71 

4.74 

29.48 

5.58 

Maryland. 

934,943 

9,860 

175,318 

155,070 

94.82 

17.78 

6.75 

5.33 

Massachusetts... 

1,783,085 

8,040 

379,710 

281,188 

221.78 

47.23 

2.89 

4.70 

Michigan. 

1,636,937 

57,430 

336,973 

321,514 

28.50 

5.87 

22.45 

4.86 

Minnesota. 

780,773 

79,205 

143,374 

136,458 

9.80 

1.81 

64.92 

5.45 

Mississippi. 

Missouri. 

1.131,597 

46,340 

215,055 

208,290 

24.42 

4.64 

26.21 

5.26 

2,103,380 

68,735 

403,186 

369,180 

31.55 

5.87 

20.29 

5.38 

Montana. 

39,159 

145,310 

9,931 

9,205 

0.70 

0.27 

2,374.89 

3.94 

Nebraska. 

452,402 

76,185 

89,135 

85,848 

5.94 

1.17 

107.78 

5.08 

Nevada. 

62,266 

109,740 

15,153 

14.557 

0.57 

0.14 

1,127.96 

4.11 

New Hampshire. 

340,991 

9,005 

80,280 

06,381 

38.53 

8.92 

16.61 

4.32 

New Jersey. 

1,131.116 

7,455 

232,309 

190,403 

151.73 

31.16 

4.22 

4.87 

New Mexico. 

119,565 

122,460 

28,255 

26,311 

0.98 

0.23 

655.50 

4.23 

New York. 

5,082,871 

47,620 

1,078,905 

772,512 

106.74 

22.66 

6.00 

4.71 

North Carolina .. 

1,309,750 

48,580 

270,904 

264,305 

28.81 

5.58 

22.21 

5.17 

Ohio. 

3,198,002 

40,760 

641,907 

686,664 

78.46 

15.75 

8.16 

4.98 

Oregon. 

174,708 

94,560 

33,408 

32,374 

1.85 

0.35 

346.28 

5.22 

Pennsylvania.... 

4,282,891 

44,985 

840,452 

776,124 

95.21 

18.68 

6.72 

5.10 

Rhode Island.... 

276,531 

1,085 

60,259 

41,388 

254.87 

55.54 

2.51 

4.59 

South Carolina .. 

995,577 

30,170 

202,062 

191.914 

33.00 

6.70 

19.39 

4.93 

Tennessee. 

1,542,359 

41,750 

286,539 

276,734 

36.94 

6.86 

17.32 

5.38 

Texas . 

1,591.749 

262,290 

207,259 

287,562 

6.07 

1.13 

105.46 

5.35 

Utah. 

143.963 

82,190 

28,373 

26,710 

1.75 

0.35 

365.38 

5.07 

Vermont. 

332,286 

9,135 

73,092 

66,769 

36.38 

8.00 

17.59 

4.55 

Virginia. 

1,512,565 

40,125 

282,355 

265,611 

37.70 

7.04 

16.98 

5.36 

Washington. 

75,116 

66,880 

16,380 

15,512 

1.12 

0.24 

569.83 

4.59 

West Virginia... 

618,457 

24,645 

111,732 

108,349 

25.09 

4.53 

25.50 

5.54 

"Wisconsin. 

1,315,497 

51,450 

251,530 

239,361 

24.16 

4.62 

26.49 

5.23 

Wyoming. 

20,789 

97,575 

4,604 

4,282 

0.21 

0.05 : 

1,003.90 

4.52 

United States .... 

50,155,783 

2,900,170 

1,945,916 

1,955,812 

17.29 

3.43 

37.01 

5.04 


* Land surface only. The total given for the United States is exclusive of the Indian 
Territory and tracts of unorganized territory, aggregating 09,830 square miles. 














































































































AMERICAN STANDARD DICTIONARY. 


684 Population, Capitals and Area of all Nations. 


POPULATION. CAPITALS, AND AREA OF ALL NATIONS. 


Countries. 

Capitals. 

Population. 

Area 

Square 

Miles. 

Inhabi¬ 
tants to 
Square 
Mile. 


Algiers. 

2,867,626 

2,400,000 

165,500 

17.00 

Argentine Republic. 

Buenos Ayres. 

827,177 

2.90 

Austria-Hungary. 

Vienna. 

87^741^413 

6,476,668 

2,080,000 

10,108,291 

4,352,080 

240,415 

11,369 

600,740 

3,218,166 

3,204,381 

199,950 

24,702 

124,084 

4,660,107 

320,638 

26,040 

14,784 

248,312 

1,152,948 

204,030 

208,624 

191 571 

156.98 

481.71 

4.15 

3.14 

1.35 

4.00 

111.65 

19.34 

95.31 

9.20 

67.00 

133.21 

4.61 

15.19 

180.88 

216.62 

289.92 

83.91 

Belgium. 

Brussels. 

Bolivia. 


Brazil. 


Canada, Dominion of,. 

Ottawa. 

Cape of Good Hope. 


720,984 

Ceylon. 


2,758,166 
2,400,396 
434,626,000 
2,951,323 
180 000 

Chili . 


Chinese Empire. 

Pekin .. 

Colombia, United States of. 

Bogota. 

Costa Rica. 


Denmark. 


1,969,454 

1,146,000 

17,419,980 

36,905,788 

45,194,172 

35,246,633 

Ecuador. 


Egypt. 


Prance... 


Germany. 


Great Britain and Ireland. ... 

London. 

Greece.. 

Athens. 

1,679,775 

1 91ft o 

20,018 

Guatemala... 

Santiago deGuatemaln 

Hayti. 

672,000 

250,000 

139,444 

252,541,210 

28,209,620 

34,338,404 

19,067,829 

1,068,000 

357,339 

9,389,461 

250,000 

6,370,000 

406,675 

3,981,887 

603,981 

10,204 

39,600 

99 

810,542 

114,380 

146,568 

61,336 

14,300 

676 

64.00 
9.00 
1 48.00 
311.57 
246.63 
234.28 
366 
76.00 
63.00 

Honduras... 


Hong Kong. 


India, British. 

Calcutta. 

Italy. 


Japan. 

Yeddo.., 

Java. 


Liberia. 


Mauritius. 


Mexico. . 


Montenegro. 

Cettigne. .. 


12.66 

Morocco. 


813,560 


Natal. 



Netherlands. 


21,150 

12,727 

812.86 

New South Wales. 

Sidnev. 

New Zealand. 



1.6 

Nicaragua. 


350,000 

1,806,900 

293,844 

7,000,000 

3,050,000 

4,348,551 

213,525 

5,376,000 

82,330,864 

250,000 

654,785 

1,589,650 

6,750,000 

279,865 

49,500 

7.00 

14.71 

Norway. 


Paraguay. 


122,823 

Persia. 


9*7980 

8.19 

11.00 

Peru. 


636,203 

Portugal. 



42.11 

125.69 

Queensland. 


34,i>9j 

Roumania. 


60,159 

8,138,641 

18,045 

9594 

18,781 

0.34 

107.17 

Russian Empire... 


San Domingo. 


10.11 

14.00 

67.00 

San Salvador. 


Servia. 


Siam. 


84.64 

South Australia.. 



20.49 

Spain. 




Sweden. 



193,171 

84.55 

Switzerland. 


12,831,787 

2,100,000 

170,927 

26.51 

Tunis. 


115,908 

177.10 

Turkey. 


42,000 

860,322 

60.00 

Uruguay. 


447,000 

60,155,783 

1,784,197 

29.10 

United States. 


72,151 

6.19 

Venezuela. 

Caracas. 

8,602,990 

439,119 

IS.92 
4.06 













































































































































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY 


68 

APPENDIX. 

N - - - 

A. 

BOKJJ. DIED. 

Aaron. First High Priest of the Jews.1574. .1451 b.c. 

Abbot, Joseph Hale. Scientist, Philologist, Teacher. 1802.. 1873 

Abbott, John Stevens Cabot. American Historian. 1805.. 1877 

Abd-El-Kader. Arab Prophet and Military Chieftain. 1807.. 1879 

Abdul-Aziz. Sultan of Turkey. 1830.. 1876 

Abell, Mrs. Elizabeth. (Memoirs of the First Napoleon ) — ..1871 

Abercrombie, John J. Bvt. Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols. 1804.. 1877 
Abercromby, David, m. d. Medical and Miscel. Writer.... — ..1701 

Abert, JohnJ. American Engineer... 1790. .1863 

Abijah. King of Judah (B. c. 958-955).— B^.955 

Abner. Captain of Saul, King of Israel. — B.c.1048 

Abraham. Patriarch...1996..1821 b.c. 

Absalom, son of David, King of Israel.—B.c.1021 

Achard, T 'mis Amedee Eugene. French Writer. 1814. .1875 

Acton, Charles Januarius Edward. English Cardinal. 1803.. 1847 

Acworth, George, ll. d. Civilian and Controversialist...... — .. 1577? 

Adalbert, Heinrich Wilhelm. Prussian Admiral. 1811. 1873 

Adalbert, William George Lewis. Prince of Bavaria.1828.. 1875 

Adams, Clement. Author of Travels. 1519.. 1587 

Adams, Daniel, m. d. Author of School Text-books......... —..1863 

Adams, Edwin. American Actor. 1834.. 1877 

Adams, Richard. Poet. — ..1661 

Adamson, John. Author.....1787.. 1855 

Addison, John, d. d. Roman Catholic Writer. fl. 153 8 

Ade, Charles. Antiquary and Artist... —..1858 

Adler, George J., ph. d. Ger. Scholar and Philologist.1821.. 1868 

Afzelius, Arvid August. Swedish Historian.1785.. 1871 

Agassiz, Louis Jean Rodolphe, m. d., ph. d., p. r. s. Scientist. 

Professor in Harvard College. 1807.. 1873 

Agoult, Marie Catherine Sophie de Flavigny, Countess d’. 

Daniel Stern. Authoress... 1805..1876 

Ahab. King of Israel (b. c. 918-897). — B.c.897 

Ahaz. King of Judah (b. c. 742-726). — b.c.726 

Ahaziah, son of Ahab. King of Israel (b. o. 897-896). — b.c.896 

Ahaziah, son of Jehoram. King of Judah (b. c. 885-884). .926. .884 b. c. 

Aikins, Arthur. Scientist and Writer. 1773.. 1854 

Aird, Thomas. British Poet. 1802.. 1876 

Alberi, Eugenio. Italian Historian. 1809.. 1878 

Albrecht, Wilhelm Eduard. Ger. Jurist and Scholar.1800..1876 

Aldini, John. Italian Experimental Philosopher. 1762. .1834 

Aldridge, Ira. “ The African Roscius.” Negro Actor. 1805?..1867 

Aleacar, Jose Martiniano de. Brazilian Statesman and Auth. 1829.. 1877 


>0 






































636 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN, DIED. 

Alexander, Barton Stone. American Engineer. 1819.. 1878 

Alexander, James Waddell, r>. d. Amer. Scholar and Writer. 1804.. 1859 

Alexander, John H. American Chemist and Physicist. 1813.. 1867 

Alexander, Joseph Addison, d. u., Br. Div. and Linguist- 1809..i860 

Alexandra, Amelia. Princess of Bavaria. ■.. 1836..1875 

Alford, Rev. Henry, D. d. Eng. Clergyman, Poet, Philologist. 1810.. 1871 
Alice, Maud Mary. Princess of England, Grand Duchess of 

Hesse-Darmstadt. 1843.. 1878 

Alison, Sir Archibald, Baronet, b. c. l. British Author. 1792. .1867 

Alkmar, Henry von. German Writer. {Rebuke de Voss.)... fi. 1475 

Allen, David Oliver. American Missionary and Writer. 1800.. 1863 

Allen, or Alen, Edmund. Bishop elect of Rochester. Theol. — .. 1559 

Allen, George A. American Lawyer and Editor.. . 1822.. 1878- 

Allen, Henry Watkins. “ Confederate ” Brigadier-General... 1820.. 1866 

Allen, John. Bibliographer. — ..1831 

Allen, Richard L. Editor and Agriculturist. {The American 

Farm Book.) . 1803.. 1869 

Allen, William, d. d. Amer. Scholar, Teacher and Author... 1784.. 1868 

Allen, William. American Lawyer, Senator, Governor. 1806.. 1879 

Allot, Win. Roman Catholic Divine. {Thesaurus Bibliorvm.) —.. 1590? 

Almonte, Juan. Mexican General and Statesman. 1812?.1869 

Alzog, Johann Baptist. Roman Catholic Theologian. 1808.. 1878 

Amat, di San Filippo e Sorso, Luigi. Vice-Chancellor of the 

Holy Roman Church. 1796. .1878 

Amaziah.. King of Judah (b. c. 839 - 810 ).863..810 b. c. 

Amberly, John. British Statesman. {Analysis of Religious 

Belief.) . . v . 1842.. 1876 

Ambros, August Wilhelm. German Composer and Author... 1816.. 1876 

Ames, Edward R. American Preacher and Bishop. 1806 .1879 

Ames, Joseph, N. A. American Portrait Painter...1816. .1872 

Ames, Oakes. American Manufacturer. 1804.. 1873 

Ammen, Frederick Augustu* von. German Medical Writer.. 1799.. 1861 

Amon. King of Judah (b. c. 643 - 641 ).665. .641 b. c. 

Amos. Prophet of Israel.....fi. b. c. 787 

Amyot, Thomas. Trcas. Soc. Ant. {Lifeof Windham.) . 1775.. 1850 

Anastasius Grtin. {See Auersperg.) 

Ancelot, James Arsene Francis Polvcarp. French Dram. 1794.. 1854 

Ancelot, Marguerite Louise Virginie Chardou. Fr. Authoress 1792.. 1875 

Ancessi, M. PAbbe Victor. Semitic Scholar. 1845.. 1878 

Andersen, nans Christian^ Danish Author. {Fair!/ Tales.) 1805.. 1875 

Andersen, Dr. Alexander. American Wood Engraver. 1774. 1870 

Anderson, George B. “Confederate”General. 1834?. 1862 

Anderson, Henry James, >1. n. American Scientist. 1798.. 1875 

Anderson, Richard H. “Confederate” Lieutenant-General.. 18x6.. 1879 

Anderson, Robert. Brevet Major-General . 1805.. 1871 

Andersson, Charles John. African Explorer and Author.... 1812?. 1868 

And!aw, Franz Xaver von. German Diplomatist.. 1799. lS 7 6 

Andral, Gabariel. French Physician. 1797.. *853 

Andree, Karl. German Geographer. 1808.. 1875 

Andrew, John Albion. American Statesman. 1818.. 1867 

Angell, Joseph Kinnicutt. American Law Writer.... 1794.. 1857 


































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 687 

BORN. DIED. 

Angouleme, Louis Anthony de Bourbon, Due d’, son of 


Charles X. . 1775.. 1844 

Angus, Caleb. Agriculturist and Writer on Free Trade. 1782.. i860 

Aniaby, William. Roman Catholic Missionary ; martyred... — ..1597 

Annesley, Alexander. Legal and Political Writer.. —..1813 

Anne, Louis Franqois Theodore. Fr. Soldier, Polit., Novelist. 1797. .1869 

Anschutz, Karl. German Musical Composer. 1813.. 1870 

Anthon, Charles. Amer. CIa3S. Scholar, Teacher and Author. 1797.. 1867 

Antinori, Vincent, of Florence. Scholar. — ..1863 

Antonelli, Giacomo. Cardinal Deacon. 1806.. 1876 

Antonucci, Antonio Benedetto. Italian Cardinal. 1798,.1879 

Appleton, Dr. Charles Edward C. B. English Journalist. 

(Founder of the Academy.) . . 1841.. 1879 

Appleton, George S. American Publisher. 1821.. 1878 

Appleton, Nathan. American Merchant. 1779.. 1861 

Arago, James Stephen Victor. Fr. Journalist and Author ... 1790.. 1855 

Arcano, Mauro d\ II Mauro. Italian Burlesque Poet. 1490?. 1536 

Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm August. Ger. Astronomer.. 1799. • lS 75 
Argentine, Richard, m. n. Sexten. Roman Catholic Writer.. — ..1568 

Arjona, Manuel de. Spanish Ecclesiastic and Poet. 1761.. 1820 

Arlincourt, Victor, Viscount d’. French Poet and Novelist.. 1789.. 1856 
Armansperg, Joseph Louis, Count von. German Statesman. 1787.. 1853 

Armellini, Charles. Italian Patriot. 1776.. 1863 

Armengaud, Jean Germain Desire. French Art Historian 

and Critic. 1797.. 1869 

Armistead, Lewis A. “ Confederate ” General... -—..1863 

Armsby, James H. American Physician.... 1809.. 1873 

Armstrong, Robert Archibald. Scottish Philologist. 1788.. 1867 

Arnaud, Frederic. French Senator and Author. 1819.. 1878 

Arnot, William. Scottish Preacher and Author.1808.. 1875 

Arnott, Dr. Archibald. Scotch Physician. 1771.. 1853 

Arnott, Neil. Brit. Physician, Physicist, Philanthropist. ... 1788.. 1874 

Arrest, Heinrich Ludwig d’. German Astronomer.. 1822.. 1875 

Arrowsmith, Edmund. Jesuit; executed. — ..1623 

Asaky, George. Moldavian Poet, Historian, Journalist. 1788. .1869 

Asboth, Alexander Sandor. Bvt. Major-General U. S. Vols. 

Companion of Kossuth. 1811..1868 

Ashby, Turner. “ Confederate ” General. 1824?.1862 

Ashe, Thomas. Captain Ashe. Author of Travels. — ..1835 

Ashmun, George. American Lawyer and Politician. 1804..1870 

Ashpitel, Arthur, f. s. a. Architect and Writer. 1807. .1869 

Aspinwall, William H. American Merchant. 1807..1875 

Asplin, Rev. William. Theologian. ( Alkibla ). — .. 1758 

Assarotti, Octavius John I’apt. Teacher of Deaf and Dumb.. 1735.. 1829 

Aster, Ernest Louis. German General. 1778.. 1855 

Aston, William. Jesuit. Writer.. — ..1800 

Astor, William Backhouse. American Capitalist....,. 1792..1875 

Athaliah. Usurping Queen of Judah. —• B.c.878 

Athanagildus. Gothic King in Spain. — .. 567 

Atherton, Charles Gordon. American Politician. 1804..1853 

Atherton, John. Bishop of Waterford; executed. —,.1640 








































6SS A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. DIED. 

Attalus I. King of Pergamus (b. c. 241-197). 268?.. 197 b.c. 

Attalus II. (b. c. 159-138.) Philadelphia . 220...138 b.c. 

Attalus III. (b.c. 138-133.) Philometor . —b.c. 133 

Atterborn, Peter Daniel Amadeus. Swedish Poet. 1790.. 1855 

Auber, Daniel Francois Esprit. French Musical Composer.. 1782.. 1871 
Audley, Mervyn, Lord, and Earl of Castlehaven ; executed... — ..1631 

Audubon, Mrs. Lucy Bakewell, wife of J. J. Audubon. 1786.. 1874 

Auenbrugger von Auenbrug, Leopold. Physician at 

Vienna. Inventor of Percussion. 1722.. 1809 

Auersperg, Anton Alexander, Count von. Anaslasius Griim. 

Austrian Statesman and Poet. 1806. .1876 

Auffenberg, Joseph von, Baron. German Dramatist. 1798.. 1857 

Aufrere, Anthony. Miscellaneous Writer and Translator_1756?..1833 

Augur, Hezekiah. American Sculptor.^791. .1858 

Augusti, Christian John William. German Theologian. 1771.. 1841 

Auld, John Blakely. American Editor and Author. 1815. .1866 

Aust, Mrs. Sarah (formerly Murray). (Guide to the Lakes ).... — .. 1811 

Austin, John. Jurist. (Province of Jurisprudence) .1797..i860 

Austria, Caroline Augusta, Dowager Empress of. 1792.. 1873 

Austria, Sophia Frederica Dorothea Wilhelmina, Archduchess 

of. 1805..1872 

Autran, Joseph. French Poet.1813..1877 

Avempace, or Ibn-B 5 jja. Spanish Arabian Philosopher. — .1138? 

Avenbrugger, or Auenbrugger, which see . 1722.. 1809 

Avenzohar, Abumeron. Arabian Physician in Spain.. 10727..1162 

Avenzohar, Alhafld, son. Arabian Physician in Spain.1114..1199 

Avery, Benjamin P. American Editor and Diplomatist.1828..1875 

Avezac-Macaya, Marie Armand Pascal de. Fr. Geographer, 1799.. 1875 
Avicebron, or Solomon ben Gebirol. Jewish Philosopher... fl. nth c. 

Ayer, James C. American Chemist and Capitalist. — ..1878 

Ayre, Rev. John. Biblical Scholar and Author. 1801..1869 

Ayrton, William. Writer on Music. 1777..1858 

Azais, Peter Hyacinth. French Philosopher. 1766..1845 

Azeglio, Massimo Taparella, Marquis d’. Italian Statesman, 

Author, and Artist...,,,,,,.1801..1866 

B. 

Baasha. King of Israel (b. o. 953-930).— b.c. 930 

Babbage, Charles, ll. d., f. k. s. English Mathematician, in¬ 
ventor of Calculating Machine. 1792., 1871 

Babcock, Rufus. American Clergyman and Author.1798..1875 

Babinet, Jacques. French Physicist and Astronomer. 1794..1872 

Babington, Benjamin Guy. English Medical Writer. 1794.. 1866 

Bache, Alexander Dallas. American Physicist and Author.. 1806..1867 
Bache, Franklin, m. d. American Physician, Savant, and 

Author. . 1792..1864 

Bache, Hartman. Brevet Brigadier General U. S. A__ 1797.. 1872 

Back, Sir George. English Admiral, a distinguished Arctic 

Navigator.,,,.... .. .... 1796.. 1878 


































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 689 

BORN. DIED. 


Bacon, David W., d. d. Roman Catholic Bishop. 1814..1874 

Bacon, Ezekiel, ll. d. American Jurist and Politician . 1776..1870 


Bacon, Francis, Viscount St. Albans. Life by Anon. 1626 
(reprinted in Harl. Misc.) ; Rawley, 1657 ; R. Mephens, 
1736 ; Mallet, 1740 (also in German and French); 
Pouillot, 1755 ; Anon., 1787 ; Bertin, 1788 ; Courtier, 
1803 ; Montagu, 1834 ; Ozanam, 1835 ; Macaulay, 1837 ; 
Wilhelmy, 1843 ; Craik, 1846 ; Sortain, 1851 ; M. Napier, 
1853 ; Campbell, 1853 ; Remusat, 1857 ; Spedding, 1861 ; 


Dixon, 1861 , enlarged, 1862 . 1561.. 1626 

Bacon, Joel S. Am. Clerg., Prof., and Col. President. 1801.. 1869 

Bacon, Nathaniel. Insurrectionary Leader in Virginia 

( 1675 - 77 ). 1630.. 1677 

Badger, Milton. American Clergyman and Writer. 1800.. 1873 

Baer, Carl Ernst von. Russian Naturalist. 1792.. 1876 

Bagby, Arthur P. American Statesman. 1794.. 1858 

Bagehot, Walter. English Journalist and Writer on Political 

Economy. 1826.. 1877 

Bagot, Richard. Bishop of Oxford. 1782..1854 

Bailey, Gamaliel. American Journalist. . 1807.. 1859 

Bailey, Jacob Whitman. Am. Microscopist and Algologist.. 1806.. 1857 

Bailey, Joseph. Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols.. —..1867 

Bailey, Samuel. English Writer. {Essays on the Formation 

of Opinions.) . 1792.. 1870 

Baily, Edward Hodges, k. a. English Sculptor. 1788.. 1867 

Baines, Thomas. British Painter and Explorer. — . .1875 

Baird, Thomas D. American Professor. 1819..1873 

Baker, William H. American Artist.,. —..1875 

Bakewell, J. C. English Journalist, Physicist, Author. 1800..1869 

Bakunin, Michael. Russian Political Agitator. 18x4.. 1876 

Balard, Antoine Jerfime. French Chemist... 1802..1876 

Baldasseroni, Giovanni. Italian Statesman. 1790..I876 

Balfe, Michael William. Violinist and Composer. 1808.. 187a 

Balfour, Rev. Walter. Universalist Writer. 1776.. 185? 

Ball, Dyer, M. D. American Clergyman and Missionary. 1796.. 1866 

Ballantine, James. British Author. 1808..1877 

Ballou, Hosea, 2 d, d. d. Divine and Writer. — . -1861 

Balthazar, Casimir Victor Alexandre de. French Artist- 1809..1875 

Bamford, Samuel. English Author. . 1788.. 1872 

Bandel, Joseph Ernst von. German Sculptor. 1800.. 1876! 

Bangs, Nathan, d. d. Methodist Writer. 1788..1862 

Baraguay D’Hilliers, Achille. Marshal of France. 1795.. 1878 

Barante, Aimable Guillaume Prosper Brugiere, Baron. 

French Historian and Diplomatist. x 78 z.. 1866 

Barham, Thomas Foster. English Scholar, Author and 

Physicist. . 1 794 • • 18 ®9 

Barili, Antonio. Italian Composer. 1824..1876 

Barker, James N. American Writer. —..1858 

Barker, Jacob. American Banker and Lawyer. * 779 - • i8 7 * 

Barksdale, William. “Confederate” General. 1821..1863 

Barnard, Charlotte A. Claribel. English Musical Composer, —..1869 








































690 A BREIF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. DIED. 


Barnes, Rev. Albert. American Scholar and Author. 1798.. 1870 

Barnes, James. Major-General U. S. Volunteers. 1809?..1869 

Barni, Jules Romain. French Scholar. 1818. .1878 

Baroche, Pierre jjules. French Advocate and Politician. 1802.. 1870 

Barras, Charles M. American Dramatic Author. 1826.. 1873 

Barriere, Theodore. French Dramatic Author. 1823.. 1877 

Barringer, Daniel Moreau. American Politician and Dipl... 1807.. 1873 

Barron, James. American Naval Officer. — ..1851 

Barry, William Farquhar. American General. 1818.. 1879 

Barstow, Zedckiah Smith. Am. Clergyman and Educator . 1790 .1873 

Bartlett, William Francig. American General... 1840.. 1876 

Barye, Antoine Louis. French Sculptor. 1795..1875 

Bascom, Henry Bidleman, d. d. Am. Divine and Writer_ 1796 .1850 

Bassini, Carlo. Musical Composer and Writer. 1812.. 1870 

Bastide, Jules. French Political and Historical Writer. 1800.. 1879 

Bastianini Giovanni. Italian Sculptor . — ..1868 

Batthyanyi, Cassimir, Count. Hungarian Statesman. 1807.. 1854 

Battle, William Horn. American Jurist. 1802.. 1879 

Baudissin, Wolf Heinrich Friedrich Karl. Ger. Author. 17S9..1878 

Bauer, Bruno. German Theologian and Metaphysician. — ..1809 

Bauer, Clara. Karl Belief. German Authoress. 1836.. 1876 

Bauer, Wilhelm. German Inventor. 1822.. 1875 

Baumstark, Anton. German Philologist. 1800.. 1876 

Baur, Ferdinand Christian. German Church Historian. — .179* 

Baur, George Lawrence. German Theologian. (Hermeneutica 

Sacra) . 175 j.. 1806 

Bavaria, Ludwig, Carl August (Louis I.), Ex-King of. 1786.. 1868 

Bayard, George D. American General. — .. 1862 

Bayer, August von. German Painter... 1803.. 187s 

Bayer, Hieronimus Johan Paul von. German Jurist.1792■ -1876 

Bayley, James Roosevelt. American Archbishop. 1814.. 1877 

Baxter, George. Inventor of Oil-color Printing. 180;..1867 

Beach, Moses Yale. American Publisher and Editor. 1800. .1868 

Beal, Abraham. Reformer and Philanthopist. 1803?..1872 

Beaufort, Henry Somerset, Duke of. Soldier in Peninsular 

War.,.1792.. 1854 

Beck, Charles, Ph. D. Prof, of Latin in Harvard College. 1788.. 1866 

Beck, Charles. American Scholar and Writer. . 1798. 1866 

Beck, John Brodliead. American Physician. 1794.. 1851 

Beck, LewisC. American Naturalist. 1S00..1853 

Beck, Theodore Romeyn, >r. d. American Medical Writer... 1791.. 1855 

Beck, Johan Heinrich. German Painter.. 1789.. 1875 

Beck, Prof. Tobias von. German Theologian... . 1804.. 1878 

Becker, Karl Ferdinand 1 . German Musician and Composer.. 1804.. 1877 

Beckwith, John Charles. Major-General.. . 1790.. 1862 

Becquerel, Antoine Cesar. French Physicist. 1788.. 1878 

Bedel, John. American General.. 1823..1875 

Bedford, Gunning S. Amer. Medical Professor. 1806.. 1870 

Bee, Barnard E. “ Confederate ” General. — ..1861 

Beecher, Catherine Esther. American Authoress. 1800..1878 

Beerski, Count John de. Russian Army Officer and Painter.. 1798?.. 1868 













































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 691 

BORN. DIED# 

Beke, Charles Tilstone. Eng. Geologist, Geog., Ethnologist. 1800..1874 

Bekker, Ernst Immanuel. German Philologist. 1785.. 1871 

Belcher, Sir Edward. English Admiral and Author. 1799..1877 

Bell, Henry H. Rear Admiral, U. S. N.. 1808 ?. 18C8 

Bell, John. American Statesman. 1797..1869 

Bell, Robert. English Writer. 1800..1867 

Bell, Samuel Dana, ll. d. American Jurist. 1798.. 1868 

Belloguet, Baron Roget de. Archaeologist and Author. — ..1872 

Benayid.es. Chilian General. . — ..1823 

Benedek, Ludwig von. Austrian General. 1804. .1871 

Benedix, Julien Roderic. German Poet and Dramatist. 1811..1873 

Benjamin, Park. American Editor and Poet. 1809..1864 

Bennett, William. Bishop of Cloyne. Scholar and Archseol. 1745.. 1820 

Bennett, James Gordon. American Journalist. 1795..1872 

Bennett, IVlilo Lyman. American Jurist and Writer. 1790..1868 

Bennett, Sir William Sterndale. Eng. Composer and Pianist. 1816. .1875 

Bentley, Richard. English Publisher. 1794.. 1871 

Bentley, Robert. English Botauist and Author. 1821.. 1871 

Bentley, Samuel. English Publisher and Editor. (Excerpta 

Historica.) .. 1785.. 1868 

Benton, Nathaniel S. American Politician. 1792.. 1869 

Benton, Thomas Hart. American Statesman. 1782.. 1858 

Berardi, Guiseppe. Italian Cardinal-priest. 1810..1878 

Berbrugger, Louis Adrien. French Philologist and Author. 1801.. 1869 

Berdelle, Johann Baptiste. German Painter. 1811..1876 

Berg, Joseph Frederick, n. n. American Theol. and Author.. 1812.. 1871 

Bergenroth, Gustave H. Prussian Historic Scholar. — ..1869 

Bergmann, Karl. German-American Musician. 1821.. 1876 

Berlioz, Louis Hector. French Musician and Composer. 1803. .1869 

Bernard, Claude. French Physiologist.. 1313..1878 

Bernard, William Bayle. Dramatist. 1808.. 1875 

Bernhardy, Gottfried. German Philologist. 1800.. 1875 

Berri, Marie Caroline Ferdinande de Bourbon, Duchess de_ 1798.. 1870 

Berrien, John Macpherson. Amer. Lawyer and Statesman... 1781. .1856 

Berry, Miss Mary. Friend of Horace Walpole. 1763?.1852 

Berryer, Pierre Antoine. French Politician and Author. 1790.. 1868 

Berthold, Arnold Adolphus. Germa'n Naturalist —. 1803.. 1861 

Bertin, Louise Angelique. French Artist and Poetess. 1805.. 1877 

Bertini, Henri. French Pianist and Composer. 1798.. 1876 

Berwick, William. English Historical Painter. 1796.. 1866 

Beta, Heinrich. German Novelist. — .. 1876 

Bethmann-Hollwcg, Moritz August von. German Jurist. 1795. .1877 

Betts, Samuel R., im.n. American Jurist...17S7..1868 

Bibb, George M. American Jurist and Statesman.' — 1772.. 1859 

Bibra, Ernst von, Baron. Bavarian Naturalist. 18C6..1878 

Biddlecomb, Sir George. British Naval Officer. 1S07. .1878 

Biel, Gabriel. German Theologian and Philosopher. — --H 9 S 

Bienville, John Baptist Lemoine, Sieur do. Second Colonial 

Governor of Louisiana. *680. • 1768 

Bigelow, George Tyler. American Jurist. 1810.. 1878 

Bigelow, Jacob. American Physician. * 7 8 7-- i8 79 











































692 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. DIED. 

Bigsby, Robert. English Historian and Archaeologist. 1806.. 1873 

Binney, Horace. American Lawyer. 1780.. 1875 

Bird, Rev. Charles Smith. Controversialist. 1795.. 1862 

Bird, Robert M., m. d. American Writer. 1803.. 1854 

Birney, David Bell. American General. 1825.. 1864 

Birt, John Baptist. French Savant. 1774.. 1862 

Bixby, Thomas. Classical Scholar and Book Collector. 1799.. 1863 

Bizet, Georges. French Composer. 1840.. 1875 

Blaauw, William Henry. English Antiquarian. (The Ba¬ 
rons' War.) . 1793.. 1870 

Black, Adam, sr. p. British Publisher and Politician. 1784.. 1874 

Black, David. American Clergyman, Historian, Author. 1779.. 1874 

Blackford, Isaac. American Jurist aud Law Writer. — ..1859 

Blackwood, John. British Publisher. 1818. . 1875 

Blagden, Miss Isa. English Novelist. — . 1873 

Blair, Francis Preston. American Journalist. 1791.. 1876 

Blair, Francis Preston, Jr. Amer. Journalist and Politician.. 1821.. 1875 

Blake, Rev. John Lauris, d. d. Writer. {Biogr. Diet.) . 1788.. 1857 

Blake, William Hume, ll. d. Canadian Jurist. — 1870 

Blanchard, Joshua P. American Philanthropist. 1782.. 1868 

Blanchard, Thomas. American Mechanic and Inventor. 1788.. 1864 

Blasius, Ernst. German Physician. 1S02..1875 

Blatchford, Richard M. American Diplomatist. 1798. 1875 

Blau, Dr. Otto. German Archaeologist. — ..1879 

Bleek, Wilhelm Heinrich Emmanuel. Philologist. 1827.. 1875 

Blenker, Louis. American General. 1812.. 1863 

Blunt, Edmund. American Hydrographer. 1799.. 1866 

Blunt, George W. American Marine Surveyor. 1802.. 1878 

Bockh, August. German Classical Antiquary and Philologist, 1785.. 1867 

Bodisco, Alexander. Russian Diplomatist. 1779.. 1854 

Bogardus, James. American Scientist and Inventor. 1800..1874 

Bogle, James. American Painter. 1817.. 1873 

Bohlen, Henry. American General. — ..1862 

Boileau, Sir John Peter, Bart. Physicist aud Antiquarian... 1795.. 1869 

Bonaparte, Mrs. Elizabeth Patterson. 1785.. 1879 

Bonaparte, Napoleon Eugene Louis Jean Joseph, Prince 

Imperial of France. 1856. .1879 

Bonaparte, Jerome Napoleon (Patterson) . 1805.. 1870 

Bondi, Rev. J. Hebrew Rabbi and Editor. 1804.. 1874 

Boner, Charles. English Author, Journalist, Translator. — ..1870 

Bonomi, Joseph. English Archaeologist. 1796.. 1878 

Boole, George, Prof. Mathematician and Metaphysician _ 1819?.. 1864 

Booth, James. English Clergyman and Author. 1814.. 1878 

Bopp, Franz. German Philologist. 1791.. 1867 

Borden, Gail. American Inventor and Philanthropist. 1801.. 1874 

Borland, Solon. “Confederate” General. — ..1864 

Bosio, Astyanax Scevola. French Sculptor. 1798?..1876 

Bos worth, Joseph. Anglo-Saxon Scholar. 1790.. 1876 

Bottiger, Karl Wilhelm. Swedish Poet. 1807.. 1878 

Botts, John Minor. American Politician.. 1802.. 1869 

Bouilhet, Louis. French Author and Poet.. 1824,, 1869 















































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 6 93 

BORtJ. DIED, 

Bourbon, Enrique Marie Ferdinand, Prince de. 1823. 1870 

Bourbon, Marie Amelie de. Widow of Louis Philippe. 1782.. 1866 

Bourdon, Peter Louis Mary. French Mathematician. 1799.. 1854 

Boutaric, Edgar Paul. French Historian. 1829.. 1878 

Boutell, Charles. Brit. Archaeologist. (English Heraldry .).. — .. 1877 
Bouton, Nathaniel. American Congregational Clergyman... 1799..1878 

Bowen, John S. “ Confederate” General. — ..1863 

Bowers, George Vining. American Actor. 1835.. 1878 

Bowes, Andrew Robinson Stoney, m. p. Husband of Countess 

of Strathmore. Life by Jesse Foot. 1745.. 1810 

Bowles, Sir George. British General. 1787.. 1876 

Bowles, Samuel. American Journalist. 1826..*878 

Bowring, Sir John. Poet, Philologist, Publicist. 1792.. 1872 

Boyd, James. Classical and General Editor. 1795.. 1856 

Brace, John Pierce. American Teacher and Journalist. 1793.. 1872 

Brachvogel, Albert Emil. German Novelist andDramatist.. 1824. .1878 
Brackenbridge, Henry M. Amer. Polit., Diplom., Author.. 1786.. 1S71 

Bradbury, William B. Musical Teacher and Composer. 1816. .1868 

Bradford, Alexander Warfield. Amer. Jurist and Editor. ... 1815.. 1867 
Bradley, Warren Ives. Glance Gaylord. American Author.. 1847.. 1868 

Brady, Hugh. American Military Officer.... 1768..1851 

Brady, James Topham. American Advocate and Politician.. 1815.. 1869 

Bragg, Braxton. “ Confederate” General. 1815?.1876 

Brainerd, Thomas. American Clergyman and Author.. 1804. .1866 

Brancaleone, Dandolo. Senator of Rome. — ..1258 

Branch, Lawrence O’Brien. “ Confederate” General. 1820..1862 

Brande, William Thomas. Eng. Physician, Chemist, Author. 1786.. 1866 

Brandis, Christian Auguste. German Philosopher. 1790..1867 

Brascassat, Jaques Raymond. French Painter. 1805.. 1867 

Braun, Alexander. German Botanist.. 180?..1877 

Bravo, Nicholas. Mexican General and Statesman. 1792.. 1854 

Braybrooke, Richard Neville Griffin, Third Lord. Antiquary. 

(History of Audley End: Evelyn's Memoir.) . 178;.. 1858 

Breckenridge, John Cabell. American Statesman. 1821.. 1875 

Breckinridge, Robert Jefferson. Amer. Clerg., Prof., Author. 1800.. 1871 

Breese, Sidney. American Jurist. 1800..1878 

Bremer, Miss Frederika. Swedish Novelist. 1802.. 1865 

Brewer, John Sherren. Eng. Prof., Antiquarian, Author ... 1810..1879 

Brewster, Sir David, k. h. British Physicist and Author- 1781. .1868 

Briggs, Charles Frederick. American Writer. 1804.. 1877 

Bright, Edmund, of Malden. Noted for weight, 616 lbs. 1721. 1750 

Brion, Gustave. French genre Painter. 1824.. 1877 

Briot, Peter Francis, of Besan9on. Phys., Medical Writer.... 1773’.1826 

Briscoe, Joseph C. Brevet-General, U. S. A. 1834.. 1869 

Bristed, Charles Astor. American Author. 1820.. 1874 

Bristow, Edmund. British Painter. 1786..1876 

Brockedon, William. Author, Artist and Inventor. 1787.. 1854 

Brockett, John Trotter. Antiquary. 1788.. 1842 

Brockhaus, Hermann. German Linguistic Scholar. 1806.. 1877 

Broderick, David Colbreth. American Politician. 1819..1859 

Brodhead, John Romeyn. Amer. Hist, and Diplomatist.... 18x4..1873 






































694 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BOHN. DIED., 

Brodie, Alexander. Scottish Sculptor. 1831.. 1867 

Brodie, George. Scottish Historical Writer. 1786. 1867 

Brofferio, M. Angelo. Italian Statesman, Poet, Historian— 1803.. 1866 
Broglie, Achille Charles Seance Victor, Ducde. Statesman 

and Publicist. 1785.. 1870 

Bromley, Valentine Walter. British Artist. 1848.. 1877 

Bromine, Traugott. German Geographer. 1771?. 1865 

Brongniart, Adolph Theodore. French Botanist. 1801.. 1876 

Brooke, Mrs. Avonia Jones. American Actress. 1838.. 1867 

Brooke, George M. American General. — ..1851 

Brooke, Sir James. English Knight-errant, Philanthropist, 

and Governor. . 1803.. 1868 

Brooke, William F. H. Major-General U. S. Vols. — .. 1870 

Brooks, James. American Journali t and Politician. 1810.. 1873 

Brooks, Preston S. American Politician. 1819..1857 

Brough, William. English Comedian and Writer . 1826.. 1870 

Brougham, Henry, Lord Brougham and Vaux. British States¬ 
man and Reformer. 1778.. 1868 

Broughton, Sir John Cam Hobhouse. English Statesman.. 1786.. 1869 

Brown, David Paul. American Lawyer and Author. 1795.. 1872 

Brown, J. C. Scottish Landscape Painter . 1805.. 1867 

Brown, Sir George. General; distinguished in Crimea. 1790 1865 

Brown, Goold. American Grammarian. 1791.. 1857 

Brown, Dr. Samuel, of Edinb. Chemical Theorist; Poet_ 1817.. 1856 

Brown, John Newton, d. d. Baptist Clergyman and Author.. 1803.. 1868 
Brown, John Porter. Amer. Diplomatist and Orientalist... 1814.. 1872 

Brown, Sir William. Merchaut and Philanthropist. 1784.. 1864 

Browne, Charles F. Artemus Ward. Amer. Humorist. 1834?. 1S67 

Brownell, Rt. Rev. Thoma3 Church. American Theologian 

and Educator. . 1779.. 1865 

Brownell, Henry Howard. American Author and Soldier... 1820.. 1872 
Brownlow, William Gannaway. American Clergyman, Jour¬ 
nalist, Politician. X805..1877 

Brownson, Orestes Augustus, im. d. American Author. 1803.. 1876 

Bruat, Armand Joseph. French Admiral. 1796. .1855 

Bruce, Archibald, m. d. Amer. Physician and Mineralogist.. 1777.. 1818 
Bruce, Sir Frederick William Adolphus. Eng. Diplomatist.. 1814.. 1S67 

Bruce, George. American Type Founder. 1781.. 1866 

Bruce, John. English Journalist and Antiquarian. 1802.. 1869 

Bruck, Baron de. Austrian Financier. 1799..i860 

Brunnow, Baron Philip de. Rus. Statesman and Diplomatist, 1797.. 1875 
Brunswick, Chaides Frederick Augustus William, ex-Duke of. 1804.. 1873 

Bryant, William Cullen. American Poet and Journalist. 1794. -1878 

Buchan, Peter. Scottish Antiquary.1. — ..1854 

Buchanan, Franklin. “ Confederate ” Admiral. i8co.. 1874 

Buchanan, James. President of U. S., 1857-1861 . 1791.. 1868 

Buchanan, John, ». d. Am. Luth. Clerg., Naturalist, Author. 1790.. 1874 

Buchanan, McKean. American Actor. ... 1823.. 1872 

Buchanan, Robert C. Brevet Major-General, U. S. A. — .. 1878 

Buchanan, Dr. Robert. Scottish Clergyman. 1800?. 1875 

Buchholtz, Reinhold. German Naturalist.. 1836.. 1876 





































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 695 

BORN. PIED. 

Buckhout, Isaac Craig. American Civil Engineer.. 1831 .. 1874 

Buckingham, Joseph Tinker. American Journalist. 1799.. 1861 

Budmgton, William Ives, D. D. Arner. Congl. Clergyman... 1815.. 1879 

Buell, Rufus F. Amer. Missionary to Greece... 1813.. 1866 

Buford, John. American Cavalry Officer.. 1825..1863 

Bulfinch, Thomas. Amer. Author. {Age of Chivalry) . 1797.. 1867 

Bulgaria, Dimitri. Greek Statesman. 1801.. 1878 

Bullions, Rev. Peter, d. d. American Educator and Author.. 1791.. 1864 

Buloz, Framjois. Founder of the Revue des Deux Mondes . 1803.. 1877 

Bulwer, William Henry Lytton Earle, Baron Dulling. Eng¬ 
lish Diplomatist and Author. 1804.. 1872 

Burdach, Ernst. German Physiologist. 1801.. 1876 

Burden, Henry. American Inventor. 1791.. 1871 

Burgeoise, Sir Francis, it. a. Painter. Founder of Dulwich 

Gallery. — ..1811 

Burges, Tristam. American Statesman. 1770.. 1853 

Burgess, George. Protestant Episcopal Bishop. Poet. 1809. 1866 

Burgoyne, Sir John Fox. English Military Officer. 1782..1871 

Burleigh, Charles C. Amer. Abolitionist and Preacher. 1S10..187S 

Burleigh, William Henry. Amer. Jour., Reformer and Poet. 1812.. 1871 

Burlingame, Anson. Amer. Statesman and Diplomatist. 1822.. 1S70 

Burnap, Rev. George Washington. Amer. Theol. Writer_ 1802.. 1859 

Burnet, John. English Engraver and Author. 17S4.. 1868 

Burnett, Fanny. English Translator and Authoress.1843.. 187s 

Burnham, Samuel. American Journalist and Hist. Writer... 1833.. 1873 

Burns, Jabez. English Baptist Minister.. 1805.. 1876 

Burns, John. “ Hero of Gettysburg”. 1794. .1872 

Burns, Col. William N. Son of the Poet.. 1792.. 1872 

Burrill, Alexander M. American Lawyer and Legal Writer... 1807.. 1869 

Burritt, Elihu. “The Learned Blacksmith”. 1811..1879 

Burton, Henry S. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 1818.. 1869 

Burton, William Evans. Comedian. {Cyclopaedia of Wit 

and Humor) . . . 1804..i860 

Bury, Lady Charlotte. Novelist. 1775.. 1861 

Bush, George. American Theologian. 1796.. 1859 

Bushnell, Horace, D. D. American Clergyman. 1802.. 1876 

Buss, Franz Joseph von. German Jurist and Writer. 1803.. 1878 

Bustamente, Anastasius. Mexican Soldier and Statesman... 1782.. 1851 

Bute, John Stuart, Fourth Earl and First Marquess of. 1744.. 1814 

Butler, Andrew Pickens. Amer. Lawyer and Politician. 1796. 1857 

Butler, Benjamin F. American Lawyer and Statesman. — .. 1858 

Butt, Isaac. Irish Lawyer and Statesman. 1813.. 1879 

Buxton, Charles, M. P. English Critic and Author. 1823.. 1S71 

Byron, George Anson. Seventh Lord. Admiral. 1789.. 1868 

Byron, George Anson. Eighth Lord. 1818. .1870 

Byron, Lady Noel. Wife of Lord Byron. 3793,, i86e 





































6g6 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

c. 


BORN. DIED. 


Caballero, Fernan. (Cecilia deArrom.) Spanish Novelist... 1797.. 1876 

Cabrera, Don Ramon. Carlist General. 18x0.. 1876 

Cairnes, Prof. Eng. Writer on Soc. and Polit. Questions_ 1 SZ 8 .. 187 S 

Caldwell, Charles, m . d . Medical and Miscel. Writer . 1772. 1855 

Caldwell, Charles II. B. American Commodore. 1838.. 1877 

Calhoun, George Albion. Am. Clerg. and Polemic Writer... 1789.. 1867 


Calvin, John. Life by Beza, 1564 (also in Latin and German); 
Bolsec, 1572 (also in German); J. P. Masson, 1598 ; Zie- 
genbein, 1789 - 90 ; Tischer, 1794 ; Mackenzie, 1809 ; 
Henry, 1835 , enlarged and rewritten, 1846 (also in Eng¬ 
lish and Dutch); Audin, 1840 (also in German and Ital¬ 
ian); Haag, 1840 ; Guizot, 1844 ; Dyer, 1849 ; Striihelin, 


1863 ; Bungener. 1509.. 1564 

Cameroni, Angelo. Italian Sculptor. — ..1867 

Cameron, Dr. Archibald. Scottish Jacobite; executed. 1698.. 1753 

Cameron, James, of Lochiel, brother. Scottish Jacobite. 1696.. 1758 

Campbell, Alexander. Founder of the “ Disciples of Christ.” 1786.. 1866 

Campbell, John. English Clergyman and Editor. 1794.. 1867 

Campbell, Sherwood Coan. American Singer. 1830?..1874 

Canby, Edward Richard Spriggs. Brevet. Maj. Gen. U. S. A. 1819.. 1873 
Candlish, Rev. Robert Smith. Leader of the Free Church of 

Scotland. 1807.. 1873 

Canterbury, Charles Thomas Longley, d. d., Archbishop of, 1794.. 1868 

Capendu, Ernest. French Novelist and Dramatist. 1828. 1868 

Carafa, Michael Henry. Italian Musician and Composer. 1785.. 1872 

Carbuccia, Gen. French Archaeologist. — ..1854 

Cardigan, James Thomas Brudenell. English Nobleman and 

Army Officer. 1797..1868 

Carey, Henry Charles. American Political Economist. 1793.. 1879 

Carey, John L. American Political Economist. — ..1852 

Carleton, James H. Brevet Major-General, U. S. A. 1814 1873 

Carleton, William. Irish Novelist. 1798.. 1869 

Carlisle, Richard Risley, Professor Risley. Athlete. 1814.. 1874 

Carmiencke, John Hermann. Am. Landscape Painter. 1809.. 1867 

Carne, Louis Marcein, Count de. French Publicist. 1804.. 1876 

Carnwath, Robert Dalziel, Sixth Earl of. Scot. Jacobite... 1673.. 1726 

Caroll, Sir William Farebrother. Naval Officer. 1785.. 1862 

Carot, Jean Baptiste Camille. French Artist. 1796.. 1875 

Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste. French Sculptor. 1827. .1875 

Carpender, Edward W. American Commodore. 1796.. 1877 

Carruthers, Dr. Robert. Scotch Editor and Author. 1799.. 1878 

Carson, Christopher. Brevet Brig.-Gen., U. S. A. “Kit.”... 1809.. 1868 
Cartwright, Rev. Edmund, i\ s. a. Topographer. (Sussex.). 1777.. 1833 

Cartwright, Peter. American Methodist Preacher. 1785.. 187Z 

Cary, Alice. American Poetess and Prose Writer. 1820.. 1871 

Cary, Phoebe. Sister of Alice. (Poems of Faith, Hope and 

Rove.) ..... 1825.. 1871 






























V 


A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 697 

BORN. DIED. 


Cass, Lewis. American Statesman. 1781.. 1866 

Cassidy, William. American Journalist. 1814. .187$ 

Cassin, John. American Naturalist. 1813..1869 

Castilho, Antonio Feliciano, Viscount. Portuguese Poet_ 1800.. 1875 

Castilla, Don Raymon. South American Statesman. 1799.. 1867 

Catlin, George. American Artist and Author. 1796.. 1872 

Cattermole, George. English Water Color Artist. 1800.. 1868 

Caulfield, James, Earl of Charlemont. Life by Francis 

Hardy, 1810.. 1728.. 1799 

Caumont, Arcisse de. Archaeologist and Author. 1802. .1873 

Cavada, Frederico. Cuban Patriot. 1832.. 1871 

Cavendish, Elizabeth Hardwicke, Lady. 1519..1608 

Cavendish, George. Usher and Biographer of Wolsey.1500?.1562? 

Caventon, Joseph Bienaime, French Chemist.. 1795. .1877 

Cayley, George John. English Poet and Journalist. 1826.. 1878 

Cerise or Cerisi, Laurent Alexandre Philibert, m. d. Italian 

Psychologist and Author. 1809.. 1869 


Cervantes. Spanish Novelist. ( Don Quixote.) Life by 
Mayans y Siscar, 1737 , Englished by Ozell, 1738 ; Sar- 
miento ; J. de Iriarte; Montiano y Luyando; J. M. de 
Flores ; V. de Los Rios, 1780 ; Claris de Florian, 1785 ? 
Pellicer, 1778 , enlarged 1798 ; Jarvis, 1801 ; Merimee, 
1806 ; Fernandez de Navarrete, 1819 ; Auger, 1825 ; Fil- 
leau Saint-Martin, 1825 ; Roscoe, 1839 ; Aribau, 1849 ; 


Finlay. 1547.. 1616 

Cesare, Joseph. Italian Historian. 1783.. 1856 

Chacomac, Jean. French Astronomer. 1823..1873 

Cham, nom de'plume of Amedee de Noe. Fr. Caricaturist... 1819.. 1879 

Chambers, David N. Brother of Robert . 1819.. 1871 

Chambers, George. American Jurist and Author. 1786.. 1866 

Chambers, Robert, ll. d. British Publisher. 1802.. 1871 

Champlin, Stephen. American Commodore. 1789. <1870 

Champollion, Jean Jacques. French Author, Historian, 

Publicist. 1778..1867 

Chandler, John G. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 1832?.1873 

Chandler, Zachariah. American Senator and Politician.1813.. 1879 

Chandos, John Brydges, created Duke of. 1673.. 1744 • 

Chang and Eng. Siamese Twins. 1811.. 1874 

Changarnier, Nicolas Anne Theodule. French General. 1793.. 1877 

Chapman, Reuben Attwater. American Lawyer. 1801.. 1873 

Charles, Theodore, Prince of Bavaria. 1795.. 1875 

Charles, William Louis, Prince of Hesse. 1809..1877 

Charles, Thomas, of Bala. Methodist Minister. Life by 

Morgan. 1755.. 1814 

Charlon, John James. Painter. — ..1854 

Chase, Carlton, d. d. Protestant Episcopal Bishop. 1794.. 1870 

Chase, Salmon Portland. Chief-Justice of Supreme Court of 

United States. . 1808.. 1873 

Chasles, Victor Euphemion Philarete. French Author. 1798.. 1873 

Chasseloup-Laubat, Justin Napoleon SamuelBosper, Mar¬ 
quis de. French Statesman... 1805..1873 





































698 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BOR??. DIED. 

Chauvenet, William. American Mathematician. 1821.. 1870 

Chelins, Maximilian Joseph. German Surgeon. 1794.. 1876 

Chelmsford, Frederic Thesiger, Baron. Lord Chancellor_ 1794.. 1878 

Chenu, Jean Charles. French Naturalist. 1808.. 1S79 

Chesebro, Caroline. American Author and Teacher.1828?. 1875 

Chesney, Francis Rawdon. British Military Officer. 1789.. 1872 

Chetham-Str ode, Sir Edward. Admiral... 1775.. 1862 

Chevalier, Michael. French Political Economist.. 1806.. 1879 

Chickering, Jesse. American Statistician. 1798..1855 

Chickering, Thomas E. Brevet Brig.-Gen., U. S. Vols. 1824.. 1871 

Childs, Henry Halsey. American Physician and Professor. .. 1783.. 1868 
Chorley, Henry Fothergill. Eng. Composer, Critic, Author.. 1802..1872 

Christina, Maria. Dowager Queen of Spain. 1806.. 1878 

Christmas, Eev. Henry. Noel Fearn. English Scholar. {Uni¬ 
versal Mythology .). 1811.. 1868 

Christopher I. King of Denmark.'.... — ..1259 

Christopher II... 1276. .1333 

Christopher III. Of Bavaria . — ..1448 

Christy, Henry. Antiquary . 1810.. 1865 

Chrzanowski, Adalbert. Polish General. 1789.. 1861 

Chubbuck, Samuel W. Amer. Inventor and Manufacturer.. 1800.. 1875 
Church, Albert E. American Mathematician and Author.... — .. 1878 

Church, Sir Richard. Officer in the Greek Service. 1785. .1873 

Cibot, Francois Barthelemy Michel Edouard. French Painter. 1799.. 1877 

Clarendon, George William Frederick Villiers, Earl of. 1800.. 1870 

Clark, Davis Wesgatt. Methodist Episcopal Bishop.. 1812.. 1871 

Clark, Henry James. American Scientist. 1828?.1873 

Clark, Sir James, Bart. English Physician. 1788.. 1870 

Clark, Lewis Gaylord. American Writer'. 1810.. 1873 

Clark, Thomas. British Artist. — .. 1876 

Clarke, Charles Cowdcn. British Scholar. (Concordance to 

Shakespeare.) . 1788.. 1877 

Clarke, Edward II. Amer. Physician. (Sex in Education ).. 1820.. 1877 

Clarke, Gaylord J. American Jurist, Journalist, Poet. 1836. .1870 

Clarke, Nathaniel B. (Belden.) American Actor. 1808..1872 

Clarke, Stephen T. American Journalist. 1819..1869 

Clarke, Walter, u. d. American Clergyman, Author, Orator.. 1812.. 1871 

Classon, Octavius. German Philologist. 1844.. 1875 

Clauson, Henrik Nikolai. Danish Statesman and Theologian. 1793.. 1877 


Clayton, John, of London. Dissenting Minister. 1780’.1865 

Cleburne, Patrick R. “ Confederate ” General. 1828.. 1864 

Clement, Dr. Knut Jungbohn. Danish Linguist and Historian. 1803. .1873 
Cleveland, Charles Dexter. American Scholar and Author . 1802.. 1869 

Cleveland, Rev. Charles. “FatherCleveland”. 1772.. 1872 

Cleveland, Elisha Lord. American Clergyman. 1806.. 1866 

Cleveland, John Fitch. American Journalist. 1819..1876 

Cobb, Howell. American Statesman. 1815. .1868 

• Coccia, Carlo. Italian Musical Composer. 1789.. 1873 

Cochet, Jean Benoit Desire. Abbot and Antiquarian. 1812.. 1875 

Cochrane, Clark B. American Lawyer and Politician.1815, ,1867 







































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 699 

BORN. DIED. 

Cock, Thomas, M. d. American Med. Writer and Professor.. 1782.. 1869 

Cocke, Philip St. George. “Confederate” General. — ..1861 

Cockerell, Charles Robert, b. a. Architect. 1788.. 1863 

Cockton, Henry. Writer. {Valentine Vox) . 1808.. 1853 

Coffin, James Henry. American Scientist, Meteorologist. 1806.. 1875 

Cogswell, Joseph Green, ll. d. Writer, Professor, and Libra¬ 
rian of Astor Library. 1786.. 1871 

Colborne, Sir John, Lord Seaton. Field Marshal. Gov¬ 
ernor-General of Canada. 1779.. 1863 

Colburn, Henry. Publisher. . . — ..1855 

Colburn, Zerah. American Scientific Writer. 1832.. 1870 

Colby, Charles G. American Writer and Editor. 1829.. 1866 

Cole, Mrs. Florence Francis. Florence Stanley. Am. Actress — ..1872 

Coleridge, Sir John Taylor. Lawyer and Writer. 179°. • 1876 

Coles, Cowper Phipps. British Naval Officer. 1819. .1870 

Colet, Louis Revoil. French Authoress. 1810.. 1876 

Collins, Charles Austin. English Painter and Novelist. 1828.. 1873 

Collins, Isaac. Violinist. “English Paganini”. 1797.. 1871 

Collins, Mortimer. English Poet and Novelist. 1825.. 1876 

Collins, Napoleon. Rear-Admiral, U. S. N. 1814.. 1875 

Colver, Rev. Nathaniel. Bap. Clerg., Orator, and Reformer. . 1794.. 1870 
Colwell, Stephen. Amer. Merchant, Political Economist and 

Philanthropist. 1S00..1871 

Combe, Harvey Christian, m. p. Politician and Founder of 

Brewery. „ .. 1752.. 1818 

Combermere, Sir Stapleton Cotton, Viscount. Field Marshal. 1772.. 1865 

Comer, Thomas. Actor and Musician. 1790.. 1862 

Conant, H. C. American Authoress.1810.. 1865 

Concha, Don Manuel de la. Sp. General and Statesman. 1794 • • 1S74 

Coningsby, Thomas, First Lord. Politician.1650?. 1729 

Conington, John, m. a. Classical Scholar and Author. 1825.. 1869 

Conkling, Alfred. American Jurist and Legal Writer.1789.. 1874 

Connel, Sir John. Advocate. {Law of Scotland on Tithes .).. —..1831 

Connor, Charles. Comedian. — ..1826 

Conolly, John, m. d. English Psychologist and Author. * 795 - • *866 

Conrad, Timothy Abbott. American Geologist. 1803.. 1877 

Converse, Rev. Amasa. Founder of Christian Observer . 1795 1S72 

Conway, Frederick B. American Actor. 1819.. 1874 

Conyngham, Francis Nathaniel, Marquis of. Irish Noble¬ 
man.. 1797..1876 

Cook, Henry F. “Confederate” General. — ..1863 

Cook, John, d. d. Scottish Professor of Divinity. 1771.. 1824 

Cook, Rev. Russell S. American Clergyman. 1811.. 1864 

Cooke, Edwin T. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols. — 1867 

Cooke, George Wingrove. Biographer and Historian. 1814.. 1865 

Cooke, Henry, d. d. Irish Presb. Clerg. and Author. 1788.. 1868 

Cooper, Bran shy. Surgeon. 1792..1853 

Cooper, Thomas Abthorpe. Actor... 1776 -- lS 49 

Cooper, Charle&Henry. English Antiquarian Scholar. 1808.. 1866 

Cooper, William R. Biblical Archaeologist. 1843.. 1878 

Copland, James. English Physician and Author. * 793 - • 1870 








































700 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORX. DIED. 

Coquerel, Althanase Laurent Charles. Clergyman, Politician, 

and Author. 1795.. 1868 

Cordova, Filippo. Italian Statesman. 1802f.1868 

Cornelius, Peter yon. German Painter. 1789.. 1867 

Cornell, Ezra. American Philanthropist. 1807.. 1874 

Corney, Bolton. English Author and Editor. (New Curiosi¬ 
ties of Literature.) . 178 3. .1870 

Corning, Erastus. American Manufacturer and Politician_ 1794.. 1872 

Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille. French Artist. 1796.. 1875 

Corssen, Wilhelm P. German Philologist. 1820.. 1875 

Cort, Franz de. Belgian Poet... 1834.. 1878 

Coste, Jean Jacques Marie Cyprien Victor. Fr. Scientist. 1807.. 1873 

Costello, Dudley. Author and Journalist.. 1803?. 1865 

Costello, Miss Louisa Stewart. Artist and Author. (The 

Queen's Prisoner.) . 1815.. 1870 

Coster, Francis. Malleus Ilcereticorum. Belgian Theol. 1531.. 1691 

Cottenham, Charles Christopher Pepys, Earl of. Lord High 

Chancellor. 1781.. 1851 

Cotton, Sir Stapleton, G. c. b., Viscount Combermere. Field 

Marshal. 1773.. 1865 

Courbet, Gustave. French Painter. 1819.. 1877 

Cousin, Victor. French Metaphysician. Founder of Eclectic 

School of Philosophy. 1792.. 1867 

Couture, Thomas. French Painter of the Idealistic School.. 1815.. 1879 

Covode, John. American Politician.. *. 1808.. 1871 

Cox, Edward William. English Lawyer and Author. 1809., 1879 

Coxe, Richard Charles, Archdeacon of Lindisfarne. Divine 

and Poet. 1799.. 1865 

Cozzens, Frederick. American Humorist. (The Sparrow- 

grass Papers.) . 1817..1869 

Crace-Calvert, Frederick, m. d. English Chemist. 1819.. 1873 

Cradock, Joseph, f. s. a. (Literary Memoirs.) .1741 or 2.1826 

Craggs, James. Politician. •— ..1720 

Craig, Robert H. American Actor. 1842.. 1872 

Craik, George Lillie. Scot. Author and Belles-Lettres Writer. 1798.. 1866 

Cranworth, Robert Monsey Rolfe, Lord. Jurist. 1790.. 1868 

Craven, Alfred W. American Civil Engineer. — .. 1879 

Craven, Tunis Augustus Macdonough. American Naval Com¬ 
mander. — ..1864 

Crawford, John, f. n. s. Oriental Scholar. 1783.. 1868 

Crawford, Nathaniel Macon, d. d. American Scholar and 

College President. 1811..1871 

Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd. Eng. Lawyer and Historian.. 1812.. 1878 

Crele, Joseph. Oldest Man in America. 1725. .1866 

Cremer, Camille. French General. 1840.. 1876 

Creswick, Thomas, r. a. English Painter. 1811..1870 

Cretineau-Joly, Jacques. French Writer. 1803.. 1S75 

Crockford, William. Originator of Crockford’s Club.1775?. 1844 

Cromartie, George Mackenzie, Earl of. Scottish Jacobite... 1710.. 1759 

Crosby, Rev. Alpheus. American Scholar and Professor. 1810.. 1874 

Crosby, Sir John. Alderman. Builder of Crosby Place. —..1475 






































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 701 

BORN. DIED# 

Croswell, Edwin. American Journalist and Politician. 1797..1871 

Crowe, Eyre Evans. Eng. Historian. {History of France.).. 1799?.1868 

Crowe, Rev. Frederick. Writer. — ..1858 

Crowell, William, n. d. Clergyman, Journalist and Author.. 1806.. 1871 
Croxton, John Thomas. Brevet Major-General, U. S. Vols.. 1837.. 1874 

Cruikshank, George. English Caricaturist. 1792..1878 

Cruveilhier, Jean, French Physician, Prof., Author. 1791.. 1874 

Cullen, Paul. Roman Catholic Cardinal. 1803.. 1878 

Cuming, Hugh, Conchologist.1791?.1865 

Cummings, Jeremiah W. Rom. Cath. Clerg. and Author_ 1823.. 1866 

Cummins, Miss Maria S. American Authoress .1834?.1866 

Cunningham, Rev. Francis, of Harrow. Divine.1785’.1863 

Cunningham, Peter. English Author and Critic. 1816.. 1869 

Curtis, Benjamin Robbins, ll. d. American Jurist. 1809..1874 

Curtis, Samuel R. Major-General, U. S. Yols. 1807..1866 

Curtis, Dr. Thomas. Editor of Encyclopedia Metropolitana 

and London Encyclopedia .. 1788.. 1859 

Custs, Rev. Thomas F. American Professor and Author. 1816. .1872 

Cushing, Caleb. American Statesman and Diplomatist. 1800. .1879 

Cushing, William B. American Naval Commander. 1844.. 1874 

Cushman, Charlotte Saunders. American Actress. Life by 

Emma Stebbins. 1816.. 1876 

Cust, Sir Edward. British General and Military Writer.. 1794.. 1878 

Custer, George A. American General. Killed by the Sioux.. 1839.. 1876 

Cutler, Lysander. Major-General, U. S. Yols... ..1806?. 1866 

Cutting, Francis Brock hoist. American Jurist. 1805.. 1870 

Czermak, Joseph, ph. d. German Pathologist. — ..1873 

Czermak, Jaroslav. Bohemian Painter. ,,,,,,,, . 1831..1878 


D. 

Dahlgren, John A. American Rear Admiral.. 1810.. 1870 

Dahlgren, Colonel Ulric. American Military Officer. 1842.. 1864 

Dakin, Thomas Spencer. American Major-General and Marks¬ 
man. 1831..1878 

Dale, Rev. Thomas. English Professor, Poet, Writer. 1797.. 1870 

Dallas, E. S. English Journalist and Author. {The Gay 

Science.) .. 1827.. 1879 

Dali’ Ongaro, Francisco. Ital. Poet, Dramatist, Revolutionist. 1808.. 187^ 

D’Alton, John. Irish Historian and Genealogist. 1792..1867 

Dana, Richard Henry. American Poet and Essayist. 1787.. 1879 

Dana, Samuel Luther, m. r». American Chemist. 1795.. 1868 

Danby, John. Musical Composer. — •• I 79 8 

Dandolo, Ct. Emilio. Ital. Patriot, Soldier, and Litterateur.. — ..1859 

Daniel. Hebrew Prophet.fl- b. c. 607-534 

Daniel, William Francis. Naturalist.1818?.1865 

Daniels, John M. American Editor. —..1865 



































702 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. DIED. 

Dante degli Alighieri. Life by Fielfo. MS. until 1828 ; 

Vilani, MS. until 1826 ; Boccaccio, 1544 ; Panchiatichi, 

1576 ; Bruno Aretiuo, 1672 ; Manetti, 1747 ; Pelli, 1759 ; 

Chabanon, 1773 ; Fabroni, 1803 ; Cesare, 1811 ; Petroni, 

1816 ; Orelli, 1822 ; Gamba, 1825 ; Blanc, 1834 : Fauriel, 

1834 ; Balbo, 1839 , and Engl. 1852 ; Missirini, 1840 ; 

Savelli, 1841 ; Artaud de Moutor, 1841 ; Torri, 1843 ; 

Wegele, 1852 ; Vericour, 1858 . 1265..1321 

Darboy, Rev. Georges, d. d. Rom. Cath. Prelate and Author. 1813.. 1871 

Darby, Prof. John. {Botanyof the Southern States.) .— 1804.. 1877 

Dargan, Edmund Sparon. American Jurist. 1805.. 1879 

Darley, William. American Geographer and Statistician. 1775.. 1854 

Darling, James. London Publisher and Bibliographer. ( Gy - 

clopcedia Bibliographical . 1797.. 1862 

Dartmouth, George Legge, First Baron. Admiral. 1648.. 1691 

Dartmouth, George Legge, Earl. Statesman. 1755..1810 

Daubeny, Charles. Archdeacon of Sarum. {Guide to the 

Church.) . . .—.. 1744.. 1827 

Daubeny, Charles Giles Bride. Eng. Physicist and Author. 1795. .1867 
D’Aubigne, (Merle) Jean Henri. {History of the Reformation.) 1794.. 1872 

Daubigny, Charles Francois. French Painter. 1817.. 1878 

Daumer, Georg Friedrich. German Writer and Poet. 1800.. 1875 

Daumier, Henri. French Caricaturist . 1810.. 1879 

Davenport, Edward L. American Actor. 1816.. 1877 

Davenport, N. T. American Actor... 1831.. 1867 

David, Felicien Cesar. French Composer. 1810.. 1876 

Davies, Charles. American Mathematician. 1798 .1876 

Davies, Thomas Stephens. Mathematician..1794’.1851 

Davis, Charles Henry. American Naval Ofiicer and Writer... 1807.. 1877 

Davis, Edward. English Painter... 1833.. 1867 

Davis, Hasbrouck. Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols. — ..1870 

Davison, John, b. d. Theol. {Discourseson Prophecy.) . 1777.. 1834 

Davy, John, m. d., f. r. s. Physicist and Author. 1790.. 1868 

Dawes, Rev. William Rutter, f. r. s. English Astronomer.. 1800.. 1868 

Dawson, Henry. English Landscape Painter. 1811..1878 

Day, Jeremiah, d. d. AmericanClerg. and Col. President_ 1773.. 1867 

Deak, Francis. Hungarian Patriot. 1803.. 1876 

Dean, Amos, ll. i). American Jurist and Author. 1S03..1868 

Dearborn, Henry Alexander Scammell. American Writer... 1783.. 1851 

De Bar, Benedict. American Actor. 1812. . 1877 

De Bow, James Dunwoody Brownson. Am. Journalist.1820.. 1867 

Decatur, Stephen. American Commodore. 1815. .1876 

Deguerry, or Hu Guerry, Abbe Gaspard. French Scholar and 

Orator... 1797.. 1871 

De Haven, Edwin J. American Arctic Voyager.. . 1819.. 1865 

De Koven, James, d. d. American Clergyman. 1832.. 1879 

Delafield, Edward. American Physician. 1794.. 1875 

Delafield, Richard. Brevet Major-General, U. S. A. 1798.. 1873 

Delafosse, Gabriel. French Scholar. .*_ 1795..1878 

Delane, John Thaddeus. British Journalist. 1817..1879 

Delangle, Claude Alphonse. French Jurist and Statesman.. 1797,, 1869 
































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY, 


7°3 


Delaporte, Michel. French Vaudevilliste. 

De la Rive, Auguste, m. d. Swiss Physicist and Author. 

Delavan, Edward C. Arner. Philanthropist and Reformer_ 

Delavigne, Germain. French Dramatist. 

Delitzsch, Johannes. German Theological Professor. 

Delord, Taxile. French Writer and Politician. 

Dembinski, Henry. Polish General.. 

De Morgan, Augustus. English Mathematician and Author. 

Denin, Miss Susan. American Actress.. 

Denio, Hiram, ll. d. American Jurist. 

Dennett, John Richard. American Journalist and Professor. 

Denny, Thomas. American Merchant and Banker. 

De Puy, Henry Walter. American Author. 

Derby, Geoffrey Stanley, Earl of. Statesman... 

De Sanclis, Luigi, d. d. Italian Divine. (Arrdco de Casa.).. 

Deschamps, Emile. French Poet, Essayist, Novelist. 

Despois, Eugene Andre. French Writer.:... 

Desportes, M. French Translator, Dramatist, Compiler_ 

Devrient, Wilhelmina Schroeder. Ger. Singer and Actor_ 

De Walden, Thomas Blaides. English Actor and Dramatic 

Writer. 

Dewey, Chester. American Physician.. 

Diaz de la Pena, Narcisse Yirgile. French Painter. 

Dick, James T. American Artist.. 

Dick, Robert. Scotch Geologist and Botanist (known as the 

Baker of Thurso)... 

Dick, Prof. William. British Surgeon andAuthor. 

Dickens, Augustus N. Brother of Charles Dickens.'. 

Dickens, Charles. English Novelist. 

Dickinson, Daniel Stevens. American Statesman .. 

Dickinson, John, f. k. s. Paper-maker, Inventor, Philoso* 

pher, Astronomer, Geologist, Geographer . 

Dickson, Samuel Henry. American Physician and Writer... 

Didot, Ambrose Firmin. French Publisher and Author. 

Dieudonne, Dr., of Brussels. Medical Writer. 

Diez, Friedrich Christian. Student of the Romance Languages. 
Dilke, Sir Charles Wentworth. Jour, and Art Connoisseur... 

Dillwyn, Lewis W. Welsh Naturalist. 

Di Luca, Ferdinando. Geographer and Mathematician. 

Dimick, Justin. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 

Dix, John Adams, American General and Statesman. 

Dixon, James. American Politician. . 

Dixon, Joseph. American Inventor. 

Dixon, William Hepworth. English Author. (New America; 

Her Majesty's Tower .). 

Djelal-eddyn Roumi. Persian Mystic Poet. 1195, 

Dod, Captain Robert Phipps. Peerage Compiler. 

Dodge, Nathaniel S. American Author.. r . 

Dodo, John Bovee. American Author and Psychologist. 

Donati, Prof. Astronomer..• v . 

Donelson, Andrew Jackson American Politician, Editor, 
Piplomatist. ... 


BORN. DIRT>. 
l80Z..I8/Z 

1801.. 187} 

1793.. X87I 

1789.. 1868 

1846.. 1876 

1815.. 1877 

1791.. 1864 

1806.. 1871 

1835.. 1875 

1799.. 1871 

1837.. 1874 

1804.. 1874 

iSZO..I876 

1799.. 1868 

1508.. 1869 

1791.. 1871 
l8l8. I876 

1798.. 1866 

1805.. 1860 

I813?.I873 

1781.. 1867 

1809.. 1876 

1838.. 1868 

1811.. 1866 

1793.. 1866 

1826.. 1866 

1812.. 1870 
1800..1866 

1782.. 1869 

1798.. 1872 

1790.. 1876 
l8llr.l865 

1794.. 1876 

1810.. 1869 

1778.. 1855 
I809?.I869 

1800.. 1871 

1798.. 1879 

1814.. 1873 

1798.. 1869 

1821.. I879 
1262 or 71 

— ..1864 

1810.. 1874 

1795.. 1872 

— ..1873 

1 3 00.. 1 87 * 







































704 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. DIED. 

Donner, Johann Jacob Christian. German Translator. 1799.. 187s 

Donoughmore, John Hely Hutchinson, Earl of. General.... 1757.. 1832 
Donoughmore, Richard Hely Hutchinson, Earl of. Soldier 

and Statesmen. 1756.. 1825 

Donovan, Michael. Irish Chemist. — .1876 

Doran, Dr. John. British Author and Editor. 1807. . 1878 

Doring, Theodor. German Actor. 1803.. 1878 

Dorsey, Mrs. Sarah A. Amer. Writer and Conversationalist.. 1829.. 1879 

Dowling, John. American Clergyman and Author. 1807.. 1878 

Doyle, John. English Caricaturist and Painter. 1798.. 1868 

Dove, Heinrich Wilhelm. German Scientist. 1803. 1878 

Drake, Andrew Jackson. American Naval Commander.1818 ?. 1875 

Drake, Samuel G. American Antiquarian. 1798.. 1875 

Drayton, Henri. Opera Singer, Actor, and Author. 1822.. 1872 

Dreyse, Herr von. Inventor of the Needle Gun. 1787.. 1867 

Drozdof, Rev. Philarete. Archbishop of Moscow. 1782.. 1867 

Drummond, James. British Painter. 1816.. 1877 

Dubellay du Resnel, John Francis. French Writer. .. 1692.. 1761 

Dubner, Frederick. Hellenistic Scholar. 1802.. 1867 

Dudley, Benjamin Winslow. Am. Surgeon and Professor 1785.. 1870 

Duff, Alexander. Scotch Missionary. 1806.. 1878 

Duff-Gordon, Lady Lucy (nee Lucy Austin). Author, Transla¬ 
tor, and Traveller.. 1820.. 1869 

Duffield, George. American Clergyman, Scholar, and Author. 1794.. 1868 

Dufour, Henry. Swiss General. 1789.. 1875 

Duggan, Peter Paul. American Artist..-.. — ..1861 

Dulce y Gary, Domingo. Spanish Soldier. 1808.. 1869 

Dumas, Alexandre Davy, Sen. French Novelist and Dramatist. 1803.. 1870 

Dumont, Ebenezer. Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols. 1814.. 1871 

Dumont, Leon. French Scholar.. 1838.. 1877 

Dunglison, Robley, m. d. Amer. Med. Professor and Author, 1798.. 1869 

Dupanloup, Felix Antonio Philippe. French Prelate. 1802. .1878 

Dupin, Andrew Mary John James. French Jurist and 

Statesman... 1783.. 1865 

Dupont, Samuel Francis. Rear-Admiral, U. S. Navy. 1803..1865 

Durand, Elias. American Botanist. 1794..1873 

Durang, Charles. American Actor. 1794.. 1870 

Durham, Joseph. British Sculptor. (Leanderand the Siren.) 1821.. 1877 

Duringsfeld, Ida von. Poet and Romance Writer. 1815 1876 

Dussard, Hippolyte. Writer on Political Economy. 1798.. 1876 

Duyckink, Evert Augustus. American Author. 1816..1878 

Dwight, Rev. Harrison Gray Otis. American Missionary and 

Writer. 1803.. 1862 

Dwight, Mary Anne. (Mythology?) . 1806.. 1858 

Dwight, Theodore. American Editor and Author. 1797.. 1866 

Dyce, Rev. Alexander. English Critic and Commentator.1798..1869 

Dyer, Alexander B. Brevet Major-General, U. S. A. 1817..1874 






































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 7°5 

E. 

_ . . BORN. DIED. 

Karnes, Charles. American Lawyer, Journalist, Diplomatist.. 1812. .1867 

Early, John, d. d. Methodist Episcopal Bishop. 1785 18-^ 

Eastburn, Manton. Protestant Episcopal Bishop.1801! ’ is' 7 z 

Eastman, Harvey G. American Educator. 1832.. 1878 

Eastman, Oman. American Presbyterian Clergyman. 1796.. 1874 

Eaton, Amos. American Botanist.1776? 1842 

Eckfeldt, Jacob R. Chief Assayer of U. S. Mint.1802.^1872 

Eddy, Edward. American Actor. . ^75 

Eddy, Norman. Amer. Politician and Government Official... 1810.. 1872 

Eddy, Rev. Thomas M. Journalist and Author. 1823.. 1874 

Eden, Hon. Emily. English Traveller and Authoress. 1795.. 1869 

Eggert, Franz Xavier. German Painter on Glass. 1802..1876 

Eglinton, Archibald William, Earl of. Lord Lieutenant of 

Ireland.,. 1812.. 1861 

Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried. German Naturalist. 1795.. 1876 

Ehrnfeu.ch.ter, Frederick August Eduard. Ger. Theologian. 1814.. 1878 

Eichwald, Rarl Eduard. Russian Naturalist. 1795.. 1876 

Elah. King of Israel (b. c. 930-929). — B a 92(? 

Eli. High Priest and Judge of Israel.fl. b. c. 1171 

Eligius,, or Eloy, St. Bishop of Tournay and Noyon. 588.. 659 

Elijah. Prophet of Israel.fl. B .c. 910. .896 

Eliot, Thomas D. American Lawyer and Politician. 1808.. 1870 

Elizabeth. Princess ; daughter of Charles I.. 1635. .1650 

Elizabeth. Queen-Dowager of Prussia. 1801.. 1873 

Ellenborough, Edw r ard Lan, Earl of. English Statesman... 1790.. 1871 

Ellet, Charles. American Engineer. 1810 .1862 

Ellet, Mrs. Elizabeth F. L. American Author... 1818.. 1877 

Ellice, Edward, m. p. Politician. 1789.. 1863 

Elliot, Charles. American Clergyman, Editor and Author_ 1792.. 1869 

Elliot, Charles Loring. American Portrait Painter. 1812 .1868 

Elliotson, John. English Physician and Author. 1788.. 1868 

Elliott, Charlotte. English Hymn Writer. 1789.. 1871 

Elliott, Sir Gilbert, or Earl Minto. Gov.-Gen. of Bengal. 1751.. 1814 

Elliott, Stephen, Jr. “ Confederate ” Brigadier-General. 1832.. 1866 

Ellis, Sir Henry. Bibliographer and Author . 1777.. 1869 

Ellis, John Willis. Governor of North Carolina; prominent 

Secessionist. 1820.. 1861 

Ellis, Rev. Robert Leslie, of Cambridge. Mathematician and 

Philosopher. 1817.. 1859 

Ellis, Welbore, created Lord Mendip. Politician. 1714.. 1802 

Ellis, Rev. William. Eng. Missionary, Traveller, Author.. .. 1795.. 1872 

Ellsworth, Ephraim Elmer. American Military Officer. 1837.. 1861 

Elmes, James. Architect and Author . 1783.. 1862 

Eloy, or Eligius, St. Bishop of Tournay and Noyon. 588.. 650 

Elton, Romeo, d. d. American Clerg., Prof, and Author. 1792.. 1870 

Elwart, Antoine Amable Elie. French Composer. 1808.. 1877 

Elzey, Arnold. “ Confederate ” Brigadier-General.. 1816.. 1871 

Emerson, Brown, d. d. American Divine. i 77 8 - 1872 

Engles, William Morrison. Amer. Pres. Clerg. and Author., 1797.,1867 









































706 


A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 


BORN. DIED. 

Eotvos, Baron Jozsef. Hungarian Statesman and Author— 1815.. 1871 

Erman, Georg Adolf. German Scholar. 1806.. 1877 

Espartero, Joaquin Baldomero. Sp. Soldier and Statesman. 1792.. 1879 
Esquiros, Henri Alphonse. French Writer and Politician— 1814.. 1876 

Ettmiiller, Ernst Ludwig. German Scholar. 1802.. 1877 

Evans, Arthur Benoni. Classical Scholar; Writer. 1781..1855 

Evans, Prof. Evan William. Professor and Celtic Scholar_ 1827.. 1874 

Evans, Sir George de Lacy. British General and Author. 1787.. 1870 

Evans, N. George. “Confederate” General.1828?..1868 

Evans, Robert Wilson. English Clergyman and Author. 1789.. 1866 

Evans, William. English Water Color Painter. 1797. .1878 

Ewald, Georg Heinrich August von. German Orientalist_ 1803.. 1875 

Ewart, William, m. p. (The Reform of the Reform Bill.) . 1798.. 1869 

Ewbank, Thomas. English Scientist.,. 1792.. 1870 

Ewell, Richard Stoddard. “Confederate” Lieut.-General_ 1820..1872 

Ewing, Thomas, ll. d. American Jurist and Statesman. 1789.. 1871 

Exeter, Henry Phillpotts, d. d. English Prelate and Author.. 1778. .1869 
Eyre, Sir William. Major-General.... — ..1859 


Faber, Peter Christian Fredcrik. Danish Poet. 1810..1877 

Fagnani, Joseph. Portrait Painter. 18x9..1873 

Fairbairn, Patrick, d. d. Scottish Clergyman and Author... 1805..1874 

Fairbairn, Sir William. British Civil Engineer. 1789. .1874 

Fairbanks, Erastus. American Manufacturer and Statesman, 1792.. 1864 

Fairchild, Cassius. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 1828..1868 

Fairholt, Frederick William. English Author and Artist. 1814.. 1866 

Falke, Johannes Frederick Gottlieb. German Historian. 1823..1876 

Fanfani, Pietro. Italian Philologist. 1815.. 1879 

Faraday, Michael, f. b. s. English Physicist. 1791.. 1867 

Farini, Carlo Luigi. Italian Author and Statesman. 1822. .1866 

Farmer, George Edgar. Lieutenant-Colonel, U. S. Yols. 1840.. 1870 

Farnham, Mrs. Eliza W. Amer. Philanthropist and Writer.. 1815..1864 
Farnum, J. Egbert. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols... 1824.. 1870 

Farragut, David Glascoe. American Admiral. 1801.. 1870 

Farrar, Mrs. Eliza Ware. American Authoress. 1792.. 1870 

Faucher, Julius. German Political Economist. 1820.. 1878 

Faud, Mehmed, Pacha. Turkish Statesman and Author. 1814..1869 

Fawsitt, Miss Amy. Actress. 1836.. 1876 

Fay, Joseph. German Painter. 1813.. 187s 

Fazy, Jean James. Swiss Politician. 1796.. 1878 

Fechter, Cliarles Albert. French Actor. 1824.. 1879 

Felice, Guillaume de, d. d. French Author and Professor_ 1803.. 1871 

Felt, Rev. Joseph Barlow. American Antiquarian Writer_ 1789.. 1869 

Fenno, A. W. American Actor.'. 1814. .1873 

Ferdinand I. Ex-Emperor of Austria. 1793..1875 

Ferdinand, Maximilian Joseph. Emperor of Mexico. Exe¬ 
cuted., mi, .,,, 1834,. 

































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 7°7 

BORN. DIED. 

Fernkom, Anton Dominick. Austrian Sculptor. 1813..1878 

Ferrari, Giuseppe. Italian Philosophical Writer. 1812.. 1876 

Ferre, Theophile Charles. Communist Leader. 1846.. 1871 

Ferris, Isaac, n. d. American Clergyman and Teacher.. 1799 1873 

Ferry, Orris S. U. S. Senator and Brigadier General. 1823..1875 

Fessenden, Samuel. American Lawyer... 1784.. 1869 

Fessenden, William Pitt. American Statesman. 1806.. 1869 

Fetis, Francis Joseph. Belgian Music Composer, Critic and 

Author. 1784.. 1871 

Feuerbach., Ludwig Marie. German Philosopher. 1804. .1872 

Fichte, Immanuel Hermann. German Philosopher. 1796. .1879 

Field, David Dudley, d. d. Amer. Congl. Clerg. and Author. 1781.. 1867 

Field, George. Chemist and Writer . — ..1854 

Field, Mrs. Henry M. Amer. Artist and Conversationalist_ — ..1875 

Field*Jonathan Edwards. American Lawyer. 181 j.. 1868 

Fillmore, Millard. Amer. Statesman. President, 1850-1853. 1800.. 1874 

Finlay, George. British Historian.. . . 1800.. 1875 

Finney, Rev. Charles G. Evangelist and College President... 1792.. 1875 

Fish, Asa. American Lawyer.. 1820.. 1879 

Fisher, Redwood. American Journalist, Political Econo¬ 
mist and Statistician. 1783.. 1856 

Fitch, Eleazar Thompson, d. d. Amer. Theol. and Prof. 1791.. 1871 

Fitzpatrick, Benjamin. American Statesman. 1802.. 1869 

Fitzpatrick, John Bernard. Rom. Cath. Bishop of Boston .. 1812. 1866 

Flagg, Azariah C. American Politician and Financier. 1790. • 1873 

Flahaut de la Biliarderie, Auguste Charles Joseph, 

Comte de.. 1785.. 1870 

Fletcher, Richard. American Jurist.,. 1788. .1869 

Flocon, Ferdinand. French Publicist and Novelist. 1800.. 1866 

Floyd, John Buchanan. American Politician and Secessionist; 

“Confederate ' General. 1805.. 1863 

Floyd-Jones, David R. American Political Leader. 1812 .1871 

Flusser, Charles W. American Naval Officer. 1832?. 1864 

Foley, John Henry. British Sculptor. 1818. .1874 

Foley, Thomas, n. d. Roman Catholic Priest.. 1822.. 1879 

Folsom, George. Diplomatist, Antiquarian, Author. 1802.. 1869 

Foltz, Philipp von. German Painter. 1805.. 1877 

Fonblanque, Albany William. English Author. 1795.. 1872 

Foot, Soiomon. American Statesman . 1802.. 1866 

Forbiger, Albert. German Classical Scholar. 1798.. 1878 

Forcade-Laroquette, Jean Louis de. French Cabinet 

Minister. 1820.. 1874 

Force, Peter. American Historian and Journalist. 1790.. 1868 

Forey, Elie Frederic. French Marshal and Senator. 1804.. 1872 

Forrest, Edwin. American Tragedian. 1806.. 1872 

Forrest, Nathan Bedford. “ Confederate ’ General. 1821.. 1877 

Forrest, Robert. Scottish Sculptor.. — - - 1 853 

Forrester, Albert Henry. Alfred Crowquill. Eng. Artist... 1805.. 1872 

Forster, John. British Biographer.. 1812.. 1876 

Foster, John G. Brevet Major-General, U. S. A. 182j. .1874 

Foster, John Wells. American Scientist and Paleontologist.. 1815. .1873 









































7 °S A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. DIED. 


Foucher, Paul. French Dramatic Writer. 1810..187J 

Fould, Achille. French Statesman and Financier. 1800..1867 

Fourdrinier, Henry. Inventor.... 1766.. 1855 

Fowler, Rev. Henry. American Journalist and Author. 1824. 1872 

Fox, Sir Charles. British Civil Engineer. 1810.. 1874 

Fox, Charles Kemble. American Actor... . 1833.. 1875 

Fox, George L. American Pantomimist.. 1825.. 1877 

Franchi, Allessandro. Italian Cardinal.-. 1819.. 1878 

Francis Y. Duke of Modena . 1809.. 1875 

Francis, Rev. Convers, d. d. American Theol. and Writer... 1796.. 1863 

Francis, George Henry. English Editor and Author. 1816.. 1866 

Frank cl, Zacharias. Rabbi and Author. 1801.. 187$ 

Frankenstein, Godfrey N. American Fainter. (Battle of 

Gettysburg) . 1831.. 1873 

Franklin, Eady Jane. Wife of Sir John Franklin. 1805,’. 1875 

Frederick William, ex-Eiector of Hesse. 1802.. 1875 

Frederick William, Prince of Hesse. 1790.. 1876 

Fredro, Count Alexander. Polish Author. *793 * - *876 

Freiligratli, Ferdinand. GermanPoet. 1810..1876 

Frementin,Eugene.. French Painter. 1820.. 1876 

French, John W., n. d. Episcopal Clergyman and Professor. 1810?. 1871 
French, Mansfield. “Chaplain French.” Amer. Clergyman. 1810.. 1876 

Fries, Elias Magnus. Swedish Botanist. 1794. .1378 

Frossard, Charles Auguste. French General. 1807.. 1875 

Frost, John. Compiler of School Books. 1800. .1859 

Frost, William Edward. British Painter. 1810.. 1877 

Frothingham, Nathaniel Langdon. Unit. Clerg. and Author. 1793..1870 

Fry, Joseph Reese. Scholar and Musical Writer. — ..1863 

Fuhrich, Joseph von. German Painter... 1800.. 1876 

Fulford, Francis, d. d. Bishop of Montreal. 1803.. 1868 

Fuller, Richard. American Clergyman. (The Psalmist.) . 1804.. 1876 

Funk, Heinrich. German Painter of Tyrolese Scenes. 1807.. 1877 


G. 


Gablentz, Lndwig Karl Wilhelm, Baron von. Aus. Soldier. 1814. .1874 

Gannett, Ezra Stiles, n. n. American Clerg. and Author_ 1801.. 1871 

Garbett, James. English Scholar and Clergyman. 1802.. 1879 

Garcia y Tessara, Gabriel. Spanish Poet..\ .. 1817.. 1875 

Gardner, Charles Iv. American Military Officer and Writer. 1787.. 1869 

Gardner, William. Writer on Music and Arc. 1764. .1854 

Garner, Thomas. English Engraver. (Ilake's Progress.) _ —..1868 

Garnett, RiehardB. “Confederate” General. — ..1863 

Garnett, Robert Selden. “Confederate” General. 1822.. 1861 

Garnier-Pages, Louis Antoine. Fr. Politician and Historian 1803.. 1878 

Garrison, William Lloyd. Amer. Editor and Abolitionist_ 1804..1879 

Gasparin, Agenor Etienne, Count de. Statesman, Philan¬ 
thropist, Author.. 1810 .1871 



































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 7°9 


BORN. DIE®. 

Gastaldi, Professor. Italian Geologist. 1818..1879 

Gates, William. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 1788.. 1868 

Gatty, Mrs. Margaret Scott. (Mrs. Alfred G.) Eng. Writer. 1809.. 1873 
Gauxne, Jean Josepli. d. d. French Roman Catholic Theo¬ 
logian and Author. 1802..1869 

Gauntlett, Henry John, mus. dr. Eng. Com. of Chh. Music. 1806.. 1876 

Gautier, Th6ophile. French Poet, Critic, Novelist. 1811..1872 

Geary, John White. Major-General, U. S. Vols. 1819.. 1873 

Gegenbaur, Joseph Anton von. German Painter. 1800.. 1876 

Geiger, Abraham. Jewish Rabbi and Author. 1810.. 1874 

George V. Ex-King of Hanover... 1819.,1878 

Gerstacker, Friedrich. German Traveller and Novelist. 1816. .1872 

Gervinus, George Gottfried, rn. d. Historian and Statesm’n. 1805.. 1871 

Geselschap, Eduard. Dutch Painter. 1808..1878 

Gibbes, Robert Wilson. American Historian, Palaeontologist 

and Physicist. 1809.. 1866 

Gibbs, Alfred. Brevet Major-General, it. S. A. 1823.. 1868 

Gibbs, George. American Philologist, Antiquarian, Author.. 1817. .1873 

Gibson, John, R. A. English Sculptor. 1790.. 1866 

Gibson, William. American Surgeon and Author. 1788.. 1868 

Giesebucht, Ludwig, pir. d. German Poet and Historian... 1792.. 187j 

Gilbert, George A. American Artist in Water Colors . 1815.. 1877 

Gilbert, Mrs. John. American Actress. 1801.. 1866 

Gillespie, William Mitchell, ll. d. American Engineer, 

Professor and Author. 1816.. 1868 

Gillett, Ezra H. American Clergyman and Author. (Life 

and Times of J. Huss.) . . . 1823..1875 

Gilliams, Jacob. American Physicist and Naturalist. 1784..1868 

Ginzel, Joseph August. Austrian Church Historian. 1804.. 1876 

Giseke, Bernhard Ludwig. German Philologist. 1823.. 1876 

Giskra, Karl. Austrian Statesman. 1820.. 1879 

Giudici, Paolo Emiliani. Italian Author. 1812.. 1872 

Glassbrenner, Adolf. German Humorist. 1810..1876 

Godon, Sylvanus W. American Naval Officer. — .. 1879 

Goicouria, Domingo de. Cuban Revolutionist. 1799.. 1870 

Goldschmidt, Herman. German Painter and Astronomer... 1802.. 1866 

Goldschmidt, Paul. German Orientalist. 1850. .1877 

Goodell, William. American Clergyman and Missionary- 1792. .1867 

Goodrich, Rev. Charles A. American Writer. 1790..1862 

Goodrich, Rev. Chauncey. American Scholar and Author... 1817.. 1868 

Goodyear, Charles. American Inventor. 1800.. i860 

Gordon, Sir James Alexander. British Admiral. 1782.. 1869 

Gortchakoff, Prince Peter Dmitrievitch. Russian General.. 1789.. 1868 

Goszczyuski, Severinus. Polish Poet... 1806.. 1876 

Gottlieb, Johann. Austrian Chemist.. —..1875 

Gottschalk, Louis Moreau. Amer. Pianist and Composer... 1829. .1869 

Gough, Hugh. British Military Officer.1779.. 1869 

Gould, Augustus Addison. Amer. Naturalist and Physician. 1805.. 1866 

Govone, Guiseppe. Italian Soldier and Statesman. 1S26.. 1873 

Gowans, William. American Bibliopolist and Author. 1805. .1870 

Gozlan, Leon, French Dramatist and Litterateur. 1806.. 1866 





































7 10 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 


BORN. DIED. 

Graham, Thomas. English Physicist and Chemist... 1805. 1869 

Graham, William A. American Statesman. 1804. . 1875 

Granger, Francis. American Politician . 1787.. 1868 

Granier de Cassagnac, Paul de. French Journalist. 1841.. 1870 

Grannis, Theodore C. American Journalist. 1831..1878 

Grant, Robert Edmund. British Anatomist, Zoologist and 

Author... 1793.. 1874 

Grant, Sir Francis. British Painter. 1803..1878 

Grass, Philippe. French Sculptor. 1801. .1876 

Grassmann, Hermann Gunther. German Mathematician and 

Oriental Scholar... 1809.. 1877 

Gratry, Auguste Joseph Alphonse. Fr. Cath. Theologian... 1805.. 1872 

Graul, Charles. German Scholar and Writer. — ..1864 

Gray, Francis Calley. American Scholar and Writer. 1790.. 1856 

Gray, Henry Peters. American Painter. 1819.. 1877 

Gray, John Edward. British Naturalist. 1800.. 1875 

Grayson, John Breckinridge. “ Confederate” General. 1807. .1862 

Greeley, Horace. Am. Journalist, Founder of N. Y. Tribune. 1811..1872 

Green, Rev. Beriah. American Reformer. 1794. .1874 

Green, Huff. American General, Politician and Editor. — ..1875 

Green, Horace. American Physician and Professor. 1802. .1866 

Green, Thomas J. “Confederate” General. 1801.. 1863 

Greene, Albert Gorton. American Jurist and Poet. 1802..1868 

Greene, David. Cong. Clergyman. {Church Psalmody.') _ 1797.. 1866 

Greene, William B. American Mathematician and Author... 1819.. 1878 

Greene, Nathaniel. American Journalist and Author. 1797.. 1877 

Greenough, George Bellas. Geol. and Physical Geog. 1777.. 1854 

Gregg, John. “ Confederate ” General.. 1828.. 1864 

Gregory, Dr. William. Chemist and Writer on Chemistry... — .. 1858 

Gregory, Francis H. Rear Admiral, U. S. N. 1789,. 1866 

Greiner, John. American Politician and Journalist, Writer 

of Political Songs. .1 . 1811.. 1871 

Greswell, Rev. Edward. Theological and Chronological 

Writer. 1797.. 1869 

Greville, Robt. Kaye. Scot. Botanist and Philanthropist.1794.. 1866 

Grier, Robert Cooper. American Jurist... 1794.. 

Griffin, Charles. Brevet Major-General, U. S. A. 1826.. 1867 

Griffin, George. American Theological Writer. . 1778..i860 

Gillparzer, Franz. German Dramatic Poet. 1791.. 1872 

Grimm, Louis Emilius. German Engraver. 1790..1863 

Grinnell, Henry. American Merchant and Philanthropist... 1800.. 1874 
Griscom, John Hoskius. Amer. Physician and Humanitarian 1809.. 1874 

Grisi, Giulia. Italian Opera Singer.. 1812.. 1869 

Griswold, John A. Amer. Manufacturer and Politician. 1822.. 1872 

Groen van Prinsterer, Willem. Dutch Historian_... 1801.. 1876 

Grossmith, John. English Chemist and Author. {The 

Usury Laws.) . 1814.. 1867 

Grote, George, d. c. l., f. r. s. Historian and Statesman. 

{History of Greece.) .. 1794.. 187r 

Grote, Mrs. Harriet Lewin. Wife of George Grote. 1792.. 1878 

Grote, John, English Clergyman and Philosophical Writer.. 1813.. 1S66 







































k BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. fit 

BORN. DrED. 

Grover, Rev. Henry Montague. Rel., Scient. and Dram. Writer. 1791.. 1866 

Grund, Francis J. American Writer. 1803’.1863 

Gruppe, Otto Friedrich. German Philosopher and Poet. 1804.. 1876 

Gueranger, Dorn Prosper. French Benedictine Monk. 1806.. 1875 

Guericke, Heinrich Ernst Ferdinand. German Theologian.. 1803.. 1878 
Gueronniere, Viscount Louis Etienne A. D. H., de la. Writer 

and Politician. 1816.. 1875 

Guerrazzi, Francisco Dominico. It. Revolutionist and Writer. 1805.. 1873 

Guest, John. American Naval Officer. 1821.. 1879 

Guiccioli, Teresa Gamba, Countess. (My Recollections of Lord 

Byron.) . 1801.. 1873 

Guidi, Filippo Maria. Italian Cardinal. 1815. 1879 

Guidicini, Guisseppe. Architect and Painter. 1812.. 1868 

Guigniaut,, Joseph Daniel. French Scholar. 1794.. 1876 

Guizot, Francis Pierre Guillaume. French Statesman, Diplo¬ 
matist, Historian. 1787..1874 

Gunnison, J. W. American Topographical Engineer. — ..1853 

Gurney, Rev. John Hampden. Writer.. 1802..1862 

Gurney, Sir Goldsworthy. English Inventor. 1793.. 187s 

Gurney, William. American Military Officer. 1821.. 1879 

Gurowski, Count Adam de. Polish Publicist. 1805.. 1866 

Guthrie, James, ll. d. American Statesman. 1792.. 1869 

Guthrie, Thomas, d. d. Scotch Clergyman and Author. 1803.. 1873 

Gutzkow, Karl Ferdinand. German Novelist. 1811..1878 

Gwinn, William. American Naval Officer... 1831., 1863 

\ 

H. 

f 

Hackett, Horatio Balch, d. d. American Biblical Scholar.... 1808.. 1875 

Hackett, James Henry. American Actor. 1800. .1871 

Hacklander, Friedrich Wilhelm. German Novelist. 1816..1877 

Hackleman, Pleasant A. American General. —..1862 

Hadley, James, ll. d. Amer. Schol., Philologi -1 and Prof... 1821.. 1872 

HafFner, Karl. German Novelist audDramatist. 1815.. 1876 

Hagenbach, Karl Adolf. German Theologian and Author... 1801.. 1874 

Haidinger, Wilhelm. Geologist, Geographer, Engineer. 1795.. 1871 

Haigh, Rev. R. B., ll. d. Orientalist and Philologist. 1804.. 1869 

Halbertsma, Hilde J. Anatomist and Physiologist. 1820.. 1865 

Hale, Benjamin, d. d. American Writer. 1797.. 1863 

Hale, John Parker. American Senator and Diplomatist. 1806.. 1873 

Hale, Mrs. Sarah Josepha Buel. American Authoress. 1795.. 1879 

Hall, Allen A. American Journalist and Diplomatist. — .. 1867 

Hall, Baynard, i). n. American Writer and Educator. 1798.. 1863 

Hall, Caldwell K. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols. 1839.. 1870 

Hall, James. American Lawyer, Editor, Author, Banker. ... 1793.. 1868 

Hall, Hon. Willis. American Lawyer and Politician. 1801.. 1868 

Halleck, Fitz-Greene. American Poet. 1790.. 1867 

Halleck, Henry Wager. Major-General, U. S. A. 1815..1872 

Hal’ett, Benjamin F. American Politician. 1798..186* 





































7*2 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

HORN'. IllEt). 

Halliday-Duff, Andrew. British Writer.. 1830.. 1877 

Hallock, Gerard. American Journalist. 1S00..1866 

Halpine, Charles G. Poet, Scholar, Editor and Soldier. 1829.. 1868 

Hamblin, Joseph E. Brevet Major-General, U. S. Vols. 1828..1870 

Hamilton, William John. English Geologist and Traveller.. 1805.. 1867 

Hammerich, Frederick. Danish Theologian. 1809.. 1877 

Hammond, Jahez D. Amer. Lawyer, Legislator and Author. — ..1855 

Haneberg, Daniel von. German Catholic Prelate. 1816.. 1876 

Hannay, James. Scottish Novelist.*.. 1827.. 1873 

Hansen, Peter Andreas. German Astronomer. 1795. . 1874 

Hanson, Mrs. John T. Niece of Oliver Goldsmith. 1786.. 1866 

Hanson, Sir Richard Davies. Jurist. {Jesus of History.) . 1805.. 1876 

Harbaugh, Henry. American Clergyman andTheol. Prof... 1817..1867 

Hardee, William J. “ Confederate ” Lieutenant-General. 1817.. 1873 

Harding, Abner. Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols... 1807.. 1874 

Harding, Chester. American Portrait Painter . — ..1866 

Hardwicke, Charles Philip Yorke, Earl of. English Admiral. 1799.. 1873 

Hardy, Sir Thomas Duffus. English Antiquarian. 1804.. 1878 

Haro-Harring, Paul. Danish Exile, Painter, Poet, Novelist. 1799.. 1870 

Harper, James. American Publisher. 1795.. 1869 

Harper, John. American Publisher. 1797.. 1875 

Harper, Joseph Wesley. American Publisher. 1801.. 1870 

Harrington, Marie Foote, Countess of. English Actress. 1798.. 1867 

Harris, Ira. American Judge and Senator. 1802.. 1875 

Harris, Sir William Snow. Physicist, Inventor, Author__ 1791.. 1867 

Hart, Joel T. American Sculptor. 18x0?. 1877 

Hart, John Seely. American Author of Text-books. 1810. .1877 

Hart, Joseph C. American Writer.. — . 1855 

Hartmann, Julius von. German General. 1817.. 1878 

Hartsuff, George L. Major-General, U. S. A. 1830.. 1874 

Hartt, Charles Frederick. American Professor and Geologist. 1840.. 1878 

Harvey, Sir George. British Painter. 1805.. 1S76 

Haskell, Daniel N. American Journalist. 1818.. 1874 

Haskin, Joseph A. Brevet Brigadier-General U. S. A.1817’.1874 

Hastings, Thomas. American Music Composer and Author.. 1784.. 1872 
Hauch, Jean Karsten von. Danish Poet, Novelist and Scien¬ 
tist. 1790..1872 

Haug, Martin. German Orientalist. 1827.. 1876 

Haven, Joseph. American Clergyman and Author. 1816.. 1874 

Havin, Leonor Joseph. French Publicist and Editor . 1799. .1868 

Hawes, Joel, n. d. American Clergyman and Author. 1789.. 1867 

Hawks, Cicero Stanley. Bishop of Protest. Episcopal Church. 1812.. 1868 

Hawks, Francis Lister. American Clergyman and Author_ 1798.. 1866 

Hawthorne, Mrs. Sophia. Wife of Nathaniel Hawthorne_ 1811.. 1871 

Hay, David Ramsay. Scotch Portrait Painter.1798.. 1866 

Hays, Alexander. American General. 1823.. 1864 

Hays, Isaac. American Scientist and Physician. 1796. .1879 

Hayter, Sir George. Painter-in-Ordinary to her Majesty. 1792.. 1871 

Hazard, Samuel. American Archaeologist, Historian and 

Publisher. 1784.. 1870 

Head, Sir Edmund Walker. English Statesman and Scholar.. 1805.. 1868 






































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 713 

BORN". DIED. 

Heads Sir Francis Bond. English Diplomatist. 1793.. 1875 

Heimann, Basili Alexandrovitch". Russian General. 1823..1878 

Heis, Eduard. German Astronomer. 1806.. 1877 

Helps, Sir Arthur. English Diplomatist and Author. .1817. .1875 

Helm, Benjamin Hardin. “ Confederate” General. — ..1863 

Hemans, Charles Isidore. British Author. (Catholic Italy.). — ..1876 
Henderson, J. Pinckney. Amer. Statesman and Diplomatist.. 1808. .1858 

Hengstenberg, Ernst Wilhelm. Theologian and Editor. 1802.. 1869 

Henneberg, Rudolf. German Painter. 1826. 1876 

Henry, Joseph. American Physicist. 1797..1878 

Hensel, Louise. German Poetess. 1798.. 1876 

Henshaw, David. American Politician. — ..1852 

Henshaw, Joshua Sidney. Belcher. American Lawyer, 

Mathematician, and Writer. 1811..1859 

Herapath, John. English Author and Publisher. 1791.. 1868 

Herculano de Carvalho e Araujo, Alexandro. Portuguese 

Scholar and Historian. .1796?. 1877 

Heron, Matilda. American Actress.. 1830..1877 

Herrick, Edward Claudius. American Scientist and Bibliog.. 1811..1862 

Herring, James. American Portrait Painter. 1793.. 1867 

Herschel, Sir John Frederick William. Bart. Astronomer, 

Physicist, Author. 1792.. 1871 

Hertzen, Alexander. Russian Exile and Author. 1816.. 1870 

Herwegh, Georg. German Poet. 1817..1875 

Hess, Peter von. German Painter. 1793.. 1871 

Heuglin, Theodor von. German Explorer. 1824. . 1876 

Heunert, Karl. German Painter. 1808..1876 

Hewit, Henry Stuart. American Physician*. 1825.. 1873 

Hewit, Nathaniel. American Cong. Clergyman and Author.. 1788.. 1867 

Hexamer, William. American Army Officer. 1825.. 1870 

Higgins, Matthew James. Jacob Omnium. Eng. Journalist.. 1815?.1868 

Hildebrand, Bruno. German Statistician. 1812..1878 

Hill, Ambrose Powell. “ Confederate ” General. 1826..1865 

Hill, David Octavius. Scotch Landscape Painter. 1802.. 1870 

Hill, George. American Author. 1796.. 1871 

Hill, Sir Rowland. Originator of the Penny Postage in Eng... 1795. .1876 
Hillard, Francis. American Lawyer and Author of Legal 

Text Books... 1806.. 1878 

Hillard, George Stillman. American Lawyer, Orator, Author.. 1808.. 1879 

Hillier, George. English Antiquarian and Historian. 1816.. 1866 

Hillyer, William Silliman. Brigadier-General, U. S. Yols. 1831.. 1874 

Hindman, Thomas C. “Confederate” General. 1818.. 1868 

Hinman, Royal Ralph. American Politician and Genealogist, 1784.. 1868 • 
Hinton, John Howard. Eng. Baptist Clergyman and Author. 1791.. 1873 

Hirst, Henry B. American Poet and Writer. 1813.. 1874 

Hitchcock, Ethan Allen. Major General, U. S. Yols. 1798.. 1870 

Hitzig, Ferdinand. German Biblical Critic. 1807. .1875 

Hoar, Samuel, ll. d. American Jurist. 1778..1856 

Hodge, Charles. American Clergyman and Author. (Sys¬ 
tematic Theology.) ... 1797.. 1878 

Hodge, Hugh Lenox. Amer. Physician and Medical Writer... 1796.. 1873 







































:M- A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN'. DIED. 

Hodge, James Thatcher. American Geologist and Engineer.. 1816.. 1871 

Hodgson, Joseph, r. r. s. English Surgeon.. 1788.. 1869 

Hoffman, Murray. Amer. Lawyer aud Author of Legal Terms. 1791.. 1878 

Hoffmann, Heinrich August. German Poet, Philologist. 1798.. 1874 

Hofmeister, Wilhelm. German Botanist.. 1824.. 1877 

Hogg, Sir James Weir. British Statesman. 1790. .1876 

Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Friedrich Wilhelm Constantine, 

Prince of... 1801.. 1869 

Holbrook, John Edward, m.'d. Amer. Naturalist and Author, 1795.. 1871 

Holland, George, American Actor. 1790.. 1870 

Holland, Sir Henry. Traveller, Author, Physician. 1788.. 1873 

Hollins, George N. American Naval Officer. 1799.. 1878 

Holmes, Alfred. British Composer. 1838..1876 

Holton, Isaac Farwell. Clerg., Botanist, Chemist, Jour. 1812.. 1874 

Hood, John B. “Confederate” General. 1831..1879 

Hook, Rev. Walter Farquhar. English Dean. (Lives of the 

Archbishops of Canterbury.) . 1798.. 1875 

Hooker, Joseph. American Major-General. 1815.. 1879 

Hooper, John. American Botanist. 1802.. 1869 

Hooper, Samuel, m. c. American Statesman. 1808.. 1875 

Hopkins, Rev. Albert. Am. Astronomer and Physicist. 1807.. 1872 

Hopkins, John Henry, d. d. Bishop of Prot. Epis. Church. 1792. . 1868 

Hopkins, Johns. American Philanthropist. 1795..1873 

Horsley, Charles Edward. American Musical Composer. 1825.. 1876 

Horvath, Michel. Hungarian Patriot and Historian. 1809.. 1878 

Hosemann, Theodor. German Painter. 1807.. 1875 

Hosmer, William H. C. American Author. 1814.. 1877 

Houdin, Robert John Eugene. French Conjurer. 1805.. 1871 

Hoverbeck, Leopold, Freihere von. German Politician. 1822.. 1875 

Howard, Benjamin C. American Jurist. 1791.. 1872 

Howard, Frank. English Painter and Writer. 1805.. 1866 

Howard, Jacob Merrit, ll. d. American Statesman . 1805. . 1871 

Howe, Elias, Jr. American Inventor. 1819.. 1867 

Howe, Samuel Gridley. American Philanthropist. 1801.. 1876 

Howell, Robert Boyte Crawford. Clergyman and Author.... 1801. .1868 

Howitt, William. Eng. Poet, Novelist and Hist. Whiter. 1795.. 1879 

Hows, John A. American Artist and Journalist. 1831.. 1874 

Hoyt, Adolphus Davenport. American Actor. 1831.. 1873 

Huber, Johannes. German Scholar. 1830.. 1879 

Huber, Victor Aime. Ger. Historian, Publicist and Critic_ 1800.. 1869 

Hubner, Otto. Ger. Statistician and Political Economist. 1818.. 1877 

Hudson, Frederick. Journalist. {History of Journalism in 

America.) . 1819.. 1875 

Hudson, George. English “ Railway King.”. 1801. .1871 

Huet, Paul. French Landscape Painter. 1804.. 1869 

Hugel, Karl Alexander Anselm. Austrian Traveller and Nat¬ 
uralist. 1796..1870 

Hughes, Ball. Sculptor. 1806.. 1868 

Hugo, Madame Adele Foucher. Wife of Victor Hugo.1806 ?. 1868 

Hugo, Charles Victor. Journalist and Author. 1826.. 1871 

Hueo, Francois. Son of Victor Hugo. Translator of Shake¬ 
speare.*.. 1828..1873 











































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 


715 


Hulsemann, John George, Chevalier de. Austrian Minister 

to United States. 

Hulsse, Julius Arabrosius. German Scientist. 

Humphrey, James. American Lawyer and M. C. 

Hungerford, William, ll. d. American Jurist. 

Hunt, Edward B. American Military Officer; Inventor. 

Hunt, Frederick Knight. Journali-t. 

Hunt, George Ward. British Statesman. 

Hunt, James. English Physiologist and Anthropologist. 

Hunt, Thornton Leigh. English Artist, Critic, Journalist_ 

Hunt, William Morris. American Artist. 

Hupfeld, Hermann. German Hebrew Scholar. 

Hurlstone, Frederick Yeates. English Historical Painter— 
Hussein-Aoni Pasha. Turkish Statesman and General — 


I. 

Ingersoll, Joseph Reed. Am. Statesman and Diplomatist— 

Ingersoll, Ralph Isaacs. Am. Statesman and Diplomatist- 

Ingham, Charles C. American Portrait Painter. 

Inglis, John A. American Jurist. 

Ingres, Jean Dominique Auguste. Fr. Historical Painter. 

Irving, Ebcnezer. American Merchant. Brother of Washing¬ 
ton Irving. 

Irving, J. Beaufrain. American Painter. 

Irving, Pierre Monroe. American Writer. 

Isaacs, Samuel M. Jewish Rabbi and Editor. 

Iverson, Alfred. American Jurist and Statesman. 

Ives, Eli, m. d.. 

Ives, Levi Silliman, d. d. Bishop of North Carolina. 

J. 

Jackson, Abner. Epis. Clerg. and Col. President. 

Jackson, Claiborne F. American Secessionist; “ Confed¬ 
erate ” General. 

Jackson, Conrad Feger. American General. 

Jackson, James S. American General. 

Jackson, James. American Medical Professor and Author... 

Jackson^ John J. “ Confederate ” Brigadier-General. 

Jackson, Samuel. American Physician and Author. 

Jacobs, Melancthon, d. d. Luth. Clerg., Prof., Author. 

Jacoby, Johann. German Politician.... 

Jahn, Otho. German Philologist. Archaeologist, Critic. 

James, Charles T. Inventor of Rifle-cannon and Shell. 

Jameson, Charles Davis. American General. 

Janes, Rev. Edward L. Methodist Clergyman and Author... 

Janin, Jules Gabriel. French Critic and Novelist. 

Jelf, Richard William. English Author and Teacher. 



BORN DIED. 

- ..I864 

1812.. 1876 
I8U..I866 

1786.. 1873 

1822.. 186j 

1814.. 1854 

1825.. 1877 
ISJJ..I869 

1810.. 1873 

1824.. 1879 

1796.. 1866 
1800..I869 
X8I9..I876 


1786.. 1868 

1788.. 1872 

1797 .. 1863 

1813.. 1878 

1781.. 1867 

1775.. 1868 
1827?.I877 

1802.. 1876 

1803.. 1878 

1798 .. 1873 
1779 . l86l 

1797.. 1867 


1811.. 1874 

1807.. 1862 
- ..1862 

1822..1862 

1777 .. 1867 

1829.. 1866 

1787.. 1872 
I806?.I87I 

1805.. 1877 
I8T3..1869 

1806.. 1862 

1827.. 1862 

1807.. 187J 

1804.. 1874 

1798.. 1871 




































7i6 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. DIED. 

Jenks, William. American Cong. Clergyman and Author_ 1778.. 1866 

Jerdan, William, f. s. a. English Journalist. 1782..1869 

Jesse, Edward. English Naturalist and Author. 1780.. 1868 

Jessup, Thomas S. American Military Officer. 1790..i860 

Jessup, William. American Jurist and Philanthropist. 1797.. 1868 

Jeune, Francis, d. d. English Prelate and Reformer.... 180c ?. 1868 

Jewett, Charles Coffin. American Scholar and Bibliographer. 1816.. 1868 

Johnson, Andrew. Seventeenth President of U. S. 1808.. 1875 

Johnson, Edward. “Confederate” Major-General. — ..1873 

Johnson, Rev. Herman M. Amer. Clergyman and Author_ 1815.. 1868 

Johnson, Reverdy. American Statesman . 1796.. 1876 

Johnston, Alexander Keith. British Geographer. 1804.. 1871 

Johnston, Alexander Keith. Brit. Geographer and Explorer. 1841.. 1879 
Jomini, Baron Henri. Swiss Historian and Military Critic... 1779.. 1869 

Jones, Ernest. English Journalist, Reformer, Orator. 1819.. 1869 

Jones, George. Episcopal Clergyman and Author. 1799.. 1870 

Jones, George, r. a. English Painter. {Battle of Waterloo.) 1786.. 1869 
Jones, Henry Bence, m. d. English Medical Writer. {Life 

and Letters of Faraday .). iS 14.. 1873 

Jones, John N. “Confederate” General. .. 1S20..1864 

Jones, Dr. Joseph S. American Dramatist. 1809.. 1877 

Jones, Mrs. Melinda. American Actress. 1815.. 1873 

Jones, Roger. American General... — ..1852 

Josephine. Ex-Queen of Sweden. 1807.. 1876 

Juarez, Benito. Mexican Statesman and President. 1807.. 1872 

Jubinal, Michel Louis Achille. French Politician and Author. 1810.. 1875 

Jukes, Joseph Bute. Geologist and Writer. 1811..1869 

Julio, E. D. B. Painter. {Last Meeting of Lee and Stonewall 

Jackson.) .. 1843.. 1879 

Juncker, Henry Damian, d. d. Roman Catholic Bishop. 1810?.1868 

Junkin, George. American Clergyman and Author. 1790.. 1868 

Juvara, Tommaso Aloysio. Italian Artist. 1809.. 1875 

K. 

Kamehameha V. King of the Sandwich Islands. 1830.. 1872 

Kavanagh, Julia. British Authoress. 1824.. 1877 

Karl XV., Louis Eugene. King of Sweden. 1826.. 1872 

Kaulbach, Wilhelm von. German Painter. 1805.. 1874 

Kaye, Sir John William. British Statesman and Historian... 1S14.. 1876 

Kean, Charles John, f. s. a., f. k. g. s. English Actor. 1811.. 1868 

Kearny, Lawrence. American Naval Officer. 1789.. 1868 

Keble, John. English Clergyman and Poet. 1792.. 1866 

Keeler, Ralph. American W T riter. (Vagabond Adventures .).. 1840.. 1873 

Keeley, Robert. English Comedian. 1794.. 1869 

Keene, Laura. American Actress.. 1830.. 1873 

Keightley, Thomas. English Historian and Classical Writer. 1789.. 1872 

Keim, Theodor. German Theologian and Historian. 1825.. 1878 

Keim, William H. American General. 1813.. 1862 

Keiser, Dr. German Writer ..... 1779.. 1863 



































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 717 

BORN. DIED. 

Keitt, Lawrence M. American Politician and Secessionist_ 1824.. 1864 

Kellum, John. American Architect. 1809. .1871 

KelsiefF, Basil Ivanovitch. Russian Revolutionary Writer.... 1835?. 1872 

Kemeny, Sigmund, Baron. Hungarian Author. 1816.. 1875 

Kendall, Amos. American Statesman and Publicist. 1789.. 1869 

Kendall, George Wilkins. American Journalist. 1807.. 1867 

Kennedy, John Pendleton. Amer. Statesman and Author... 1795.. 1870 

Kent, William. American Jurist. 1802.. 1861 

Kensett, John Frederick. American Landscape Painter. 1818.. 1872 

Kernot, Henry. Amer. Bookseller. (Bibliotheca Biabolica.). 1806.. 1874 

Kerr, Michael C. American Politician. 1827.. 1876 

Kettell, Samuel. Amer. Journalist and Miscellaneous Writer. 1800.. 1855 

Khanikoif, Nicholas de. Russian Orientalist . 1819.. 1878 

Kidd, William. Eng. Naturalist. (Book of Brit. Song Birds.) 1803.. 1867 

Kiernan, James L. Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols.1837.. 1869 

Kindler, Albert. German Painter. 1833.. 1876 

King, Charles, ll. d. American Journalist and Col. Pres. 1789.. 1867 

King, John Alsop. American Statesman. 1788.. 1867 

King, Jonas. American Cong. Clergyman andMissionary_ 1792.. 1869 

King, Richard John. English Author and Antiquarian. — ..1879 

King, T. Butler. American Politician and Secessionist. 1804.. 1864 

Kingdom, JohnM. American Dramatic Writer. —..1876 

Kingsley, Rev. Calvin. Bishop of Meth. Epis. Church. 1812.. 1870 

Kingsley, Charles. English Clergyman and Novelist. 1819..1875 

Kingsley, Henry. British Journalist and Novelist. . 1830.. 1876 

Kirk, Edward N. American General. —..1863 

Kirk, Edward Norris, d. d. American Pulpit Orator. 1802.. 1874 

Klein, Johan Adam. German Painter. 1792..1875 

Klein, Julius Leopold. German Dramatist and Literary 

Historian. 1804.. 1876 

Knapp, Rev. Jacob. American Evangelist. 1800.. 1874 

Knight, Charles. Eng. Author and Publisher. (Popular 

History of England.) . 179 1 • • i8 73 

Knight, Dr. Jonathan. Professor of Surgery. 1789.. 1864 

Koch, H. A. German Classical Scholar... 1829.. 1876 

Kock, Charles Paul de. French Novelist and Dramatist. 1794.. 1871 

Koerle, B. German Painter. 1823.. 1875 

Kohl, Dr. Johan George. Ger. Traveller and Antiquary. 1808.. 1878 

Kraas, Karl Nicolaus. German Writer on Agriculture. 1810. 1875 

Kraft, Henry, ph. d. German Chemist. 1801.. 1868 

Krauth, Charles P. Amer. Luth. Clerg. and Col. Pres. 1796.. 1867 

Krebs, John Michael, d. d. American Pres. Clergyman. 1804.. 1867 

Kreling, Dr. August von. Painter and Sculptor. 1819.. 1876 

Kremer, Joseph. German Philosopher. (System der Philos¬ 
ophic.) . 1808..1875 

Kriegk, Georg Ludwig. German Historian. 

Krug, Anna Charlotte. German Authoress. 1805.. 1877 

Kruger, K. W. German Classical Scholar. 1796.. 1876 

Krummacher, Friedrich Wilhelm. Prussian Preacher and 

Author. 1797.. 1868 

Kuh, Emil. German Poet and Critic . 1828.. 187G 










































yi 8 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. DIEP. 

Kuhner, Raphael. German Philologist . 1802.. 1878 

Kurtz, Heinrich, rn. i>. German Professor and Author. 1805.. 1873 

L. 

Laborde, Leon Emanuel Simon Joseph, Compte de. Arche¬ 
ologist and Traveller. 1807.. 1869 

La Borde, Maximilian. Araer. Physician and Writer. 1804.. 1873 

Lacunza, Jose Maria. Mexican Statesman and Poet.1809?. 1869 

Lafont, Rev. Father Annet. American Clergyman. 181Z..1875 

Lafont, Pierre Cheri. French Actor. 1801.. 1873 

Laing, David. Scotch Antiquarian and Bibliographer. 1792.. 1878 

La Marmora, Alfonso di, Marquis. Italian General. 1804. .1878 

Lamartine, Alphonse Marie Louis de. Poet, Historian 

and Statesman . 1790.. 1869 

Lamballe, Antoine Joseph Joubert de. Surgeon and Author. 1799. .1867 

La Mountain, John. American Aeronaut. 1829.. 1870 

Lander, Miss Sarah W. ( Spectacles for Young Eyes.) . — .. 1872 

Landseer, Charles. Eng. Painter. Brother of Sir Edwin L. 1799.. 1879 

Landseer, Sir Edwin, r. a. English Painter . 1802.. 1873 

Lane, Edward William. British Orientalist. .. 1801..1S76 

Lang, Heinrich. German Theologian. 1826.. 1S76 

Langdon, Leander W. American Inventor. 1833.. 1875 

Lange, Albert. German Political Agitator. 1801.. 1869 

Langsdorff, George Frederick, Baron von. Bot. and Trav... — ..1S52 

Lanters, Paul. Belgian Painter in Water Colors. 1806.. 187s 

Lapham, Increase A. American Scientist. 18x1.. 1875 

Lariviere, Pierre Charles. French Painter. 1798.. 1876 

Larochejaquelein, Henri du Virgier, Marquis de. French 

Senator. 1804. 1867 

Laroche, Benj. Fr. Transl. of Shakespeare and Byron. 1798.. 1852 

Larousse, Pierre, Fr. Journalist and Educational Writer_ 1817.. 1875 

Lassen, Christian. Orientalist. 18C0..1876 

Lathrop, John H. Amer. Scholar and College President_ 1799.. 1866 

Latour, Isidore. French Dramatic Author. 1809?. 1877 

Lauder, James Eckford. Figure Painter. (Ten Virgins.)... 1812.. 1869 

Lauder, Robert Scott. Scotch Genre Painter. 1803.. 1869 

Launitz, Robert E. American Sculptor. 1806. .1870 

Launitz. Sculptor. (Statue of Guttenberg.) . 1795.. 1869 

Laurentie, Pierre Sebastien. French Author and Journalist, 1793.. 1876 
Lauzanne de Vaux-Roussel, Augustin Theodore, Cheva¬ 
lier de. Vaudevilliste... 1805.. 1877 

Lawrence, George Alfred. British Lawyer and Author. 

(Guy Livingstone.) . 1827.. 1876 

Lawrence, John Laird Mair, Baron. British Statesman. 1811..1879 

Lawrence, Sir William. Sergeant-Surgeon to the Queen. ... 1783..1867 
Laycock, Thomas. British Physician and Author. (The 

Mind and Brain.) . 1812. .1876 

Leavitt, Rev. Joshua. American Journalist and Author. 1784..1873 

Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre Auguste. French Statesman. 1807. 1874 


































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 7*0 

BOBN. DIED. 

Lee, John. English Physicist... 1783.. 1866 

Lee, Robert Edward. American Soldier and Educator. 1807. .1870 

Leeser, Isaac. Jewish Rabbi and Author.. 1806.. 1868 

Le Fann, Joseph Sheridan. Irish Novelist. 1814.. 1873 

Lefevre, Andre. French Writer and Poet. 1834.. 1873 

Leland, Henry Perry. American Author. 1828.. 1868 

Lemaitre, Frederick. French Actor. 1798.. 1876 

Lemon, Mark. English Dramatist and Editor. 1809.. 1870 

Leo, Heinrich. German Historian. 1799.. 1878 

Leonliardi, Hermann Karl. German Philosopher. 1809.. 1875 

Leopold II., Jean Joseph Ferdinand Charles, ex-Grand Duke 

of Tuscany. . 1797.. 1870 

Leroux, Pierre. French Philosopher and Political Economist, 1798.. 1871 
Leroy de Saint Arnaud, Louis Adolphe. French Senator 

and Jurist. 1802.. 1873 

Lespes, Napoleon. French Author... 1805..1875 

Leutza, Emanuel. Historical Painter. {Washington Crossing 

the Delaware.) . 1816.. 1868 

Lever, Charles James. Irish Novelist. 1806..1872 

Leverrier, Urbain Jean Joseph. French Astronomer. 1801. .1877 

Levy, Michel. French Publisher. 1821.. 1875 

Lewes, George Henry. English Philosopher and Critic. 

C Problems of Life and Mind.) . 1817.. 1878 

Lewestam, Fryderyk Henryk. Polish Journalist and Author, 1817..1879 

Lewis, Mrs. Harriet. American Authoress. 1841..1878 

Lewis, John Frederick. British Artist. 1805.. 1876 

Lewis, Tayler. Amer. Writer. {Six Days of Creation.) . 1802.. 1877 

Leys, Jean Auguste Henri. Belgian Painter. . 1815..1869 

Liebig, Baron Justus von. Chemist and Scientist. 1803.. 1873 

Ligier, Pierre. French Tragedian. 1797.. 1872 

Lincoln, Heman. American Philanthropist. 1779.. 1869 

Lincoln, Levi, ll. d. American Statesman and Jurist. 1782.. 1868 

Lindblad, Adolf Fredrik. Swedish Composer. 1801.. 1878 

Lindsay, James B. Scottish Linguist. 1800. 1862 

Linderman, Dr. Henry R. Superintendent of the U. S-. Mint. 1825.. 1879 

Lindsley, Nathan L., ll. d. American Philologist. 1816.. 1868 

Lisgar, John Young, Baron. British Statesman. 1807.. 1876 

Littell, Eliakim. Founder of LittelVs Living Age . 1797.. 1870 

Little, Charles C. American Publisher. * 799 - • 1869 

Little, Henry. “ Confederate ” General. 1818. .1862 

Littrow, Karl Ludwig von. Austrian Astronomer. 1811..1877 

Livingston, Rev. David. Physician, Missionary, African 

Explorer. 1817?..1873 

Locke, John, m. d. American Geologist. i 79 z - • l8 $6 

Locke, Richard Adams. American Author and Journalist. .. 1800.. 1871 

Lohde, Dr. George. German Naturalist. ••• —..1875 

Lohr, Emil. German Landscape Painter. 1809.. 1876 

Lomenie, Louis Leonard de. French Scholar. 1818.. 1878 

Longley, Charles Thomas. Archbishop of Canterbury. 1794 - • *868 

Longman, William. British Publisher... —..1877 

Longstreet, Augustus Baldwin. American Jurist and Author. 1790.. 1870 











































7 20 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. DIE1>. 

Longworth, Nicholas. American Vintner. 1782.. 1863 

Lonsdale, Rev. John. English Prelate and Scholar. 1788.. 1867 

Loomis, Gustavus. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 1789- 1872 

Lopez, Francisco Solano. President of Paraguay. 1831. .1870 

Lord, Daniel, ll. d. American Lawyer. . 1795.. 1868 

Lord, J. K. English Naturalist and Author. 1817..1872' 

Lord, Nathan, d. d. American Clergyman and Educator. 1798.. 1870 

Loring, Frederick W. American Journalist and Author. 1846.. 1871 

Lough., John Graham. British Sculptor... 1805.. 1876 

Lovelace, Ada Augusta, Countess of. Only Child of Lord 

Byron. “ Sole daughter of my house and heart.”. 1815.. 1852 

Lovell, Charles S. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A.1812.. 1871 

Lover, Samuel. Irish Artist, Novelist and Composer.1797. 1868 

Low, Sampson, Jr. English Publisher and Author. 1823.. 1871 

Lowe, James. Inventor of the Screw Propeller. — ..1866 

Lowell, Mrs. A. Cabbot. American Writer for Children. — ..1874 

Lowrie, Walter. American Statesman and Philanthropist... 1784.. 1868 
Lubbock, Ellen Frances. Wife of Sir John L. (Vacation 

Tourists.) . J835..1879 

Ludlow, Fitzhugh. American Writer. {HasheeshEater.) _ 1837.. 1870 

Ludwig III. Grand Duke of Hesse. 1806.. 1877 

Lumpkin, Joseph Henry. American Jurist and Statesman... 1799..1867 

Lunalilo I. King of Sandwich Islands. 1835..1874 

Lutolf, Prof. Alois. Swiss Historian. 1824.. 1879 

Lyell, Sir Charles. British Geologist. 1797.. 1875 

Lyman, Joseph Bardwell. Amer. Journalist, Agriculturist... 1829.. 1873 

Lytle, William Haines. American General... 1826.. 1S63 

Lytton, Sir Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer, Baron. 

Novelist, Poet, Dramatist. 1805.. 1873 

M. 

Macbride, John David. Oriental Scholar and Author. 1788.. 1868 

MacCook, Robert L. American General. 1837.. 1862 

MacCulloch, Horatio. Scotch Landscape Painter. 1806.. 1867 

Macdonald, J. M. American Clergyman and Author. 1812..1876 

Macdonell, James. English Journalist... 1842...1879 

MacG-ahan, John Arthur. Journalist. 1842?.1878 

Mackay, Charles. Scotch Actor... 1787.. 1857 

Mackenzie, Charles Kenneth. Writer. 1788..1862 

Mackinnon, William Alexander. Author. {History of Civili¬ 
zation.) .. 1789..1870 

Maclaren, Charles. Geologist and Antiquarian. 1782.. 1866 

Macleod, Norman, d. d. Scotch Clerg., Editor and Author.. 1812.. 1872 

Maclise, Daniel, r, a. British Painter. 1811..1870 

Macomb, William H. American Commodore.1820?.1872 

Macready, William Charles. English Tragedian. 1793.. 1873 

Madden, Sir Frederick. English Antiquarian. 1801.. 1873 

Madou, Jean Baptiste. Belgian Painter.1796.. 1877 






































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. pt 

BORTf. piKD. 

Maedler, Johann Heinrich. German Astronomer. 1794..1874 

Magne, Pierre. French Imperialist. 1806..1878 

Maguire, John Francis. Irish Statesman and Writer. 1815.. 1872 

Mahan, Dennis Hart, ll. d. Military Teacher and Critic.1802..1871 

Mahoney, Rev. Francis. Rom. Cath. Priest and Journalist.. 1800?.1866 

Main, Rsv. Robert. English Astronomer.. 1808.. 1878 

Maitland, Samuel Rofley, d. d. Writer. 1792.. 1866 

Major, John Richardson. English Clergyman and Author_ 1797.. 1876 

Malitourne, M. French Author. 1795.. 1866 

Mallefille, Felician. French Dramatist. 18x2..1868 

Mallory, Stephen R. American Political Leader. 1810. .1873 

Malmstrcem, or Malstrom, B. Elis. Swedish Poet and 

Writer . 18x6.. 1865 

Manly, Basil, n. d. American Clergyman and Author. 1798.. 1868 

Mangum, Willie P. American Statesman. 1792..1861 

Mann, Abijah, Jr. American Politician. 1793. .1868 

Manning, William Oke. English Merchant and Writer on In¬ 
ternational Law. 1809..1878 

Mansel, Henry Longueville, d. d. (Philosophy of the Con¬ 
ditioned.) . 1820..1871 

Mansfield, Joseph King Fenno. American General. 1803. .1862 

Manzoni, Count Alessandro. Italian Poet and Novelist. 1784.. 1873 

March, Alden. American Surgeon and Medical Professor.... 1795.. 1869 

Marchi, Father. Italian Archeologist. — ..i860* 

Marguerittes, Julie de. (Mrs. Rea.) American Authoress... 1815.. 1866 

Maria. Grand Duchess of Russia. 1819. .1876 

Maria Christina. Queen Dowager of Spain. 1806.. 1878 

Maria de las Mercedes. Queen of Spain. i860.. 1878 

Maria da Gloria. Queen of Portugal. 1819.. 1853 

Maria. Ex-Queen of Saxony. 1805.. 1877 

Maria. Ex-Queen of Spain... 1847. .1876 

Marie-Joseph I., John Nepomucene. King of Saxony. 1801. 1873 

Marie, Louise Alexandrine, Princess of Prussia. 1808..1877 

Marocchetti, Baron Charles. French Sculptor. 1805.. 1867 

Marsh, Rev. John. American Clergyman and Reformer. 1788.. 1868 

Marsh, Samuel. American Clergyman. (Uncle Ned.) . 1796.. 1874 

Marshall, Thomas Alexander, ll. d. American Judge. 1794.. 1871 

Marshall, Thomas W. American Painter. 1850.. 1874 

Martin, John. Irish Agitator and Politician. 1812. .1875 

Martin, Dr. John. Port. Meteorologist and Author. 1779.. 1869 

Martin, M. Edouard. French Dramatic Writer. 1827.. 1866 

Martin, Konrad. German Bishop and Author. 1812.. 1879 

Martin, Nicolas. French Poet. 1814..1877 

Martineau, Harriet. English Authoress. Autobiography ; 

Memorials by M. W. Chapman. 1802.. 1876 

Marx, Karl, ph. d. German Revolutionist. 1818.. 1871 

Mason, Charles Kemble. American Actor. 1800?.1875 

Mason, Francis, d. d. Missionary and Scientist. 1799.. 1874 

Mason, J. L. American Military Engineer. —..1853 

Mason, James Murray. American Senator and Diplomatist.. 1797.. 1871 
Mason, John Y. American Statesman and Diplomatist. * 795 ..*859 











































p2 A, BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BOKN. I)lEt>. 

Mason, Lowell, Mus. Doc. Amer. Composer and Author. 1792. .1872 

Massie, James 'William. Clergyman, Missionary and Author. 1799.. 1869 

Mathews, Charles James. English Actor. 1803.. 1878 

Mattei, Marius. Roman Catholic Cardinal. 1792.. 1870 

Matthiessen, Augustus, ph. d. Chemist. 1831.. 1870 

Mattison, Rev. Hiram. American Clergyman and Author... 1811.. 1868 

Matzerath, Joseph. German Poet. 1813. .1876 

Mauch, Karl. German Explorer. 1837.. 1875 

Maurice, John Frederick Denison. Eng. Clerg. and Author.. 1805?.187Z 
Maury, Matthew Fontaine. Am. Hydrographer and Physicist.. 1806.. 1873 

Maximilian, Alexander Philipp. German Naturalist. 1781.. 1867 

Maxwell, Caroline Elizabeth Sarah. Mrs. Norton. English 

Authoress. 1808.. 1877 

Maxwell, Sir William Stirling. English Historian. 1818. .1878 

May, Samuel Joseph. American Clergyman and Reformer... 1798.. 1871 

May, William. United States Naval Officer. 1815.. 1861 

Mayer, Col. Brantz. American Historical Writer. (Mexican 

Antiquities.) . 1809.. 1879 

Mayer, Julius Robert von. German Physicist. 1814. .1878 

Mayhew, Augustus Septimus. English Writer. 1812,.. 1875 

Mayhew, Henry. English Author and Reformer. 181Z..1872 

Maynadier, Henry E. Brevet Major-General, U. S. A. 1830.. 1868 

Maynadier, William. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 1806. .1871 

Mayo, Joseph. American Lawyer. (Ma o's Guide.) . 1795.. 187Z 

Mazzini, Giuseppe. Italian Reformer and Statesman... . 1808?. 187Z 

McAlester, Miles D. Brevet Major-General, U. S. A. 1835.. 1869 

McCabe, Rev. Dr. James D. American Episcopal Clergyman. 1808.. 1875 

McCall, George Archibald. Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols_ 180Z..1868 

McCarson, Michael. Roman Catholic Clergyman. 1804.. 1867 

McClintock, Rev. John. Clergyman, Professor, Author. 1814.. 1870 

McCluney, William J. American Naval Officer. — ..1864 

McFerran, John C. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 1820.. 187Z 

MeGree, Thomas Darcy. Irish Politician and Journalist. 

{Lives of Irish Writers and Popular History of Ireland.) 1825.. 1868 

McGrrigor, Sir James. Surgeon and Writer. 1771. 1858 

McGufFey, William H. Amer. Clergyman and Col. President. 1800.. 1873 

Mcllvaine, Charles Pettit. Protestaut Episcopal Bishop. 1798.. 1873 

McKean, William W. United States Naval Officer. 1801.. 1865 

McKim, James Miller. Clergyman and Anti-Slavery Leader.. 1810.. 1874 

McLeod, Rev. Xavier Donald. American Writer... 1821.. 1865 

McVickar, Rev. John, d. d. Professor and Author. 1786.. 1868 

Meade, George Gordon. Major-General, U. S. A. 1815..1872 

Meagher, Thomas Francis. Irish Orator, and Brigadier- 

General, U. S. Yols. 1823..1867 

Medwin, Thomas. English Army Officer. [(Conversations 

with Lord Byron.) . 1779.. 1869 

Mehemet Ali Pasha. Turkish General. 1830?. 1878 

Meigs, Charles D. American Physician and Author. *792-. 1869 

Meinicke, Karl Eduard. German Geographer.. 1803.. 1876 

Meline, James F. American Soldier and Author. 1813.. 1873 

Mellin, Henrik. Swedish Novelist . 1803 .1876 


































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 7 2 3 ‘ 

BORN, BIRD. 

Melvill, Henry. English Divine and Pulpit Orator. 1798..1871 

Menken, Adah Isaacs. Actress and Author. 1832.. 1868 

Mensdorf-Pouilly, Count Alexander von. Aust. Statesman.. 18x2.. 1872. 

Menzel, Wolfgang. German Critic and Author. 1798.. 1873 

Mercadante, Saveria. Italian Musical Composer. 1798.. 1871 

Meredith, Solomon. American General. 1810.. 1875 

Merimee, Prosper. French Scholar and Dramatist. 1803.. 1870 

Merivale, Herman. English Publicist and Professor. 1806. .1874 

Merrick, Pliny, ll.d. American Jurist. 1794.. 1867 

- Mery, M. Joseph. French Novelist. 1799.. 1866 

Metcalf, Theron, ll. d. American Jurist. 1784.. 1875 

Michelet, Jules. French Historian and Essayist. 1798.. 1874 

Mieroslawski, Ludwik. Polish Revolutionist. 1814.. 1878 

Miers, John. British Botanist.. 1789.. 1879 

Miguel, Don Maria Evaristo. Ex-King of Portugal. 1802.. 1866 

Miles, Dixon H. American Military Officer. 1803.. 1862 

Mill, John Stuart. Eng, Philosopher and Political Economist. 1806.. 1873 

Mill"rd, Louis Aime. French Musical Composer. — ..1871 

Millaud, MoL-e. French Journalist and Banker. 1813. .1871 

Miller, Henry. American Physician and Medical Writer. 1801.. 1874 

Miller, James. American Soldier.. — ..1851 

Miller, Morris S. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 1814.. 1870 

Miller, Rev. Tobias Ham. Uncle Toby. Journalist. 1802. .1870 

Miller, William Allen, m. d. English Professor of Chemistry.. 1817.. 1870 

Millet, Jean Francois. French Painter... 1815?.1875 

Mills, Abraham. American Professor and Author. 1796.. 1867 

Milman, Rev. Henry Hart. Dean of St. Paul’s. Poet, Critic, 

Dramatist, Historian. 1791.. 1868 

Milman, Robert. Bishop of Calcutta. Author. 1816.. 1876 

Minturn, Robert Bowne. Arner. Merchant and Philanthropist. 1805.. 1866 

Miramon, Miguel. Mexican General. Executed. 1830.. 1867 

Mires, Jules. French Adventurer, Journalist, Banker. 1809.. 1871 

Mitchel, John. Irish Revolutionist. 1815..1875 

Mitchell, Edward. English Sculptor.... 1831.. 1872 

Mitchell, John. American Clergyman, Editor and Author.... 1794.. 1870 

Mitchell, S. Augustus. Author of School Books. 1792.. 1868 

Mohl, Julius von. German Orientalist. 1800.. 1876 

Mohl, Robert von. German Jurist. 1799.. 1875 

Molesworth, William Nassau. Eng. Clergyman and Author.. 1816.. 1877 

Monnais, Edouard. French Dramatic Author. 1798.. 1868 

Monnier, Henri. French Author and Artist.1799.. 1877 

Montague, Jean Francois Camille. French Physician. 1784.. 1866 

Montague, Henry J. English Actor. 1843.. 1878 

Montalembert, Charles Forbes de Tyron, Comte de. Publi¬ 
cist, Theologian, Writer. 1810.. 1870 

Montebello, Napoleon Lannes, Due de. Diplomatist. 1801.. 1874 

Montgomery, Wm. Reading. Brigadier-General, U. S. Yols. 18C1..1871 

Morehead, Charles S. American Politician. 1802.. 1868 

Morehead, JamesT. American Statesman. 1796.. 1854 

Morgan, Charles W. American Naval Officer. 1790.. 1853 

Morgan, George N. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. Yols.... — ..1866 









































7 2 4 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY, 


Morgan, John H. “Confederate” Soldier. 

Morgan, John Minter. Philanthropist and Writer. 

Morike, Eduard. German Poet. 

Morlot, Francis Nicholas Madeleine. Archbishop of Paris. 

Theological Writer. 

Morris, George U. American Naval Commander. 

Morris, Henry W. United States Naval Officer. 

Morris, Thomas A. Methodist Episcopal Bishop. 

Morse, Richard Cary. American Journalist. 

Morse, Samuel Finley Breese. Painter, Author, and Inventor 

of the Electric Telegraph. 

Morse, Sidney Edwards. American Journalist and Inventor.. 
Mortimer, Mrs. English Authoress. ( Peep of Day Series.)... 

Morton, Oliver Perry. American Statesman. 

Moscheles, Ignace. German Pianist and Composer. 

Mosenthal, Samuel Hermann. German Poet. 

Motley, John Lothrop. American Historian and Diplomatist. 

Life by O. W. Holmes. 

Mott, Valentine. American Surgeon and Writer. 

Moulton, Joseph W. American Historian and Legal Writer.. 

Mount, William Sidney. American Artist. 

Moustier, Leonel, Marquis de. Statesman and Diplomatist.. 

Mower, Joseph A. Brevet Major-General, U. S. A. 

Mozier, Joseph. American Sculptor. ( The Prodigal Son.)... 
Mugge, or Muegge, Theodore. German Novelist and Editor.. 
Muhlenberg, William Augustus. Amer. Clerg. and Author.. 

Muller, Johan Heinrich Jacob von. German Physicist. 

Muller, or Mueller, Jerome. German Scholar and Educational 

Writer. 

Muller, Niklas. German-American Poet.. 

Mullock, John Thomas. Roman Catholic Bishop. 

Munch-Bellinghausen, Eligius Franz Joseph von. Baron. 

Friedrich Halm. Poet and Dramatic Author. 

Munck, Salomon. Semitic Scholar aud Orientalist. 

Mundt, Clara, nee Miller. Louisa Miihlbach. Novelist. 

Mundt, Theodore. German Writer. 

Munroe, Nathan. American Cong. Clergyman and Author... 

Munzinger, Werner. African Explorer . 

Murat, Napoleon Lucien, Prince. . 

Murat, Theodore. French Novelist, Dramatist, Historian_ 

Murchison, Charles. British Physician and Author. 

Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey. English Geologist and 

Geographer. 

Murphy, John K. American General. 

Mustapha Fazyl Pasha. Turkish Statesman. 

Muzzey, Reuben. American Surgeon and Author. 

Myers, Frederick. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 

Myers, Mordecai. American Army Officer. 


BORN. DIED. 

i8z6..1864 

1783.. 1851 

1804.. 1875 

1795.. 1862 

— ..1875 

1805.. 1863 

1794.. 1874 

1795.. 1868 

1791.. 1872 

1794.. 1871 
i8oz..1878 

1823.. 1877 

* 794 --1870 

1821.. 1877 

1814.. 1877 
1785. 1865 

1789.. 1875 

1807.. 1868 

1815.. 1869 

— ..1870 

1812.. 1870 

1806.. 1861 
1796 .1877 

1809.. 1875 

1785.. 1861 

1809.. 1875 
i8c6?.1869 

1806.. 1871 

1807.. 1867 

1814.. 1873 

1808.. 1861 

1804.. 1866 

1832.. 1875 

1803.. 1878 

1808.. 1866 

1830.. 1879 

1792.. 1871 

1796.. 1876 

1830.. 187s 

1780.. 1866 

1825.. 1874 

1776.. 1871 
































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 72 ^ 


N. 

BORN. DIED. 

Nadal, Rev. Bernard H. American Professor and Author.... 1815.. 1870 

Nagle, James. Major-General, U. S. Yols. — ..1866 

Napoleon III. Charles Louis N. Bonaparte.. 1808. .1873 

Narvaez, Don Ramon Maria. Spanish General. 1800. .1868 

Naumann, Karl Friederich. German Mineralogist. 1797.. 1875 

Neal, John. American Author. 1793.. 1876 

Neale, John Mason. Eng. Clergyman, Poet, Linguist, Author. 1818. 1866 

Neher, Michael. German Painter. . 1798.. 1876 

Nelaton, Auguste. French Physician. 1807..1873 

Nelson, Samuel, i/l. d. American Jurist. 179Z. • 1873 

Newcomb, Harvey, d. d. American Editor and Author. 1803.. 1863 

Newton, Mrs. Ann Mary. English Artist. 1833. 1866 

Newton, Prof. Henry. American Geologist. 1845.. 1877 

Niblo, William. Theatrical Manager .1789.. 1878 

Nichols, Edward W. American Painter. 1820.. 1871 

Nichols, John Gough. English Genealogist and Archaeologist. 

(Literary Anecdotes.) . 1806.. 1873 

Nicol, Wm. Natural Philos. ; Inventor of NicoFs Prism . — ..1851 

Nicollini, John Baptist. Italian Sculptor. 1782.. 1861 

Niel, Adolphe. Marshal of France. 1802.. 1869 

Niemeyer, Dr. Felix von. {Elements of Practical Medicine.). — ..1871 
Niepce de St. Victor, Claude Marie Francois. Chemist and 

Photographer. .. 1805.. 1870 

Nieritz, Karl Gustav. German Writer. 1795.. 1876 

Nitzch, Gregory William. German Philologist. 1790.. 1861 

Noble, Matthew. English Sculptor. 1820.. 1876 

Noel, Baptist Wriothesley. English Clergyman and Author.. 1799.. 1873 

Noggerath, Jacob. German Geologist. 1788.. 1877 

Nolan, Samuel B. B. American Inventor.. 1808.. 1875 

Norris, Edwin, ph. d. English Ethnologist and Linguist. 1795.. 1872 

Northbrook, Francis T. Baring, Lord. Statesman. 1796.. 1866 

Northen, Adolf. German Painter . 1828.. 1876 

Nott, Eliphalet. American Clergyman and Educator. 1773.. 1866 

Nott, Josiah Clark. Amer. Ethnologist and Physiologist. 1804.. 1873 

Noyes, George Rapall. Am. Clerg., Prof., and Orientalist..., 1798..1868 

O . 

Odilon-Barrot, Camille Hyacinthe. French Statesman. 1791.. 1873 

O’Donnell, Daniel Kane. Journalist and Author. 1842.. 1871 

O’Donnell, Leopold. Count of Lucina, Marshal of Spain- 1809.. 1867 

Oelckers, Theodor. German Scholar, Author and Radical... 1816. .1869 

Ogden, William B. American Philanthropist. 1805.. 1877 

Ogilvie, Robert Annesley. British Statesman.. 1807.. 1879 

Ohmuller, Franz Joseph. German Botanist. 1797.. 1875 

Olney, Jesse. American Author of School Text-Books. 1798., 187a 




































A brief biographical dictionary 

born. nrtttJ. 

Olozaga, Don Salustiano. Spanish Statesman... 1803?. 1873 

Omalino d’Halloy, Jean Baptiste Julien d’. Belgian Geolo¬ 
gist and Ethnologist..... 1783..1875 

O’Neill, John. Irish Patriot.. 1834..1878 

Ord, George. American Philologist and Naturalist. 17 82 • • 1866 

Ormond, John Butler, Marquis of. Writer. 1808.. 1854 

Orr, James Lawrence. American Statesman and Diplomatist. 1822.. 1873 

Orton, James. American Naturalist . 1830.. 1877 

Orton, Jason R. American Physician, Poet and Editor--- 1806. .1867 

Orton, Reginald. Surgeon and Writer on Med. Subjects. 1810.. 1862 

Osborn, Sherard. British Naval Officer. 1822.. 1875 

Osgood, Mrs. Helen Louise Gilson. Philanthropist. 1835.. 186S 

Ossorio, Juan Bautista. Cuban Patriot and Martyr. 1839.. 1871 

Otey, Rev. James Hervey. Good Bishop . 1799.. 1863 

Otho, Frederic Louis. Ex-King of Greece. . 1815.. 1867 

Overbeck, Friedrich. German Painter. 1789.. 1869 

Owen, John Jason. Greek Scholar and Author. 1803..1869 

Owen, Robert Dale. American Writer.. 1801.. 1877 

Owen, David Dale. Geologist. 1807..i860 

Oxenford, John. British Dramatic Author. 1812. .1877 

P. 

Pabst, Hermann, ph. d. German Historian. — ..1870 

Pacini, Giovanni. Italian Composer. 1796.. 1867 

Packer, Asa. American Philanthropist. 1806.. 1879 

Page, Charles Grafton. Physicist and Author. 1812. .1868 

Paige, Alonzo Christopher. American Jurist. 1797.. 1868 

Palacky, Franz. Bohemian Historian and Statesman. 1798.. 1876 

Palikao, Charles Guillaume M. A. A. Cousin - Montauban, 

The Count de. French Soldier.. 1796.. 1878 

Palladins, Archimandrite. Russian Orientalist. — ..1879 

Palmer, Christian von. German Theologian. 1811.. 1875 

Palmer, Mrs. Phoebe. Evangelist, Missionary, Author.1807.. 1874 

Pangalos, M. Varnavas. Modern Greek Patriot. — .. 1855 

Papineau, Louis Joseph. Canadian Statesman. .. 1789. .1871 

Parepa-Rosa, Euphrosyne. Operatic Singer. 1839.. 1874 

Parisel, Dr. Francis. French Communist. 1840.. 1877 

Park, Roswell. American Clergyman, Professor and Author.. 1807.. 1869 

Parker, Col. Edward Griffin. Politician and Author. 1826.. 1868 

Parker, Joel. American Clergyman and Author. 1799..1873 

Parker, Prof. Joel. American Jurist and Author. 1795. .1675 

Parker, John Henry. English Publisher and Author. (Glossary 

of Architecture.) .. 1806.. 1870 

Parlatore, Filippo. Italian Naturalist. (Flora Italiana .)... 1816. .1877 

Parsons, IJsher. Amer. Physician, Professor and Author_1788..1868 

Parton, Mrs. Sara Payson Willis. Barmy Fern. American 

Author.. 1811..1872 

Passavant, John David. Artist and Writer on Art. — ..1861 






































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 727 

BORN. DIED. 

Patmore, Peter George. Writer. 1787..1855 

Patria, Henri Joseph Guillaume. French Scholar. 1798.. 1876 

Patterson, Francis P. American General. 

Paulding, Hiram. American Naval Officer. 1797..1878 

Paulding, Leonard. U. S. Naval Officer......1826.. 1867 

Paxton, Edward F. “ Confederate ’’ General.... —..1863 

Payne, Joseph. British Educator. 1808..1876 

Peabody, George. Banker and Philanthropist. 1795.. 1869 

Peacock, Thomas Love. English Novelist and Poet. 1786.. r 366 

Pearce, James A. American Legislator. 1805.. 1862 

Pearson, George F. American Naval Officer. 1799.. 1867 

Peck, Ashel. American Jurist . 1803.. 1879 

Peck, John James. American General. 182.x.. 1878 

Peet, Harvey Prindle. Instructor of Deaf Mutes.. 1794.. 1873 

Pegram, William Johnson. “ Confederate ” General. 1841.. 1865 

Pelouze, Theophile Jules. French Chemist... 1807.. 1867 

Pennethorne, Sir James. English Architect. — ..1871 

Pender, William D. “Confederate” General. — ..186$ 

Pennington, William. American Statesman. 1797.. 1862 

Perce, Elbert. Amer. Author and Inventor. (The Battle Foil.). 1832.. 1869 
Perier, Auguste Casimir Victor Laurent. French Statesman.. 1811.. iSjf 
Perkins, George Roberts. American Author of Text Books... 1812. .1876 

Perkins, Jonathan Cogswell. American Lawyer. 1809.. 1877 

Perkins, Samuel E. American Jurist. 1811..1879 

Perraud, J. J. French Sculptor. (Adam; Despair.) . 1821.. 1876 

Perrone, Giovanni. Italian Priest and Author. 1794.. 1876 

Persiani, Giuseppi. Italian Musical Composer. 1801.. 1869 

Persoz, Jean Francois. French Chemist. 1805..1868 

Perthes, Boucher de Crevecceur. Founder of the Science of 

Paleontology . 1788.. 186S 

Peschel, Oskar Ferdinand. German Geographer. 1826.. 1875 

Petermann, Dr. August. German Geographer. 1822.. 1878 

Peters, Absalom. Congregational Clergyman and Author— 1793.. 1869 

Peters, Adolf. German Mathematician and Poet. 1803.. 1876 

Peucker, Eduard von. German General. 1791.. 1876 

Pfleger-Moransky, Gustavus. Bohemian Poet. 1834.. 1875 

Pfyffer, Casimir. Swiss Lawyer and Writer. 1794.. 1875 

Phillip, John, r. a. English genre Painter. 1817.. 1867 

Phillips, Willard. American Jurist and Author. 1784.. 1873 

Picard, Louis Joseph Ernest. French Senator . 1821.. 1877 

Pichot, Amedee. French Author and Translator.. 1796.. 1877 

Pickens, Francis W. American Politician. 1807.. 1869 

Pickering, Charles, m. d. American Naturalist and Author.. 1805.. 1878 

Pickering, Octavius, ll. d. American Legal Writer . 1791.. 1868 

Pickersgill. British Painter... 1782..1875 

Pickett, George E. “Confederate” General. 1825..187s 

Pictet, Francois Jules. Swiss Naturalist. ; . 1800?. 1872 

Pierce, Franklin. American Statesman and President. 1804.. 1869 

Pierpoint, John. Amer. Unit. Clergyman, Poet, and Author. 1785.. 1866 

Pilat, Ignatz A. Landscape Gardener. 1818.. 1870 

Pillow, Gideon Johnson. ‘ ‘ Confederate ’ ’ General...... x 806..x 878 













































72S A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. DIKD. 

Pinckney, Richard Shubrick. U. S. Naval Officer. 1797.. 1854 

Pisaref, Dimitry. Russian Philosopher and Essayist. 1840.. 1868 

Pise, Charles Constantine. Rom. Cath. Clergyman and Author. 1802.. 1866 
Pistorius, Herman Alexander. Ger. Poet. ( Kulochke-Lied .).. 1811..1877 

Pius IX., Pope. (Giovanni Maria Fastai-Ferretti.). 1792.. 1878 

Plucker, Julius, p. r. s. German Physicist and Author. 1801. .1868 

Plummer, Joseph B. American General. 1822.. 1862 

Pocci, Count Franz. German Poet, Artist, Composer. 1807.. 1876 

Poggendorff, Johan Christian. German Scientist.1796.. 1877 

Pollard, Edward A. American Journalist and Historian. 1827.. 1872 

Pollard, Henry Rives. American Journalist. 1833.. 1868 

Poniatowski, Joseph Michel Xavier Francis Jean. Musical 

Composer and French Senator. 1816.. 1873 

Ponroy, Pierre Gabriel Arthur. French Author. 1816.. 1876 

Ponsard, Francis. French Dramatist and Translator. 1814.. 1867 

Poole, Edward Stanley. English Linguist and Orientalist. 1831.. 1867 

Poole, John. English Dramatist and Author. 1792. • 1872 

Porter, Andrevv. American Brigadier-General. 1820.. 1871 

Porter, David R. American Politician. 1788..1S67 

Porter, John Addison. American Professor of Chemistry_ 1822.. 1866 

Porter, Noah, r». d. American Congregational Clergyman_ 1781.. i 856 

Potgieter, Everhard Johana. Dutch Poet. {Florence) . 1808.. 1875 

Potter, Chandler Eastman. American Editor and Author_ 1807.. iS 63 

Potter, Cipriani. British Musician and Composer. 1792.. 1871 

Pouilat, Claude Servais Mathias. Naturalist, Philosopher_ —• .. 18S8 

Powell, Lazarus W. American Politician. 18x2. .1867 

Powell, W. Byrd. American Medical Philosopher.. 1799..1866 

Powers, Hiram. American Sculptor. {GreekSlave.) . 1805.. 1873 

Pratt, Rev. John Bennett. Scotch Antiquarian. {Buchan; 

The Druids.) .. . 1791.. 1869 

Pray, Isaac C. American Journalist and Dramatic Writer_ 1813.. 1869 

Preller, Friedrich. German Painter.. 1804..1878 

Preller, Louis. German Archaeologist and Classical Scholar.. 1809..18C1 

Prentice, George Denison. American Journalist. 1802.. 1870 

Prentiss, Mrs. Elizabeth Payson. American Authoress. 1823.. 1878 

Preston, Ann, m. d. Physician and Professor. 1814..1872 

Prevost-Paradol, Lucien Anatole. French Publicist and 

Diplomatist. 1829.. 1870 

Price, Sterling. “Confederate ” Major-General. 1809..1867 

Prim, Don Juan. Spanish General and Diplomatist. 1814..1870 

Procter, Bryan Waller. Barry Cornwall. English Poet. 1787.. 1874 

Prossi, Thomas. Italian Poet and Author. 1789.. 1854 

Protet, Augustus Leopold. French Admiral; African Ex¬ 
plorer. 1809..1862 

Prout, Skinner. British Water-Color Artist. 1806.. 1876 

Prutz, Robert Ernest. German Poet, Historian and Novelist. 1816.. 1872 

Pulian, Johann Gottfried. German Painter. 1809. .1875 

Putnam, George Palmer. American Publisher and Author.. 1814. .1872 
Fyne, James B, English Landscape Painter...... 1809.. 1870 




































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 729 

Q. 

BORN. DIBP. 

Quartley, Frederick W. American Engraver. 1808.. 1875 

Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jaques. Belgian Astronomer and 

Statistician. 1796.. 1874 

Quincy, Edmund. American Journalist and Author. 1808. 1877 

Quinet, Edgar. French Writer and Politician. 1803.. 1875 

R 

Rains, Rev. Canon. English Antiquarian.. 1804.. 1878 

Ramberg, Arthur Freihen von. German Artist. 1809.. 1875 

Ramsay, Edward Bennerman. Scot. Clergyman, and Author. 1793.. 1872 

Randall, Alexander Williams. Lawyer and U. S. Official_ 1819. .1872 

Randolph, Col. Thomas Jefferson. {Life ancl Correspondence 

of Thomas Jefferson) . 

Rankley, Alfred. English Painter. 1820. .1872 

Raphall, Morris Jacob. Jewish Rabbi and Author. 1798..1868 

Raspail, Francois Vincent. Fr. Naturalist and Revolutionist.. 1794.. 1878 

Ratazzi, Marie Studolmiue de Solins. Writer. 1830. .1870 

Rattazzi, Urbano. Italian Statesman. 1808..1873 

Rau, Heribert. German Novelist. 1813.. 1876 

Raudon, Jacques Louis Cesar Alexandre. French Soldier and 

Statesman. 1795.. 1871 

Raumer, Friedrich Ludwig Georg von. Historian. 1781.. 1873 

Rammer, Rudolph von. German Philologist. 1815..1876 

Rauscher, Joseph Othmar, Ritter von. Prince, Archbishop 

of Vienna. 1797..1874 

Rawlins, John A. Major-General, TJ. S. Army. 1831.. 1869 

Ray, Joseph. American Mathematician. 1807..1855 

Raymond, Henry Jarvis. Amer. Jour., Editor, Author. 1820.. 1869 

Raymond, John H. President of Vassar College. 1814. .1878 

Read, AbneT. United States Naval Officer. — ..1863 

Read, George Campbell. American Admiral. —..1862 

Read, John Meredith. American Jurist. 1797. .1874 

Read, Thomas Buchanan. American Poet and Painter. 1822.. 187- 

Reade, John Edmund. English Poet. 1800.. 1870 

Reade, William Winwood. British Explorer and Author. 1838.. 1875 

Redding, Cyrus. English Journalist. 1785..1870 

Redfield, Isaac Fletcher. American Jurist. 1804.. 18^6 

Redgrave, Samuel. British Art Historian. 1804.. 1876 

Reed, William Bradford. American Lawyer and Writer. 1806.. 1876 

Regnault, Eiias. French Historian. 1801.. 1868 

Regnault, Henri Victor. French Physicist. 1810. .1878 

Reichenbach, Baron Carl von. Naturalist, Chemist and 

Author... 1788..1869 

Reinhart, Karl August. German Painter and Writer. 1818,. 1877 



































73 ° A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. PIED. 

Reisach, Charles Auguste, Countde. Cardinal Bishop.1800.. 1869 

Remusat, Francis Marie Charles, Count de. Statesman and 

Author. 1797.. 1875 

Rennie, George. Eng. Engineer and Writer on Engineering. 1791.. 1866 

Renouard, Anthony Augustin. French Bibliographer. 1765.. 1853 

Renouard, Rev. George Cecil. Eng. Geog. and Orientalist... 1780.. 1867 

Renschle, Karl Gustav. German Geographer. 1812.. 1875 

Renshaw, William B. United States Naval Officer. — ..1863 

Revel, Giovanni Pietri, n. n. Waldensian Clerg. and Bishop. 1810.. 1871 
Rianzares, Fernando Munoz, Duque de. King-Consort of 

Marie Christina. 1810.. 1873 

Richardson, Albert Deane. Journalist and Author. (Beyond 

the Mississippi.) . 1833.. 1869 

Richardson, Edward. English Sculptor. 1812.. 1863 

Richmond, Dean. Amer. Political Manager and Capitalist... 1803.. 1866 

Riley, H. T. English Historical and Critical Writer. 1818.. 1878 

Rinaldi, Rinoldo. Italian Sculptor, Pupil of Canova. — -.1873 

Rinehart, William H. American Sculptor. 1827.. 1874 

Ringgold, Cadwalader. American Naval Officer. 1802.. 1867 

Ripley, Henry Jones. Amer. Clerg., Author and Professor... i798..i8 ,, 5 

Ripley, James W. Brevet Major-General, U. S. A. 1794.. 1870 

Ritchie, Mrs. Anna Cora Mowatt. American Actress and 

Authoress. 1821?. 1870 

Ritschl, Friedrich. German Classical Scholar. 1806.. 1876 

Ritter, Heinrich. German Philosopher and Historian. 

(Geschichte der Philosophies ... 1791.. 1869 

Rives, William C. American Statesman and Diplomatist. 1793.. 1868 

Roberts, B. S. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 1811..1875 

Robertson, James Burton. British Scholar. 1800.. 1877 

Robertson, Joseph. Scottish Antiquarian. 1811..1866 

Robertson, Thomas William. English Actor and Author... 1829.. 1871 

Robinson, Henry Crabb. English Conversationalist. {Diary.). 1775.. 1867 
Robinson, Horatio N. American Mathematician and Author. 1806.. 1867 

Robinson, John Henry. English Line Engraver. 1796.. 1871 

Robinson, Mrs. Therese Albertine Louise. Author and 

Translator. 1797.. 1870 

Robinson, Thomas, d. d. Canon of Rochester. Prof, of Arabic. 1790.. 1873 
Robinson, William S. Warrington. American Journalist... 1818.. 1876 

Rodbertus, Johann Karl. German Statesman. 1805.. 1875 

Rodman, Thomas J. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 1820?. 1871 

Roebling, John Augustus. Civil Engineer. 1806.. 1869 

Roebuck, John Arthur. English Politician. 1802.. 1879 

Rogers, Henry Darwin. Prof, of Geology, Univ. of Glasgow. 1809.. 1866 

Roget, Peter Mark, m. d. English Philologist and Author_ 1779.. 1869 

Rokitansky, Karl von. Austrian Anatomist and Physiologist. 1804.. 1878 

Rolph., John A. Artist, Landscape Engraver. 1798. .1862 

Romer, Miss. English Operatic Singer. 1816.. 1868 

Roon, Albrecht Theodor Emil, Count von. Ger. Field Marshal. 1803.. 1879 

Roosevelt, James I. American Judge..\. *795.. 1875 

Roosevelt, Theodore. American Civilian. v . 1832..1878 

Thomas, English Author and Poet.1791.. 1874 




























A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY, 


BOBN. DIED. 


Rose, Gustav, ph. d. German Chemist and Mineralogist. 1798.. 1873 

Rose, Henry John. Archdeacon of Bedford, Author.1800.. 1875 

Roos, William Charles. Miniature Painter. 1794.. i860 

Rosse, William Parsons, Earl of. Astronomer and Physicist.. 1800. .1867 

Rossini, Gioacchino Antonio. Musical Composer. 1792.. 1868 

Rossiter, Thomas P. American Painter. {Ruth and Naomi.). 1818.. 1871 

Rothschild, Anselm, Baron. Financier. 177J..1855 

Rothschild, James, Baron. Banker. 1792.. 1868 

Rothschild, Lionel de, Baron. Financier.•.. 1808. .1879 

Rotscher, Dr. N. T. German Writer. 1802.. 1871 

Rouge, Oliver Charles Camille Emanuel, Viscount de. French 

Archaeologist. 1811..1873 

Rous, Henry John. British Admiral and Sportsman.1795.. 1877 

Rousseau, Lovell H. Major-General, U. S. Vols. 1818.. 1869 

Ruben, Christoph. German Painter.1805.. 187s 

Ruckert, Heinrich. German Historian. 182*..1875 

Rude, Francis. French Sculptor. 1784. . 1855 

Ruggles, Edward. American Physician and Artist. 1817.. 1867 

Runeberg, Johan Ludwig. Finnish Poet and Scholar. 1804.. 1877 

Rush, James. American Physician and Author. (Philosophy 

of the Human Voice.) .. 1786.. 1869 

Rusk, Thomas J. American General and Statesman. 1803.. 1857 

Russel, John, Earl. English Statesman and Author. .. 1792' • 1878 

Russel, William. American Author of Text Books. 1798.. 1873 

Rustow, Wilhelm. German Military Writer. 1821.. 1878 

Ryall, Thomas Henry. English Historical Engraver. 1811.. 1867 


s. 


Sabine, Lorenzo. American Author. 1803.. 1877 

Sack, Karl Heinrich. German Theologian. 1790.. 1S7S 

Sacy, Samuel Ustazade Sylvestre de. French Academician 

and Author.. .. 1801.. 1879 

Sadlier, Louise. German Painter. 1780.. 1866 

Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin. French Poet, Critic, 

Academician and Senator. 1804.. 1869 

Saint-G-eorges, Jules Henri Vernoy de. Dramatic Author... 1801.. 1875 

Salles, Eusebe Francois, Count de. French Orientalist. 7 1797.. 1873 

Salm-Salm, Prince Felix. Austrian Nobleman and Brig.-Gen., 

U. S. A. 1828 .1870 

Saltoun, Alexander George Fraser, Lord. Defender of Iloug- 

oumont. *785.. 1855 

Salvador, Joseph. Jewish Historical Writer. 1796.. 1873 

Sand, George. (Amantine Lucille Aurore Dupin-Dudevant). 

French Novelist.. 1804.. 1876 

Sanders, William P. American General. — . • 1863 

Sandhurst, William Rose Mansfield. British General. 1819.. 1876 

Sanford, John Langton. British Historian . 1824. 1877 

Sanger, William W. American Physician and Author. 1819. .187* 






































732 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

San Miguel, Evaristo. Spanish Journalist, Statesman and 

Soldier. 

Santa A nna, Antonio Lopez de. Mexican General. 

Santinl, Giovanni. Italian Astronomer. 

Sargent, Lucius Manlius. Am. Author, Journalist, Reformer. 
Sartwell, Henry Packer. American Scientist. ( Exsiccate .). 

Savage, James. American Archaeologist. 

Savage, John. American Jurist. 

Savigny, Karl Frederick von. Prussian Diplomatist. 

Schaeffer, Wilson. Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols. 

Scheerer, Theodor. German Chemist and Geologist. 

Schleicher, August. German Philologist and Author. 

Schmid, Theodor. German Philologist. 

Schmucker, Samuel S. American Theologian. 

Schnaase, Karl. German Art Historian. 

Schonbein, Christian. Chemist. 

Schweitzer, Dr. J. B. von. German Socialist and Poet. 

Scialoja, Antonio. Italian Statesman and Political Economist. 
Sclopis de Salerano, Paolo Federigo, Count. Italian Jurist. 

Scott, Sir George Gilbert. British Architect. 

Scott, Winfield, ll. d. Brevet Lieutenant-General, U. S. A. .. 

Scribner, Charles. American Publisher. 

Scribner, John Blair. American Publisher. 

Scroop, William. Writer. 

Seaton, William Winston. American Journalist. 

Secchi, Pietro Angelo. Italian Astronomer. 

Sedgwick, Rev. Adam. English Geologist. 

Sedgwick, Catharine Maria. Amer. Novelist and Essayist... 
Sedley, William Henry. (W. H. Smith.) American Actor... 

Seemann, Berthold, th. d. German Scientist. 

Sefton, John. English Actor... 

Segur, Philippe Paul. Count de. General and Historian. 

Seidl, Johann Gabriel. Austrian Poet and Archaeologist. 

Selby, Prideaux John. English Naturalist. 

Selwin, William. English Clergyman and Author. 

Selwyn, George Augustus. Bishop of Lichfield. 

Semmes, Raphael. “ Confederate ” Naval Officer. 

SerofF, Alexander Nikolaievitch. Musical Composer. 

Sewall, Samuel. American Clergyman and Antiquarian. 

Seward, William Henry, ll. d. American Statesman. 

Seymour, Hezekiah C. American Civil Engineer. 

Seymour, Thomas Hart. American Politician. 

Shakespear, Sir Richmond Campbell. Military Officer. 

Shamyl, “ The Warrior-Prophet of the Caucasus ”. 

Sharps, Christian. Inventor of Sharps’ Rifle. 

Sheaffe, Sir Roger H. Military Officer. 

Shenton, Henry Crawner. British Line Engraver. 

Shepherd, Nathaniel G. American Poet and Journalist. 

Shepley, George F. American Jurist. 

Shere Ali, Ameer of Afghanistan... 

Sherman, Thomas W. American General. 


BORN. DIED, 

1780.. 1862 

1798.. 1876 

1786.. 1877 

1786.. 1867 

1792.. 1867 

1784.. 1873 

1779.. 1863 

1814.. 1875 

— ..1870 

1813.. 1875 

1821.. 1868 

1798.. 1877 
i 799 -- l8 7 f 

1798.. 1875 

1779.. 1868 

1834.. 1875 

1817.. 1877 

1798.. 1878 

1811.. 1878 

1786.. 1866 

1820.. 1871 

1851 1S79 

1771.. 1852 

1785.. 1866 

1818.. 1878 

1786.. 1873 

1789.. 1867 

1806.. 1872 

1825.. 1871 

1805.. 1868 

1780.. 1873 

1805.. 187s 

1789.. 1867 

1806.. 1875 

1809.. 1878 

1809.. 1877 

1821.. 1871 

1785.. 1868 

1801.. 1872 

1812.. 1853 

1808.. 1868 

— ..1861 

1797.. 1871 

1811.. 1874 

1763.. 1851 
1803. 1866 

1835.. 1869 

1819.. 1878 

1824.. 1879 

1813.. 1879 













































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 


733 


_ . bobn. died. 

©hields, James. American General. 1810..1879 

Shilder-Shuldner, Jury Ivanovitch. Russian General. —..1878 

Shimeall, Richard C. Clergyman and Author. 1803.. 1874 

ShurtlefF, Nathaniel Bradstreet, m. d. American Naturalist, 


Sibley, Henry H. “Confederate ” General. 1815. 1862 

Sidell, William H. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 1810. .1873 

Siebold, Philip Franz von. German Botanist. 1796.. 1866 

Sill, Joshua Woodrow. American General.. 1831.. 1862 

Simms, W T illiam Gilmore. American Poet and Novelist. 1806.. 1870 

Simrock, Karl. German Poet and Author. 1802.. 1876 

Singer, Isaac Merritt. American Inventor. 1811.. 1875 

Skey, Frederick. English Medical Writer. —..1872 

Skinner, George Ure. English Botanist. 1805. .1867 

Skinner, Thomas Harvey, d. d., ll. d. Professor and Author. . 1791 .. 1871 

Slane, Baron William MacGukin de. Arabic Scholar. 1801.. 1878 

Slaughter, William B. American Writer. 1798.. 1879 

Sleeper, John S. American Editor. 1794.. 1878 

Sleifeusand, Xavier. German Engraver.. 1809.. 1876 

Slemmer, Adam J. American General. 1828?. 1868 

Slidell, John. American Politician and Diplomatist. 1793.. 1871 

Sloat, John Drake. Rear-Admiral, U. S. N.. 1780.. 1867 

Smallwood, Charles. Canadian Astronomer. 1811..1873 

Smith, Asa Dodge. Amer. Clergyman and College President. 1804.. 1877 
Smith, Augustus William. American Methodist Clergyman.. 1802.. 1866 

Smith, Benjamin Franklin. Brevet Brig.-Gen., U. S. A. 1831.. 1868 

Smith, Rev. Eli. American Missionary and Orientalist. 1801. 1857 

Smith, Francis Gurney. American Physiologist and Author.. 1818.. 1878 

Smith, George. British Oriental Scholar. 1840.. 1876 

Smith, George, D. d. English Preacher. (History of Wesleyan 

Methodism .). 1800.. 1868 

Smith, Gerrit. American Philanthropist and Statesman. 1797.. 1874 

Smith, Henry Boynton. American Clergyman and Writer_ 1815..1877 

Smith, Major Henry. Eng. Antiquarian, Botanist and Actor.. 1793.. 1868 

Smith, James. Scottish Geologist and Author. 1782.. 1867 

Smith, Joseph Mather. American Physician, Professor and 

Medical Writer. 1789.. 1866 

Smith, Joseph R. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A. 1802.. 1868 

Smith. Morgan L. Major-General, U. S. Volunteers. 1818.. 1874 

Smith, Prof. Nathan R. American Physician. 1797.. 1877 

Smith, Persifer F. American General. — ..1858- 

Smith, Seba. American Journalist and Author. 1792.. 1868 

Smith, Toulmin. English Publicist and Scholar. 1816.. 1869 

Smith, Wyndham. The Assassin. S-n of Sydney S. —..1872 

Smyth, Thomas A. American General. —..1865 

Snowden, James Ross. American Numismatist. 1810.. 1878 

Solger, Dr. Reinhold. Hungarian Patriot and Lecturer. —..1866 

Somerset, Sir Henry. Lieutenant-General. 1794.. 1862 

Somerville, Mrs. Mary Fairfax. Authoress and Physicist. Life 

by Daughter. 178°. • *872 

Sophia, Queen of the Netherlands. 1818. .1877 







































7 34 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. DIED. 

Sopwith, Thomas. English Geologist and Mining Engineer.. 1803.. 1879 
Soule, Rev. Joshua. Bishop of Southern Methodist Church.. 1781.. 1867 

Soule. Pierre. Politician and Diplomatist. i 8 co?.i 87 o 

Soulie, Endore. French Writer. 1817.. 1876 

South, Sir James. English Astronomer. 1785..1867 

Sowerby, James de Carle. English Naturalist. 1787.. 1871 

Spalding, Benedict Joseph. Roman Catholic Clergyman. 1810.. 1868 

Spalding, Martin John. Roman Catholic Archbishop. 1810. .1872 

Sparks, Jared. American ittergyman and Historian. 1789.. 1866 

Spence, B. E. English Sculptor. — .. 1866 

Spiers, Alexander, ph. d. French Philologist and Professor. 1807..1869 

Sprague, Charles. American Poet. 1791.. 1875 

Sprague, John J. American General. 1810. .1878 

Sprague, William Buel. American Clergyman and Author... 1795.. 1876 

Spring, Gardiner. American Clergyman and Author. 178s.. 1873 

Stahr, Adolf Wilhelm Theodor. German Scholar. 1805 .1876 

Stanger, William. Physician and Naturalist. — ..1854 

Stangford, P. E. A. Frederick William Smythe, Viscount. 

Orientalist and Philologist. 1825.. 1869 

Stanhope, Philip Henry, Earl. English Historian, Essayist, 

Legislator. 1805.. 187; 

Stanley, Anthony Dumond. American Mathematician. 1812.. 1853 

Stantey of Alderley, Edward John. English Statesman_ 1802.. 1869 

Stanton, Edwin M. American Statesman . 1814.. 1869 

Steele, William. American Revolutionary Soldier. 1762.. 1851 

Steers, George. American Naval Constructor. 1821.. 1856 

Steinway, Engleliard Heinrich. Piano Manufacturer. 1797.. 1871 

Stephen, A. J. Lawyer and Writer.... 1788.. 1864 

Stephens, Mrs. Harriet Marion. Writer. 1823.. 1858 

Stephens, Linton. American Jurist and Politician. 1823.. 1872 

Stevens, John Austin. American Merchant and Banker. 1795.. 1874 

Stevens, Thaddeus. American Statesman and Reformer. 1793.. 1868 

Stevens, Walter H. “ Confederate” Brigadier-General. 182791867 

Steward, Mrs. Isabella Travers. Eng. Novelist and Poetess. 1807 ? 1867 

Stewart, Alexander Turney. American Merchant. 1803.. 1876 

Stewart, Charles. U. S. Naval Officer. 1779.. 1869 

Stifter, Adalbert. German Novelist and Painter. 1806.. 1868 

Stirling-Maxwell, Sir William. British Author. 1818.. 1878 

Stockton, John D. American Journalist. {Fox and Geese.). . 1836. 1877 

Stockton, Robert Field. American Naval Officer. 1796.. 1866 

Stockton, Thomas Hewlings. American Clergyman, Author 

and Poet. 1808.. 1868 

Stoever, Martin Luther, ph. d. Lutheran Clergyman, Profes¬ 
sor and Author. 1820.. 1870 

Stone, Horatio. American Sculptor. — ..1875 

Stone, William Oliver. American Portrait Painter. — .. 1875 

Storrs, Richard Salter, Sr. American Clerg. and Journalist... 1787.. 1873 

Stoughton, Edwin H. Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols.. — .. 1869 

Stow, Baron. Baptist Clergyman and Author. 1801.. 1869 

Strachan, John, d.d. Bishop of Toronto. 1778..1867 

Strandberg, C. W. A. Swedish Poet. 1818.. 1877 







































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 735 

BOBN »IID. 

Strodtman, Dr. Adolf. German Poet and Translator. {Life 

of Heine.) .... 1828.. 1879 

Strong, William K. Brigadier-General, U. S. Vols. 1805.. 1867 

Struensee, Gustav von. Gustav von See. Novelist. 1803.. 1875 

Struve, Gustave. German Revolutionist and Author. 180J.. 1870 

Stuart, Lady Louise. Last of the Stuarts. 1776.. 1875 

Sturges, Jonathan. American Merchant and Philanthropist. 1801.. 1874 
Sully, Thomas. American Painter. (Washington Crossing 

the Delaware.) . 1783..1872 

Sumner, Charles, ll. d. American Statesman and Scholar... 1811.. 1874 

Susini, Mrs. Isabella Hinckley. American Vocalist. —..1862 

Swain, David Lowry. Amer. Statesman, Jurist and Educator. 1801.. 1868 
Swain, William M. Founder of Philadelphia Public Ledger 

and Baltimore Sun . 1809.. 1868 

Sweetser, Henry Edward. American Journalist. 1837.. 1870 

Swinhoe, Robert. British Naturalist. 1836.. 1877 

Symington, W. Scottish Theological Writer. 1795.. 1862 

Symons, Jelinger Cookson. Writer. 181 o.. 186«, 

T. 

Tadolini, Giovanni. Italian Musical Composer. 1793.. 1872 

Talbot, William Henry Fox. English Author... 1800.. 1877 

Tallmadge, Frederick Augustus. Amer. Jurist and Politician. 1792.. 1869 

Tappan, John. American Merchant and Philanthropist. 1781.. 1871 

Tatnall, Josiah. “ Confederate ” Commodore. 1796. .1871 

Tattam, Henry, d.d. English Theologian.. 1796.. 1868 

Tausig, Karl. German Pianist and Composer. 1841.. 1871 

Tay, Charles H. Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. Yols. 1836.. 1871 

Taylor, Bayard. American Poet, Traveller, Journalist, Diplo¬ 
matist. 1825. 1878 

Taylor, James B., d.d. Baptist Clergyman and Author. 1804.. 1871 

Taylor, Richard. “ Confederate ” General. (Destruction and 

Reconstruction.) . *826.. 1879 

Taylor, Samuel Harvey, im. D. Amer. Scholar and Teacher.. 1807.. 1871 
Taylor, Thomas House. American Episcopal Clergyman— 1799.. 1867 
Tellkampf, Johann Ludwig. Ger. Writer on Political Econ.. i8c8.. 1876 
Tenny, Prof. Sanborn. American Author of Text Books.... 1827.. 1877 

Tenny, Sarah M. Brownson. American Authoress. 1839. -1876 

Terrill, William R. American General. — ..1862 

Teuffel, Wilhelm Sigismund. German Classical Scholar. 1820.. 1878 

Thalberg, Sigismond. Pianist and Composer. 1812.. 1871 

Thiboust, Lambert. French Dramatist. 1826.. 1867 

Thierry, Amedee Simon Dominique. Historian....,. 1797.. 1873 

Thiers, Louis Adolphe. French Statesman. Ex-President of 

French Republic... * 797 - • l8 77 

Thirlwa.ll, Connop. English Bishop. (History of Greece.)... 1797.. 1875 
Tholuck, Friedrich August Gobbreu. German Theologian... 1799- • l8 77 

Thomas, George Henry. Major-General, IT. S. A—. 1816.. 1870 

Thomas, George Housman. English Artist and Designer..,, 1824..1868 






























736 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BOHN, DIED. 

Thomasius, Gottfried. German Theologian. 1802,. 1875 

Thompson, George. English Philanthropist and Reformer... 1804.. 1878 

Thompson, Joseph P. American Clergyman and Author_ 1819.. 1879 

Thompson, Mortimer. Doesticks. Amer. Humorous Writer. 1835. 1875 

Thomson, Edward. Methodist Episcopal Bishop. 1810.. 1870 

Thornton, John Wingate. American Lawyer and Author.... 1818.. 1878 

Thornton, Thomas. English Editor and Author. 1787.. 1866 

Thorpe, Benjamin. English Philologist, Author, Translator.. 1808.. 1870 

Thorpe, Thomas B. American Editor and Author. 1815. .1878 

Thouvenel, Edouard Antoine. French Statesman and Diplo¬ 
matist. 1818..1866 

Thrasher, John S. American Journalist... 1817. .1879 

Thurston, Asa. American Clergyman and Missionary.1787.. 1868 

Ticknor, George, ll. d. American Scholar and Professor. 

{History of Spanish Literature,.) . 1791.. 1871 

Tidemand, Adolf. Norwegian Painter. 1814..1876 

Tildemann, Frederick. German Physiologist and Anatomist. 1781.. 1861 

Tilghman, Lloyd. “ Confederate” General. — ..1863 

Tilly, Count Charles Gustavus Edward Augustus von Tserclas. 1784.. 1869 
Timoleon, Gulielmo Brutus Icilius. Italian Mathematician, 

Author and Bibliophile. 1803.. 1869 

Titiens, Theresa. Operatic Singer... 1834..1877 

Tobler, Titus. Swiss Orientalist.1806.. 1877 

Tod, David. American Statesman and Diplomatist. 1805.. 1868 

Todd, James H., d. d. Irish Professor and Author... . 1805.. 1869 

Todd, John, d. d. American Clergyman and Author. 1800.. 1873 

Toldy, Franz. Hungarian Author. 1805.. 1875 

Tolstoi, Count Alexis. Russian Poet and Novelist. . 1817.. 1875 

Torrey, Joseph. American Clergyman and College President. 1797.. 1867 

Totten, James. Brevet Major-General, U. S. A. 1816.. 1871 

Toucey, Isaac. American Jurist and Politician. 1796.. 1869 

Townsend, Rev. Chauncey Hare. Eng. Scholar and Author.. 1800.. 1868 

Tracy, Joseph, d. d. Clergyman, Author and Journalist. 1794.. 1874 

Tremain, Lyman. American Lawyer. 1819.. 1878 

Trevelyan, Walter Calverly. Eng. Geologist and Reformer.. 1797.. 1879 

Troilus, Gustavus Uno. Swedish Portrait Painter. 1804.. 1875 

Troplong, Raymond Theodore. French Jurist and Publicist. 1795.. 1869 

Tucker, Edward. English Botanist. 1810.. 1868 

Tuckerman, Henry Theodore. American Essayist and Poet. 1813.. 1871 

Turnbull, John. Scottish Clergyman. 1775..1867 

Turnbull, Robert. American Clergyman and Author. 1809.. 1877 

Turner, Rev. Charles Tennyson. English Poet.. — ..1879 

Tweed, William Marcy. American Politician. 1823.. 1878 

Twesten, August Detlev Christian. German Theologian. 1789.. 1876 

Tyler, Robert O. Brevet Major-General, IT. S. A.. 1832?. 1874 

Tyler, Samuel. American Lawyer and Author.... 1809.. 1878 































i. BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 737 


U. 

BO BN, DIXD 

Uechtritz, Friedrich von. German Poet.1800.. 1875 

Ule, Otto Eduard Yincenz. German Naturalist . 1820.. 1876 

Umbscheiden, Franz. German Revolutionist and Journalist. 1820. .1874 
Upham, Rev. Thomas Cogswell. American Metaphysician 

and Professor.... 1799.. 1873 

Upjohn, Richard. American Architect. . 1802..1878 

Upton, George Bruce. American Manufacturer. 1804..1874 

Urquiza, Don Juste Josd de. Argentine General, Dictator 

and President.. 1800.,1870 

y. 

Vaillant, Jean Baptiste Philibert. Fr. Marshal and Senator.. 1790.. 1879 
Valentine, David Thomas. Civilian. {History of New York.) 1801.. 1869 

Vallandingham, Clement L. American Politician. 1822..1871 

Valpy, Abraham John. Classical Editor. — ..1854 

Van Brunt, Gershom J. American Naval Officer. 1800.. 1863 

Van Buren, James Lyman. Brevet Brig.-Gencral, U. S. Vols. 1837..i86f 

Van Buren, John. American Lawyer and Politician. 18x0., 1866 

Vanderbilt, Cornelius. American Capitalist. 1794..1877 

Van Dorn, Earl. “ Confederate ” General. 1823.. 1863 

Van Eycken, John. Dutch Painter. — .. 1854 

Vassar, Matthew. Founder of Vassar College. 1792..1868 

Vaugeron, Karl Adolph von. German Jurisconsult, Pro¬ 
fessor, Author. 1808..1870 

Vaulabelle, Achille Tenaille. French Historian. 1799.. 1879 

Vedder, Alexander M. American Physician. 1814..1878 

Velpeau, Alfred Armand Louis Marie. French Surgeon and 

Author. 1795.. 1867 

Vernon, Mrs. Jane Merchant. American Actress. 1796.. 1869 

Verplanck, Gulian Crommelin. American Author, Jurist, 

Statesman... 1786.. 1870 

Victor Emanuel II. King of Italy. 1820.. 1878 

VilainXIV., Charles, Vicomte. Belgian Statesman. 1803.. 1878 

Villemain, Abel Francois. French Author and Statesman... 1790.. 1870 

Villepigue, John B. “Confederate” General. 1834.. 1862 

Vinton, Francis. Prot. Episcopal Clergyman and Author— 1809.. 1872 

Viriville, Vallet de. French Archaeologist and Author. 1815..1868 

Vitet, Louis. French Journalist, Historian, Publicist. 1802.. 1873 

Volkhart, Wilhelm. German Historical Paiuter. 1815.. 1876 

Volkmann, Alfred Wilhelm. German Physiologist. 1801.. 1877 

Vollmer, Alexander Joseph. German Philologist. 1803.. 1876 

Von der Decken, Baron Charles Claus. German Explorer... 1833.. 1865 
Von Roon, Count Albrecht Theodor Emil. Prussian General. 1803.. 1879 
Vyazemsky, Prince Peter Andre with, Russian Poet. 1792.. 1879 































A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 



w. 


BO*N. TMED. 

Waagen, Gustav Friedrich. German Author and Art Critic.. 1794.. 1868 
Waddington, George, d. d. English Divine. [History of the 


Reformation on the Continent .). 1793.. 1869 

Wade, Benjamin Franklin. American Politician. 1800.. 1878 

Walcott, Charles M., Sr. Amer. Actor and Dramatic Writer.. 1808.. 1868 

Waldeck, Jean Frederic de. French Traveller and Artist_ 1766.. 1875 

Walewski, Florian Alexandre Joseph Colona, Comte de. 1810.. 1868 

Walker, Amasa, ll. d. American Political Economist . 1799..1875 

Walker, Robert James. American Statesman and Publicist.. 1801.. 1869 

Walker, William. Scottish Engraver. — ..1867 

Wallis, Robert. English Landscape Engraver. 1814. .1878 

Wallner, Franz. German Actor. 1810.. 1876 

Walsh, Benjamin D. American Entomologist. 1808.. 1869 

Walsh, John Edward, ll. d. Jurist and Author . 1816..1869 

Walworth, Mansfield Tracy. American Novelist. 1830.. 1873 

Walworth, Reuben Hyde. American Jurist. 1789..1867 

Ward, Edward Matthew. British Painter. 1816. .1879 

Ward, Nathaniel Bagshaw, f. r. s Eng. Surgeon and Botanist. — .. 1868 
Ware, Ashur. American Admiralty Jurist. 1782. .1873 


Warmer, Auguste Humbert. French Scholar and Author_ 1810.. 1873 

Warren, Fitz Henry. American General and Journalist.1816..1878 

Warren, Jeremiah Mason. American Surgeon and Writer... 1810?. 1867 
Warren, Josiah. Eccentric Reformer. {True Civilization.).. 1799. i8 74 
Warren, Samuel. English Jurist and Author. (Ten Thou¬ 


sand a Year.) . 1807.. 1877 

Washington, John A. Proprietor of Mount Vernon. — ..1861 

Washington, W. D. American Painter. {Burialof Latanee.). — ..1870 

Watson, Walker. Scottish Song Writer. — ..1854 

Watts, Robert. American Physician and Professor. 1812..1867 

Watts, Thomas. English Linguist and Author. 1811..1869 

Wayne, James Moore. American Jurist. 1790.. 1867 

Webb, Rev. John. English Musical Composer, Antiquarian 

and Author. 1776.. 1869 

Weber, Ernst Heinrich. German Physiologist.. 1795..1878 

Webster, Horace, m. d., ll. d. American Scholar and Teacher. 1795. .1871 

Webster, J. D. Brevet Major-General, U. S. Vols. 1811..1876 

Weed, Stephen H. American General. — ..1863 

Weekes, Henry. British Sculptor.;. 1807..1877 

Weisbach, Julius Ludwig. Mathematician, Engineer and 

Author. 1810.. 1871 

Welch, Bartholomew Trow. American Baptist Clergyman... 1794.. 1870 

Welcker, Friedrich Gottlieb. Philologist, Archaeologist. 1784.. 1868 

Welcker, Karl Theodor. German Publicist and Professor.... 1790. .1869 
Weld, Charles Robert. English Traveller and Author. {Vaca¬ 
tion Tours.) .. 1818..1869 

Welles, Gideon. American Journalist and Politician. 1802..1873 

Wells, Charles J. Eng. Author. (,Joseph and his Brethren.).. 1800?. 1879 


Wells, Darius- Inventor of Wood Type... 1800.. 1875 






























A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 739 

BORN. DIED. 

wells, Samuel. American Phrenologist. 1820.. 1875 

Westermann, Antoine, ph. d. German Philologist. 1806..1870 

Western, Pauline Lucille. American Actress. 1843.. 1877 

Westmacott, Prof. Richard R. English Sculptor. 1798. .1872 

Weymer, Marguerite Georges. French Tragedienne . 1786.. 1807 

Wheatley, William. American Actor. 1816.. 1876 

Wheatstone, Charles. English Inventor. 1802. . 1875 

Wheelock, Merrill G. Amer. Artist, Architect and Writer... — .. 1866 
Whelpley, James Davenport. Amer. Physician and Scientist. 1817.. 1873 
Whewell, William, d. d. Eng. Mathemat. and Philosopher.. 1794.. 1866 

White, Edwin. American Painter. 1817.. 1877 

White, Frank J. American Brigadier-General. 1842.. 1875 

Whitman, Sarah Helen. American Poetess. 1803. 1878 

Whitney, Asa. American Inventor and Manufacturer. 1791.. 1874 

Whittingham, William Rollinson. Amer. Prot. Epis. Bishop. 1805.. 1879 

Whyte-Melville. English Novelist. 1821.. 1878 

WicklifFe, Charles A. “The Duke.” Politician. 1788..1869 

Wildermuth, Ottilie. German Authoress. 1817.. 1877 

Wilhelm, Carl. Composer of “ Wacht am Rhein." . — ..1873 

Wilkes, Charles. American Naval Officer. 1801.. 1877 

Wilkinson, Sir John Gardiner. Archaeologist and Geographer. 1797.. 1875 

Willard, Mrs. Emma. American Educator and Authoress_ 1787.. 1870 

Williams, Barney. (Bernard Flaherty.). American Actor_ 1823.. 1877 

Williams, Mrs. Catharine R. American Poet and Authoress.. 1790.. 1872 

Williams, Rowland. English Clergyman and Author. 1817.. 1870 

Williams, Seth. Brevet Major-General, U. S. Vols. 1822.. 1866 

Willis, Nathaniel. American Journalist. 1780.. 1870 

Willis, Nathaniel Parker. Amer. Poet, Essayist, Journalist.. 1807.. 1867 

Willis, Rev. Robert. British Author. 1800.. 1875 

Willis, Robert. Eng. Physician and Author. (Lifeof Servetas.). 1799.. 1878 
Willis, William, ll. d. Amer. Lawyer and Historical Writer.. 1794 1870 

Wilson, Henry. American Statesman. 1812.. 1875 

Wilson, John. American Printer and Author. 1802.. 1868 

Wilson, Oregon. American Painter. —..1873 

Wilson, William. English Botanist and Author. 1800.. 1871 

Winterhalter, Franz-Xavier. Portrait and genre Painter— 1806.. 1873 

Winther, Christian. Danish Poet and Novelist. 1796.. 1876 

Wise, Henry Augustus. U. S. Naval Officer and Author. 18x9.. 1869 

Wiser, Dr. David Friedrich. Swiss Mineralogist. 1802.. 1878 

Wislicenus, Gustav Adolf. German Theologian. 1803.. 1875 

Wolle, Right Rev. Peter. Bishop of Moravian Church. 1792.. 1871 

Wolowski, Louis Francis Michel Raymond. French Senator 

and Writer on Political Economy.. 1810.. 1876 

Wood, Mrs. Eliza Logan. American Actress. 1830. 1872 

Wood, Isaac. American Physician and Philanthropist . 1793.. 1868 

Woodman, John Smith. American Professor. 1819.. 1871 

Woodruff, Lewis Bartholomew. American Lawyer and Judge. 1810.. 1875 
Woods, Leonard. American College President and Editor— 1807.. 1878 

Woodward, Bernard Bolingbroke. English Author. 1816.. 1869 

Wool, John Ellis. Major-General, U. S. A. 1789. .1869 

Woolsey, Melancthon. American Commodore. 1817. .1074 






































74 ° A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 

BORN. DIED. 

Worsley, Rev. Philip Stanhope. Eng. Poet and Translator... — ..1866 
Wrangel, Friedrich Heinrich Ernst, Count von. Prussian Mili¬ 
tary Officer. 1784.. 1877 

Wright, Joseph A. American Lawyer and Diplomatist. 1810?. 1867 

Wright, William B. American Jurist. 1807.. 1868 

Wrottesley, John, Second Lord. English Astronomer. 1798.. 1867 

Wunderlich, Karl August. German Physician. 1815.. 1877 

Wyatt, Sir Matthew Digby. English Architect and Author... 1820. 1877 

Wyckoff, Dr. William H. American Teacher and Author. 1807.. 1877 

Wylie, Robert. American Painter. — ..1877 

Wyman, Jeffries, m. d. American Anatomist. 1814.. 1874 

Y. 

Young, Brigham. Mormon Prophet. 180X..1877 

Young, Sir Charles George. Heraldic Scholar. 179$. .1869 

z. 

Zachariae, Heinrich Albert. German Jurist. 1806.. 1875 

Zahn, John Charles William. German Architect. 1800.. 1871 

Zimmermann, Clemens. Bavarian Painter. 1788.. 1869 

Zimmennann, Wilhelm. German Poet and Historian. 1807.. 1878 

Zimmermann, Karl. German Theologian.. 1803..1877 

Zopfl, Heinrich Matheus. German Jurist. 1807.. 1877 

Zo*denyi, Eduard von. Hungarian Statesman. 1803., 1879 




















MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS.-No. L 



1. Shaft coupling.—2. Claw coupling.—3, 4. Lever couplings. On the driving shaft, a disk 
with spurs is mounted, and to the shaft to be driven a lever is hinged. By causing tins lever 
to catch in the spurs of the disk, the coupling is effected.— o. Knee or rose coupling, of which 
20 is a side view.-6. Universal joint.-7,8. Disk and spur coupling.—0. Prong and spur lever 
coupling.- in. Fast and loose pulley.—11. Sliding gear, the journal-boxes of one of the wheels 
being movable.—12. Friction clutch. By tightening or releasing a steel band, encircling a 
pulley on the shaft, the machinery is thrown in or out of U ,’thc^o-I 

15 10 Change of motion by sheaves.— D. Spiral flanged shaft. —18. Connected with the toj 
are pawl links, catching into ratchet-teeth in the wheel to which rotary motion is to be im¬ 
parted. When the rod moves in one direction, one of the pawls acts; and when t 
moves in the opposite direction, tile other pawl acts in the same direction ns t • • • 

The reciprocating motion of a rod is converted into rotary motion of the fly-wheel b\ a 
weight suspended from a cord, which passes over a small pulley that connects with a treadle^ 
from whicITthe motion is transmitted to the fly-wheel.-20. ‘Flying horse,” used m fairs 
f.,r amusement. By pulling the cords radiating from the crank, the persons occupy nig the 
seats or horses on the ends of the arms are enabled to keep the appaiatus in motion. 21, —-. 
B<?iv-strh g^arrangements, to connect reciprocating into rotary motion.- 23. Same purpose 
bv dirtferentfafscnJw. — 2f! The same by cfouble rack and wheels.-^ Coupling for square 
shafts—26. Slide view of Fig. 5.-27. Sliding-spur pulley coupling.—2& Lever with bearing 
roller to tighten pulley bands. 








































































































































I 




MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS.- No. 2. 



29. Chain-wheel.—30. Reciprocating rectilinear into reciprocating rotary motion by two 
racks and cog-wheel.—31. Oblique-toothed wheels.—32. Worm and worm-wheel.—33. 34. 
Claw coupling with hinged lever.—35, 36. Disk couplings, with lugs and cavities.— 37. Disk 
coupling with screw-bolts.—38,39, 40. Shaft couplings.—41. Face view of Fig. 12.—42. Friction 
cones.—43. Friction pulleys.—44. Self-releasing coupling.—Disks with oblique teeth. If the 
resistance to the driven shaft increases beyond a certain point, the disks separate.—45. 
Hoisting blocks.— 46. Elbow crank, for changing motion.—47. Reciprocating mto rotary 
motion by zigzag groove on cylinder.—48. Another form of Fig. 29.—49. Reciprocating into 
a rotary motion.—50. Same purpose.—51. Same purpose, by double rack and two ratcln t 
pinions. When the double rack moves in one direction, one pinion is rigid with the shaft: 
when the rack moves in the opposite direction, the other pinion is rigid, and a continuous 
rotary motion is imparted to the fly-wheel shaft.—52. Reciprocating into oscillating.— 5.1. 
Rotary into reciprocating. By the action of the wheel-pins the carriage is moved in one di¬ 
rection, and by the action of said pins on an elbow-lever, it is moved m the opposite direc¬ 
tion.—54. Stamp rod and lifting cam.—55. For giving reciprocating motion to rack.—56. 
Same motion to a bar with slot, by means of an eccentric pin projecting from a revolving 
disk, and catching in the slot. 































































































































57. 'Walking-beam and fly-wheel.—58. Reciprocating motion to pump or other rod by 
means of eccentric disk and friction rollers. (See 81 and 104.)—59. Hoisting crane.—60. 
i'Yiction gears. (See 43 . )—61. Rotary into reciprocating by rising and falling pinion acting 
on endless rack.—62. By the revolving cam, a rising ana falling or a reciprocating rectilinear 
motion is imparted to a drum.—63. Reciprocating motion to a frame by means of endless 
rack and pinion.— 64. Reciprocating rectilinear motion to a toothed rack by a toothed seg¬ 
ment on a lever-arm.—65. Reciprocating motion to a rod by means of revolving wheels 
of different diameters. (See 110.)—66. Cam and elbow lever.—67. Rod reciprocates by means 
of cam.—68. Revolving into reciprocating motion, by an endless segmental rack and pinion. 
69. Elliptic gears.—70. Bevel gear.—71. Worm and worm-wheel.— 72. Transmitting motion 
from one axle to another.— 73 . Continuous revolving into reciprocating, by a cam disk acting 
on an oscillating lever.—74. Intermittent revolving motion to a shaft with two pinions, and 
segment gear-wheel on end of shaft —75. Oscillating lever, carrying pawl3 which engage 
teeth in the edges of a bar to which rectilinear motion is imparted.—76. Oscillating lever, 
connects by a link with a rod to which a rectilinear motion is imparted.—77. Oscillating lever 
and pawls, which gear in the ratchet-wheel.—78. Common treadle.—79. Describing on a re¬ 
volving cylinder a spiral line of a certain given pitch, winch depends upon the comparative 
sizes of the pinion and bevel-wheels.— 80. Marking a spiral line, the graver moved by a screw. 
81 . (See 58 .)— 82. Plunger and rods.— 83. Crosshead and rods.— 84 . Reciprocating rod guided 
by friction rollers, 

































































































































































Mechanical movements.—No. i 



85. Revolving into reciprocating motion, by means of roller-arms, extending from a re¬ 
volving shaft.— 86. Crank motion.— 87. Reciprocating motion by toothed wheel and soring 
bar.— 88. The shaft carries a taper, which catches a hook hinged to the drum, to carry arum 
along and raise the weight on the rope. When the tappet has reached its highest position,the 
hook strikes a pin,and disengages from the tappet,and the weight drops.—80. Reciprocating mo¬ 
tion to a rod by means of a groove in an oblique ring secured to a revolving shaft.—90. Double 
crank.—91. Cam groove in a drum, to produce reciprocating motion.— 92. Belts and pulleys. 
93. Pulleys, belts, and internal gear.— 94. As the rod moves up and down, the teeth of the 
cog-wheel come in contact with a pawl, and an intermittent rotary motion is imparted to 
said wheel.—95. By turning the horizontal axles with different velocities, the midulc wheel 
is caused to revolve with the mean velocity.—96. Oscillating lever and cam groove in a disk. 
97. Lazy tongs.— 98. Oscillating segment and belt over pulleys.—99. Converting oscillating 
into a reciprocating motion by a cam-slot in the end of the oscillating lever.—100. Oscillating 
motion of a beam into rotary motion.—101. Motion of a treadle into rotary motion.—102. 
Double-acting beam.— 103. Single-acting beam.— 104. f See 58 and 81.)—105. Device to steady 
a piston by a slotted guide-piece.— 100. Rod operated by two toothed segments.—107. Two 
cog-wheels of equal diameter, provided with crank, connected by links with a crossbar to 
which the piston-rod is secured.— 108. Device for a rectilinear motion of a piston-rod.—109. 
Same purpose as 56.— 110. Action similar to 65.—111 Revolving motion by a circular sliding 
pinion gearing in an elliptical cog-wheel—112, Similar to 90. 





























































































































MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS.-No. 6. 



U 4 





125 



123 






122 



126 




134 






120 



123 



12 + 



U 7 




131 


132 


il3. Carpenter’s clamp. The 
jaws turn on their pivot-screws, 
and clamp the board.—114. An 
irregular vibratory motion is 
given to the arm carrying the 
wheel A, by the rotation of the 
pinion B.— 115. Intermittent 
rotary motion ot the pinion- 
shaft, by the continuous rotary 
motion of the large wheel.—110. 

Stop-motion used in watches to 
limit the number of revolutions 
in winding up. The convex 
curved part, a, b, of the wheel 
B, serving as the stop. —117. 

Several wheels, by connecting- 
rods, driven from one pulley.— 

118. Intermittent circular mo- 
ion is imparted to the toothed 
wheel bv vibrating the arm B. 

119. Reciprocating rectilinear 
motion is given to the bar by 
the continuous motion of the 
cam.—120. Mechanism for re¬ 
volving the cylinder in Colt’s 
firearms. When the hammer is 
drawn back the dog, a, attached 
to the tumbler, acts on the 
ratchet, 5, on the back of the 
cylinder, and is held up to the 
ratchet by a spring, c. —121. 

Alternate increasing and dimin¬ 
ishing motion by means of cc 
centric toothed wheel and 
toothed cylinder.—122. Oscillat¬ 
ing or pendulum engine. The 
cylinder swings between trun¬ 
nions like a pendulum. The 
piston-rod connects directly 
with crank.—123. Intermittent 
rotary motion.—124. Longitudi¬ 
nal and rotary motion of the 
rod is produced by its arrange¬ 
ment between two rotating roll¬ 
ers.— 125. Friction indicator oi 
Roberts. Upon the periphery oi 
the belt-pulley a loaded carriage 
is placed, its tongue connected 
with an indicator.—126. Circu 
lar intermittent rectilinear re¬ 
ciprocating motion.—127. Con¬ 
tinuous circular into intermit¬ 
tent circular motion. The cam 
is the driver.—128. Sewing-ma¬ 
chine, four-motion feed. The 
bar B carries the feeding-points 
or spurs, and is pivoted to slide 
A. B is iifted by a radial projec¬ 
tion on camC,which at the same 
time also carries A and B for¬ 
ward. A spring produces the re¬ 
turn stroke,and the bar B drop; 
by gravity.—129. Patent crank 
mot ion, to obviate dead centers 
Pressure on the treadle moves 
the slotted slide A forward until the wrist passes the center, when the spring B forces the slide against the 
stops.—130. Four-way cock.—131. One stroke of the piston gives a complete revolution to the crank.— 
132. Rectilinear motion of variable velocity is given to the vertical bar by rotation of the shaft of the 
curved arm.—133. Pantograph for copying plans, <fec. C. fixed point. B, ivory tracing-point. A, pencil 
trace, the lines to be copied with, and B, the pencil, will reproduce it double size. Shift the slide to 
which C is attached, also the pencil 6lide, and size of the copy will be varied. —134. Ball-and-socket joint 
for tubing.—135. Numerical registering device. The teeth of the worm shaft-gear with a pair of worm- 
wheels of equal diameter, one having one tooth more than the other. If the first wheel has 109 teeth 
and the second 101, the pointers will indicate respectively 101 and 10.100 revolutions.— 136. Montgolfier’s 
hydraulic ram. The right hand valve being kept open by a weight or spring, the current flowing through 
the pipe in the direction of the arrow, escapes thereby. When the pressure of the water current over¬ 
comes the weight of the right valve, the momentum of the water opens the other valve, and the water 
passes into the air-cliamher. On equilibrium taking place, the left valve shuts and the right valve opens. 
137. Rotary engine. Shaft B and hub C are arranged eccentric to the case. Sliding radial pistons, a, a, 
moveinandout of hub C. The pistons slide through rolling packings in the hub C.— 138. Quadrant en¬ 
gine. Two single-acting pistons. B, B, connect with crank D. Steam is admitted to act on the outer 
sides of the pistons alternately through valve a, and the exhaust is between the pistons.—139. Circular 
into rectilinear motion. The scolloped wheel communicates motion to the horizontal oscillating rod, 
and imparts rectilinear movement to the upright bar.— 140. Rotary motion transmitted by rolling con¬ 
tact between two obliquely arranged shafts. 



/35 


M) 


9 % 




/39 





140 































































































AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE 


Before 

Christ 

Genesis. 

4004 

I A II. 

4003 

III. 

IV, 1, 

3875 

8. 

3 8 74 

V, 3, 

6. 

3769 

IV, 26. 

3679 

V, 9, 

3609 

12, 

3544 

15, 

33S2 

18, 

3317 

2I» 

3 I 3 ° 

25 , 

3074 

5 > 

3017 

23, 24, 

2962 

8, 

2948 

28, 

2864 

«, 

2769 

14, 

2714 

17, 

2582 

20. 

2469 

VI, 3. 

2448 

1 Pet. Ill, 20. 
2 Pet. II, 5. 
Gen. V, 32. 

2353 

X, 21. 

V, 31, 

2349 

27. 

VII, 11. 

00 

Genesis. 
VIII, 18, 

2346 

20. 

IX,. 9, 

20. 

XI, 10, 

23x1 

12, 

2281 

14 , 

2247 

l6. 

2234 

X, 8, 

2233 

11. 

XI, 4, 6, 

2217 

‘ 8,-9, 

18. 

2188 

Ps. CV, 


is. Six, 


THE FIRST AGE OF THE WORLD. 

IN the beginning God created the heaven and the earth, etc. 
and last of all, man, after his own image. > 

Man falls from his first state, but is promised a Saviour, of the 
seed of the woman. 

The world first peopled after Adam and Eve had left paradise. 

About this time Cain and Abel offer sacrifice, and Abel is mur¬ 
dered by his brother. 

Seth born. 

Enos born. 

About this time men begin to call upon the name of the Lord. 

Cainan born. 

Mahalaleel born. 

Jared born. 

Enoch, the seventh from Adam, born. 

Methuselah born. 

Lamech, the father of Noah, born. 

Adam dieth, aged 930 years. 

Enoch, in the 365th year of his age, taken up to God. 

Seth dieth, aged 912 years. 

Noah, the father and patriarch of the new world after the flood, 
born. 

Enos, the third from Adam, dieth, aged 905 years. 

Cainan dieth, aged 910 years. 

Mahalaleel, the fifth from Adam, dieth, aged 895 years. 

Jared, the sixth from Adam, dieth, aged 962 years. 

God commands Noah to preach repentance, and to build the 
ark, 120 years before the flood. 

To Noah, aged 500 years, is born Japheth, and two years after, 
Shem. 

Lamech, the ninth from Adam, dieth, aged 777 years. He is 
the first man whom the Scriptures mention to have died a natural 
death before his father. 

Methuselah dieth a little before the flood, in the 969th year of 
his age. He was the oldest man. 

The flood comes upon the earth in the 600th year of Noah’s age. 

THE SECOND AGE OF THE WORLD 

THE flood ceaseth, and Noah, with his family, and the crea¬ 
tures he carried in with him, comes out of the ark, and offers a 
burnt-offering. At the same time God makes a covenant with 
Noah and his seed, promising never more to destroy the world by 
water; as a token whereof he placeth the rainbow in the cloud. 
The same year Noah begins to plant vines, and is drunk. 

Arphaxad born. 

Salah born. 

Eber born. 

Peleg born: so-called, because in his days the earth was 
divided. 

About this time Nimrod begins to exalt himself, by laying the 
first foundation of the Assyrian monarchy. 

Nineveh, the metropolis of Assyria, built. 

About this time the posterity of Nimrod begin to build the city 
and tower of Babel, so-called from the confusion of languages 
which God sent among the workmen. 

Reu born. 

Mizraim, the grandson of Ham, leads colonies into Egypt, and 
layeth the foundation of a kingdom, which lasted 1663 years ; 
whence Egypt is called the land of Ham, and the Egyptian 
Pharaohs boasted themselves to be the sons ol ancient kings. 

746 






Before 

Christ 

2185 

2155 

2126 

2oq8 

2007 

1998 

x 996 


1980 

1978 

1955 

x 9 2 5 


1922 


1921 


1920 


x 9*3 


1911 

1910 

1908 

1897 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


Genesis. 
XI, 20, 
22, 

24, 

x 9 > 

25, 

IX, 28, 29, 
XI, 32, 

26, 


29, 

XVI 


29. 30- 

XT"’ I7> 
XI, 21, 

2 3 - 

XIV, I, 
2, 3, etc. 


XI, 31. 


Genesis. 
XII, 1, 2, 


3 > 


10. 

Gal. Ill, 
1 7 - 

Exodus 
XII, 40. 
Genesis 

XIII. 

XIV, 4, 


20. 

XV, 2. 

XVT, 1, 2, 
i 5 - - 
XI, 13. 
XVII, 5, 

10, 

15, 

ig. 

XVIIL 

XIX, 

^ 7 , 

22, 

• 24, 25, 

26, 

30. 


Serug born. 

Nahor born. 

Terah, Abram's father, bom. 

Peleg, the sixth from Noah, dieth. 

Nahor, the ninth from Noah, dieth. 

Noah dieth, aged 950 years, 350 years after the flood. 

Abram born: he was 75 years of age when his father Terah 
died, aged 205 years ; so that Terah begat not Abram in the 70th 
year of his age, but Nahor and Haran, and in the 130th year of 
his age begat Abram. See Acts vii, 4. 

Sarai. Abram’s wife (called also Iscah), Haran, Abram’s 
brother s daughter, born ten years after her husband. 

Reu, the seventh from Noah, dieth. 

Serug, the eighth from Noah, dieth. 

About this time Chcdorlaomer, king of Elam, subdueth the kings 
of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Bela; who serve him 
12 years. 

Terah with his family leaveth Ur of the Chaldees, and dwells 
at Haran. 

THE THIRD AGE OF THE WORLD. 

ABRAM, after his father’s decease, in the 75th year of his a ge, 
is commanded by God to enter upon the land of Canaan, which 
God promiseth to give unto his seed, and that in his seed (viz. 
Christ Jesus our Lord) all the families of the earth should be 
blessed. 

In the year following, a famine in the land of Canaan forceth 
Abram with his family to go into Egypt. From his first coming 
into Egypt to the departure of the children of Israel out of it, are 
reckoned 430 years. 

Abram and Lot in this same year return into Canaan ; but the 
land not being sufficient for both their flocks, they part asunder. 
Lot goeth to Sodom. God reneweth his promise to Abram; he 
removeth to Hebron, and there buildeth an altar. 

Bera, the king of Sodom, with four other kings, rebel against 
Chedorlaomer, but are overcome by him in the valley of Siddim. 
Lot being taken prisoner, Abram rescueth him, slayeth Chedorla¬ 
omer and his confederates, and in his return is blessed by Mel- 
chisedec, king of Salem, and priest of God, to whom Abram gives 
tithe. The rest of the spoils, his partners having had their por¬ 
tions, he restoreth to the king of Sodom. 

Abram complaineth for want of an heir : God promiseth him g 
son, and a multiplying of his seed. Canaan is promised again, 
and confirmed by a sign. 

Sarai, being barren, giveth Hagar, her handmaid, to Abram. 

Ishmael, Fagar's son, born. 

Arphaxad, the third from Noah, dieth. 

God maketh a covenant with Abram, and in token of a greater 
blessing changeth his name into Abraham. As a seal of this cove¬ 
nant, circumcision is ordained. Sarai, her name is also changed 
into Sarah, and she is blessed. God promiseth thorn a son, and 
commandeth that his name be called Isaac; in him God promiseth 
to establish his covenant. 

Abraham entertaineth three angels, who renew the promise to 
him of having a son. God revealeth to Abraham the destruction 
of Sodom, with whom Abraham intercedes for Lot and his family, 
j See Gcyt* XlX, 2^. 

Lot is commanded, for the preservation of himself and his 
family, to get out of Sodom, and to flee to the mountain ; but by 
much entreaty he obtaineth leave to go into Zoar. Sodom, Go¬ 
morrah, and all the cities in the vale of Siddim, with all the 
inhabitants of them, are, for the most horrible sins, destroyed by 
fire and brimstone from heaven. The Dead Sea remains a 
monument thereof unto this day. Lot’s wife, for looking back 
upon Sodom, contrary to God’s command, is turned into a pillar 
of salt; and Lot himself, fearing to continue at Zoar, leaves the 
plain country, and betakes himself to the mountain, carrying his 
two daughters with him. 

/4 7 








AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


Before 

Christ 

1S96 

Genesis. 
XXI, 3. 
XIX, 36. 

1893 

1878 

1871 

XXI, 14. 
XI, 15. 
XXII. 

1859 

1856 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

1846 

1837 

XI, 11. 
XXV, 24. 

1821 

j8 17 1 

XXV, 7. 
XI, 17. 

1796 

XXVI, 34. 

1773 
1760 J 

XXV, 17. 
XXVII. 

\ 

XXVIII. 


XXIX. 

1758 

1757 

1756 

1755 

1745 

32, 

33 , 

34 , 

35 , 

XXX, 23. 

1739 

XXXI. 


XXXII. 


XXXIV. 


XXXV, 16. 

1729 

XXXVIII, 

16. 

XXXVII. 

1718 

XXXIX. 


XL. 

1716 

XXXV, 28. 

i 7 J 5 

XLI, 25, 


47 , 

So, 

1708 

1707 

54 - 

XLII, 1, 
17, 

i 30 . 


Isaac born in the 100th year of Abraham’s age. Not long after, 
to Lot are born Moab and Ammon, his sons and at the same time 

his grandsons. , 

Hagar and Ishmael, at Sarah s request, are cast iorth. 

Salah, the fourth from Noah, dieth. 

God tempteth Abraham to offer Isaac. Abraham giveth proof 
of his faith and obedience. 

Sarah dieth at Hebron, in Canaan, in the 127th year of her age 

Isaac marrieth Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel, the son or 
Nahor, in the 40th year of his age. 

Shem, the son of Noah, dietn. , 

Jacob and Esau born, in the 60th year of their father Isaac * 
age. 

Abraham dieth, aged 175 years. 

Eber, the fifth from Noah, dieth : from him Abraham and hu 
posterity were called Hebrews. Gen. xiv, 13. , 

Esau, aged forty years, marrieth Judith, the daughter of Been 
the Hittite, and Bashemath, the daughter of Elon the Hittite. 

Ishmael dieth, aged 137 years. . 

Jacob, by his mother’s instruction, obtaineth tne blessing from 
Isaac, his father, which was designed for Esau. Upon which h«. 
is forced to flee into Mesopotamia, to shun his brother’s rage 
Upon the way are foretold unto him in a vision the blessings of 
hi posterity. At length he cometh to his uncle Laban’s house, 
and covenanteth to serve him seven years for his daughter Rachel, 
but Laban deceiveth him with Leah; the marriage-week being 
completed, Rachel also is given him to wife, upon condition of 
serving seven years more. 

Of Leah are bom, 

, Reuben, 

Simeon, 

Levi, 

Judah, h-om whom the Jews receive their denomination. 

Rachel, having been long barren, at length beareth Joseph. 
Jacob, desiring to depart, is persuaded by Laban to serve six 
years more for some part of his flock. 

Jacob, after he had been twenty years in Mesopotamia, sets 
forward on his journey homeward, without acquainting his father 
or his brothers-in-law. Rachel stealeth her father's gods, and is 
pursued by Laban. Jacob, by his prudence, is reconciled to his 
brother Esau. He wrestleth with an angel at Peniel, and i? 
called Israel. 

About this time, Dinah, Jacob’s daughter, is defloured by She- 
chem, the son of Hamor. Simeon and Levi, Dinah’s brethren, 
revenge their sister’s quarrel by putting all the males of Shechem 
to the sword; for which thing Jacob reproveth them. 

Rachel is delivered of Benjamin on the way betwixt Beth-el, or 
Beth-le-hem, and Ephrath, and dies in childbed. Some think 
that Job lived about this time. 

Judah lieth with Tamar, his daughter-in-law, in disguise. 

Joseph is hated by his brethren, and is sold to merchantmen, 
Ishmaelites and Midianites, who carry him into Egypt, where he 
is sold to Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh, and by him made over¬ 
seer of his house. 

Joseph resisteth the temptations of his master’s wife; he is 
falsely accused by her, and cast into prison. He interpreted! the 
dreams of Pharaoh’s butler and baker, which come to pass accord¬ 
ing to his interpretation. 

Isaac dieth, aged 180 years, and is buried by his sons, Jacob 
and Esau. 

Joseph interpreteth Pharaoh’s two dreams ; he giveth Pharaoh 
counsel, and is made governor of the whole land of Egypt. 

Here begin the seven years of plenty in the land of Egypt. 
About this time Manasseh and Ephraim, Joseph's two sons, are 
born of Asenath, the daughter of Potipherah, priest of On. 

Here begin the seven years of famine. 

Jacob sendeth his ten sons to buy corn in Egypt; they are 
imprisoned by Joseph for spies ; but are set at liberty on condi¬ 
tion of bringing Benjamin, and Simeon is kept as a pledge. 

748 












Before 

Christ 

1706 


1704 

1703 

1689 


1635 


1619 
1577 
1574 
15 73 

1 5‘/i 
i53i 

1530 

1491 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


Genesis 

XLIII. 

XLV. 

XLVI. 


XLVII. 

XLVIII. 

XLIX. 


L. 


Exodus. 

VI, 16. 

1 , 8 . 

VII, 7 . 

I, 15, 22. 

II, 1, 5 , 
11. 


Josh. XIV, 
7, 10. 
Ex. Ill, 

1, 2, etc. 
V. 


VII, 7 . 

Psalm. 

LXXVIII. 

CV. 


Jacob is with much difficulty persuaded to send Benjamin. 
Joseph maketh himself known to his brethren, and sendeth for his 
father by command from Pharaoh. 

Jacob, having offered sacrifice to God for that his son Joseph 
is yet alive, goes with all his family into Egypt, in the third year 
of the famine, and 130th year of his age. He is seated in the 
land of Goshen. 

Joseph getteth all the money, lands and cattle of the Egyptians 
for bread; only the lands belonging to the priests he buyetn not. 

Jacob adopteth Ephraim and Manasseh, and blesseth them, 
and all his sons; prophesieth the descent of the Messiah from 
Judah, and dieth, aged 147 years ; seventeen whereof he lived in 
Egypt. He is, with great pomp, earned into Canaan, and buried 
in the sepulchre of his father. 

Joseph, on his death-bed, prophesieth unto his brethren their 
return to Canaan ; takes an oath of them to carry his bones out of 
Egypt, and dieth, aged no years. 

I he book of Genesis endeth in the death of Joseph, containing 
the history of 2369 years ; next to which in order of time the book 
of Job follows, written (as it is generally believed) by Moses. 

Levi dieth in Egypt, aged 137 years; he was grandfather to 
Moses and Aaron. 

Here begins the bondage of the children of Israel, when a king 
rose up in Egypt, who knew not Joseph. 

Aaron born, three years before his brother Moses, 83 years before 
the departure of the children of Israel out of Egypt. 

Pharaoh having in vain commanded the Hebrew midwives to 
destroy all the males of the Israelites, sets forth an edict, charging 
that they be all cast into the river. 

Moses is born, who, being hid in the flags by the river's side, is 
found by Pharaoh’s daughter, and becomes her adopted son. 

Moses, in the 40th year of his age, having slain an Egyptian, 
whom he saw contending with a Hebrew, fleeth into Midian, 
where he marrieth Zipporah, the daughter of Reuel, or Jethro, a 
priest, and liveth with him forty years. • 

Caleb, the son of Jephunneh, born. 

Whilst Moses keeps his father-in-law’s sheep at mount Horeb, 
God appeareth to him in a burning bush, and sendeth him to 
deliver Israel. 

Moses and Aaron having declared to Pharaoh the message on 
which they are sent unto him from God, are charged by him as 
heads of a mutiny, and sent away with many bad words; and 
more grievous labors are forthwith laid upon the Israelites. 

Moses being now 80, and Aaron 83 years of age, urged thereunto 
by God, return again unto Pharaoh, where the magicians, by their 
sorcery imitating the miracles of Aaron’s rod turned into a ser¬ 
pent, make Pharaoh more obstinate than he was before. Where¬ 
fore God, by the hand of Moses, lays ten plagues upon the 
Egyptians. 


Exodus. 
XII, 11, 

29, 41. 


Numbers. 

XXXIII. 


Exodus. 

XIV. 


THE FOURTH AGE OF THE WORLD. 

UPON the fourteenth day of the first month (which was May 
the fourth, upon Monday with us), in the evening, the passover is 
instituted. 

Upon the fifteenth of the same month, at midnight, the first¬ 
born of Egypt being all slain, Pharaoh and his servants make 
haste to send away the Israelites; and they, the self-same day 
wherein they were let go out cf bondage, being the complete term 
of 430 years from the first pilgrimage of their ancestors, reckon¬ 
ing from Abraham’s departure out of Charran, take their journey 
and march away, being 600,000 men, besides children, and come 
to Rameses, from wdience by several encampings they come to the 
Red sea, the Lord conducting them in a pillar of a cloud by day, 
and in a pillar of fire by night. They carry Joseph’s bones with 
them. 

At the Red sea Pharaoh with his host overtakes them , Moses 
divides the waters with his rod, and the children of Israel pas» 

749 






Before 

Christ 

1491 


* 49 * 


Exodus 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 


XVII, I, 


8, 9, etc. 

XX. 

XXI. 
XXII, etc 

XXIV. 


9, 18. 


XXV, etc. 

XXXI, 18. 
XXXII, 


20, 28. 
XXXIV, 


10. 

XXXIX. 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


through on dry ground unto the desert of Etham ; whom, when 
Pharaoh and his army would needs follow, they are all over¬ 
whelmed by the waters coming together at the dawning of the 
day, whereby the Israelites are wholly freed from the bondage of 
the Egyptians ; whose carcasses when they see floating all the sea 
over, and cast upom the shore, they sing a song of praise and 
thanksgiving unto God. 

Upon the fifteenth of the second month (our June the 4th, 
being Thursday), the Israelites come to the wilderness of Sin, 
which lieth between Elim and Sinai, where, for want of food, 
they murmur against God and their leaders : about the even¬ 
tide God sends them quails, and the next morning rains upon 
them manna from heaven; and upon that kind of bread they 
lived afterward by the space of forty years, even till they came to 
the borders of the land of promise. An omer of it is preserved 
for a memorial. 

At Rephidim, which was the eleventh place of their encamping, 
the people murmur for want of water; Moses gives them water 
by striking the hard rock in Horeb with his rod. 

The Amalekites, falling upon the rear of the Israelites, are dis¬ 
comfited by Joshua, whilst Moses holds up his hands to God in 
prayer. 

God publisheth his Law, contained in the Ten Commandments, 
with a terrible voice from mount Sinai. 

The people being in great fear, God gives them sundry other 
laws, all which being written in the book of the covenant, Moses 
proposeth them to the people: which done, rising early in the 
morning, he builds an altar at the foot of the mountain, and sets 
up twelve statues, according to the twelve tribes of Israel, and 
sends twelve young men of the first-born (whom the Lord hath 
consecrated to himself as ministers of those holy things, before the 
Levitical priesthood was ordained), which offer sacrifice, first for 
sin, and then for thanksgiving, to the Lord: and when Moses had 
read the book of the covenant, he takes the blood of the calves 
and goats so offered, and with water, scarlet wool, and hyssop, 
sprinkles the book therewith, and all the people, or those twelve 
statues representing them; and so performs a solemn covenant 
between God and his people. 

Moses and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, and seventy men of the 
elders of Israel, go up into the mount, and there behold the glory 
of God : the rest returning, Moses with his servant Joshua abides 
there still, and waits six days, and upon the seventh day God 
speaks unto him, and there he continues forty days and forty nights 
(reckoning those six days which he waited for the appearance of 
the Lord), eating no meat all that while, nor drinking water 
( Deut . ix, 9); where he receives God’s command touching the 
frame of the tabernacle, the priests’ garments, their consecration, 
sacrifices, and other things comprised in this and the six follow¬ 
ing chapters. 

At the end of the forty days God gives Moses the two tables of 
the Law in stone, made by God’s own hand, and written with 
his own finger; bidding him withal quickly to get him down, for 
that the people had already made to themselves a molten calf to 
worship. Moses by prayer pacifieth God, and goes down from 
the niount, and seeing the people keeping a festival in honor of 
their idol in the camp, he breaks the tables of the law at the foot 
of the mount: for which the Jews keep a solemn fast unto this 
day. 

Moses having burned and defaced the idol, puts 3000 of the idola¬ 
ters to death by the hands of the Levites. 

God commands Moses to frame new tables of stone, and to 
bring them with him into the mount: Moses brings them the 
next morning, and while he stands in the cleft of the rock, Goa 
passeth by, and showeth him a glimpse of his glory. 

God renews his covenant with his people, and upon certain 
conditions gives them his laws again. 

In the first six months of this year, the tabernacle, the ark of 
the covenant, the altar, the table of show-bread, the priests’ gar¬ 
ments, the holy ointments, the candlestick, and other utensils and 

75 ° 





4 


Before 

Christ 

1490 


1489 


147 1 


1452 


I 


Exodus. 

XXXIX. 


XL. 
Lev. X. 
Numb. VII. 


IX. 

X, 29. 
Exodus, 
XVIII. 


Numbers. 

XI, 


3 1 - 

XII. 

XIII. 


XIV. 


Deut. I, 46. 


Numbers. 

XXXI. 

XVI. 


XVII. 


XX, 


*2, 


An index to the holy bible. 


vessels belonging to the sacrifices, are finished in the desert at 
mount Sinai, and are brought unto Moses. 

The tabernacle is set up and anointed with holy oil. Aaron 
and his sons are consecrated for the priesthood. 

Nadab and Abihu, for offering strange fire, are struck dead in 
the place by fire from heaven. 

The princes of the tribes present their offerings toward the 
dedication of the tabernacle. God speaketh to Moses from the 
mercy-seat. 

The second passover is instituted. 

Jethro, who is called Hobab, brings his daughter Zipporah, 
with her two sons, Gershom and Eliezer, which were left with 
him, to his son-in-law, Moses : and having congratulated his and 
the whole people of Israel’s deliverance out of bondage, he openly 
declares his faith and devotion toward the true God. By his 
advice Moses imparts the government of the people to some 
others, and ordains magistrates for the deciding of lesser causes. 

Moses complains to God of the over-great burden of his govern¬ 
ment; God, to ease him of his charge, gives him for assistance 
the court of seventy elders. 

The people lust for flesh. God gives them quails in wrath; 
and sends withal a most grievous plague among them. 

God rebukes the sedition of Miriam and Aaron, and maintains 
Moses’ right. 

From the wilderness of Paran, near Kadesh-bamea, twelve 
men are sent (among whom are Caleb and Joshua) to discover 
the land of Canaan. Returning, they bring with them a branch 
of a vine, with a cluster of grapes upon it; ten of the twelve so 
sent speak ill of the country, declare it barren, and magnify the 
cities for their strength, and the giantly stature of the inhabitants. 

The people, terrified with this relation, are about to return into 
Egypt, from which Caleb and Joshua endeavoring to dissuade 
them are like to be stoned. At this God is so provoked that he 
threatens to destroy them; but is prevailed upon by Moses, 
through his prayers, to spare them. Nevertheless he denounced) 
that all who are now twenty years old and upward (except Caleb and 
Joshua) shall die in the wilderness. The men who raised the evil 
report are all destroyed by sudden death. Some endeavoring to 
enter upon the promised land, contrary to the command of God, 
are smitten by the Amalekites and Canaanites. 

In this place, viz. Kadesh-barnea, the Israelites continue many 
days ; but that in some places they continued many years, appear, 
eth, for that in the space of 37 years there are but 17 encampings 
mentioned. 

To their long continuance in Kadesh, and the encampings from 
thence, all that we find delivered in the xvth and four next ensu¬ 
ing chapters of Numbers seems to refer; as how Korah, Dathan, 
and Abiram, for raising a mutiny against Moses and Aaron, were 
swallowed alive into the earth, and 250 of their associates; and 
how the people, murmuring against Moses and Aaron for the 
calamity which had befallen their brethren, were destroyed by 
God, to the number of 14,700 men: and how twelve rods being 
brought by twelve princes, and laid in the sanctuary, Aaron’s rod 
only budded, and brought forth almonds, and was laid up before 
the ark, for a memorial to those who should afterward be given 
to rebellion. 

In these 37 years the Israelites, by 17 encampings, having com¬ 
passed the hill country of Seir and Edom, they come to the wilder¬ 
ness of Zin, in the first month of the fortieth year after their de¬ 
parture out of Egypt. ... 

Here Miriam, the sister of Moses and Aaron, dieth. 

The people again for want of water murmur against Moses and 
Aaron, whom when God had commanded to call water out of the 
rock only by speaking to it, Moses, being moved in his mind 
through impatience and diffidence of the thing, speaks something, 
whatever it was, unadvisedly with his lips, and strikes the rock 
thrice with Aaron’s rod, and thereby draws water from it; but for 
transgressing God’s command, they are both debarred from en¬ 
tering int© the land ol Canaan. 

751 





before 

Christ 

1452 


1451 


An index to the holy bible. 


Numbers. 

XX, 

33, 28. 

XXI, 5 , 9 - 
John III, 14. 
x Cor. X, 9. 

Numbers. 

XXI, 


21, 

33 - 


XXII, x, 

2 , 3 - 


Joshua. 
XXIV, 9. 
Numbers. 
XXII, 7, 
35 - 

2 Pet. II, 
15, 16. 
Numbers. 
XXIII. 
Deut. 
XXIII, s. 

Joshua, 
XXIV, xo. 
Numbers 
XXV, 

1, 2, 3, etc. 
Deut. IV, 3. 
Psalm. 
CVI, 28. 
Rev. II, 14. 
1 Cor. X, 8. 
Numbers. 
XXV. 
Psalm. 
CVI, 30. 
Numbers. 
XXV, 

&Vi. 


XXVII, 

I, 2. 

12, 23. 

Deut. Ill, 26, 
27, 28. 
Numbers. 
XXXI. 
Josh. XIII, 
21, 22. 


In the fifth month of this year Aaron dieth at Mosera, on the 
top of mount Hor, at the age of 123 years, leaving liis son Eleazar 
his successor in the high priesthood. 

The people murmuring are plagued with fiery serpents, whereof 
many die ; upon their repentance God commands that a brazen 
serpent be made and lifted up upon a pole, that as many as look 
on it may live. 

About the latter end of this year, all those who at Kadesh- 
barnea mutinied against God being wholly extinct and dead, the 
Israelites pass over Zared, and come to the borders of Moab at Ar, 
and at length they arrive at Bamoth, a valley in the country of 
the Moabites, and pitch at mount Pisgah. 

Sihon, king of the Amorites, refusing them passage through his 
country, is slain, and the Israelites possess his land. 

Og, the king of Bashan, coming out against Israel, is destroyed 
with all his people, not one left alive, and his country possessed 
by the Israelites. 

After these victories the Israelites set forward, and encamp in 
the plains of Moab. 

Balak, king of Moab, considering what the Israelites had done 
to the Amorites, fears, lest under pretence of passing through his 
country, they should possess themselves of his whole kingdom, 
takes counsel with the princes of the Midianites his neighbors, 
and sends for Balaam, a soothsayer out of Mesopotamia, to come 
and curse the Israelites, promising him great rewards for his 
labor, purposing afterward to make war upon them. 

Balaam, forewarned of God, refuseth at first to come ; but being 
sent for a second time, he importuneth God to let him go, and 
goes with a purpose indeed to curse Israel; but God, offended 
thereat, makes the dumb ass of this wizard, on which he rode, 
speaking in a man’s voice, to reprove his folly. 

Balaam twice offers sacrifice, and would fain have cursed 
Israel, to gratify Balak therein; but being forced thereto by the 
Spirit of. God, instead of cursing, he blesseth them altogether; 
foretelling what felicity attended them, and what calamities should 
befall their enemies. 

By his advice the women of Moab and Midian are set on work 
to turn the Israelites away to idolatry. Wherefore God commands 
Moses first to take all the ringleaders of this disorder, and to hang 
them up before the sun, and then gives order to the judges to put 
to death all such as had joined themselves to Baal-peor. Last of 
all, God sends a plague upon the people, whereof die 23,000 men 
in one day : which added to them which were hanged and killed 
with the sword, amount in all to 24,000. 

Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, by killing Zimri, the chief of his 
father’s family, and Cozbi, the daughter of Zur, a prince of the 
Midianites, appeaseth the wrath of God, and the plague ceaseth. 
God therefore settleth the high priesthood forever upon the house 
of Phinehas, and commands that war be made upon the Midian¬ 
ites. 

Moses and Eleazar, by God’s command, in the plain of Moab, 
near unto Jordan, over against Jericho, number the people from 
twenty years old and upward, and find them to be 601,730 men, 

I besides the Le^ites, whose number, reckoning them from one 
! month old and upward, comes to 23,000; and then Moses re¬ 
ceives command for the parting the land of promise among the 
Israelites. 

The daughters of Zelophehad have their father's land parted 
among them, for want of issue male ; this occasions the law for 
succession in heritages to be made. 

God signifies to Moses that he shall die, and Joshua is thereupon 
declared to be his successor; upon whom Moses lays his hands, 
and gives him instructions. Several laws are made. 

Twelve thousand of the Israelites under the command of Phine¬ 
has vanquish the Midianites, and put to the sword all the males 
among them, with their five princes, and among them Zur, the 
father of Cozbi, and Balaam the wizard ; but they save the women 
alive; at which Moses is wroth, and commands that every male 
' child, and all the women, except such as be virgins, be killed. 

75 * 











AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


Before 

Christ 

X45i 


Numbers. 
XXXII. 
Deut. III. 
Josh. XIII 
and XXII. 


Deut. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 


XXIX. 

XXX. 


XXXI. 

XXXII. 

XXXIII. 

XXXIV. 



III. 

IV. 

V. 

10. 


II, 12 , 

*3- 


VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 


3®. 


The lands which belonged to Sihon and Og, namely, all from 
the river Arnon to mount Hermon, Moses divides and gives to 
the tribes of Reuben and Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh; so 
that their possessions lay on this side Jordan ; nevertheless, they 
assist the rest of the tribes in all their wars, till they have subdued 
the Canaanites, and possessed the promised land. 

Moses commands the people, that in their passage over Jordan 
they shall set up great stones, and engrave the Ten Command¬ 
ments on them, with the form of blessing upon mount Gerizim, 
and of cursing on mount Ebal, exhorting them to observe the law 
of God, by setting before their eyes the benefits that would ensue 
thereon. 

He also renews the covenant made by God with them and their 
children on mount Horeb, and again persuades them to keep that 
covenant by all the blessings and curses which would undoubtedly 
follow the keepers or breakers of it; yet with a promise of pardon 
and deliverance, if at any time, having broken it, they shall 
repent them of their sin; and tells them further, that God had 
therefore thus declared his will unto them, to the end that none 
hereafter offending shall pretend ignorance. 

Moses, having written this law, delivers it to the priests, the 
sons of Levi, and the elders of the people, to be kept; the same 
day also he writes his most excellent song, and teaches the same 
to the children of Israel to be sung; and having finished the book 
of the law, he takes order to have it laid up in the side of the ark. 

Moses now drawing near to his end, blesseth every tribe in 
particular, by way of prophecy, save only the tribe of Simeon. 

In the 12th month of this year he goes up to mount Nebo, and 
from thence beholds the land of promise, and there dieth, aged 120 
years ; the body of Moses God translates out of the place where 
he died into a valley of the land of Moab, over against Beth-peor, 
and there burieth it; nor doth any man know the place of it unto 
this day. The Israelites mourn for him 30 days. 

Here ends the Pentateuch, or five books of Moses, containing 
the history of 2552 years and a half, from the beginning of the 
world; and the book of Joshua begins with the forty-first year 
after the departure of the children of Israel out of Egypt. 

Joshua being confirmed in his government by God, sends forth 
spies from Shittim to the city of Jericho, who, being harbored by 
Rahab, are privily sent away, when search is made for them. 

Upon the tenth day of the first month (April 30), to wit, the 
same day that the Paschal Lamb was to be chosen out of the flock, 
the Israelites under the conduct of Joshua, a type of Jesus Christ, 
go up out of the river Jordan into the promised land of Canaan, 
a type of a more heavenly country. Theypass through the river 
on dry ground, the waters being for the present divided; for a 
memorial of which miraculous passage Joshua sets up twelve 
stones in the very channel of Jordan, and taking twelve other 
stones out of the midst thereof, sets them up at Gilgal, the place 
where they next encamp. 

The day following Joshua renews the use of circumcision, which 
had been omitted forty years. 

Upon the 14th day of the same month, in the evening, the 
Israelites celebrate their first passover in the land of Canaan. 

Next day after the passover manna ceaseth. 

Our Lord Jesus, Captain of his Father’s host, appears to Joshua, 
the typical Jesus, before Jericho, with a drawn sword in his hand, 
and promiseth there to defend his people. _ . . 

Jericho, the ark of the Lord having been carried round about it, 
is taken the seventh day, the walls thereof falling down at the 
sound of the priests' trumpets; all the inhabitants are put to the 
sword, except Rahab and her family. # . 

The Israelites besiege Ai, and are smitten by their enemies, God 
having abandoned them, for sacrilege committed by Achan: 
Achan’s sin being discovered by the casting of lots, and himself 
found guilty, he is stoned to death, and, together with his children 
and cattle, burned with fire. God being pacified hereby, Ai is 
taken by ambushment and utterly destroyed. 

On mount Ebal, according to the law made, is an altar erected, 

753 








AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


Jefore 
Christ I 
M5i 1 


1450 


1445 


1444 

1443 

1413 


1405 


1343 


Joshua. 

VIII, 

3 2 - 35 . 

IX. 


X. 


Ex. XXIII, 
10, 11. 

Josh. XIII. 


XI, 


21. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVIII. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

Judges II, 7. 

Ill, 6, 7, 


8, 


9 , 

12, 


* 5 * 

21, 


and the Ten Commandments engraven on it; the blessings and 
cursings are repeated on mount Ebal and mount Gerizim, and the 
book of the law read in the ears of the people. 

The kings of Canaan combine against Israel; only the Gibeon* 
ites craftily find a way to save their own lives by making a league 
with them; but are afterward deputed to the servile offices of the 
house of God. 

Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, with the kings of Hebron, 
Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon, hearing that Gibeon is fallen off 
from them, join their forces together and besiege it; but Joshua 
raiseth the siege, pursueth those five kings, and smiteth them as 
far as Azekah, the Lord in the meanwhile killing more with hail¬ 
stones from heaven than the Israelites with their swords. Joshua 
commands the sun to stand still over Gibeon, and the moon over 
the valley of Ajalon, by the space almost of one whole day, until 
the Israelites are fully avenged of their enemies. The five kings 
hide themselves in a cave at Makkedah; from whence they are 
brought forth, scornfully used, and hanged. 

From the autumn of this year, wherein, after the failing of 
manna, they began to till the ground, the rise of the sabbatical 
years is to be taken. 

Joshua, now grown old, is commanded by God to divide all the 
land on the west of Jordan among the nine tribes remaining, and 
the other half-tribe of Manasseh. The Lord and his sacrifices are 
' the inheritance of Levi. 

The rest of the kings, with whom Joshua had waged war for six 
years, resolve to set upon him with united forces: but Joshua 
comes upon them unawares, slays them, and possesseth their 
countries. 

Joshua now roots out those giants, the Anakims, with their 
cities, out of the hill-countries, out of Hebron, Debir, and Anab, 
and generally out of all the mountains of Judah and all Israel. 
And having gotten the whole land into his hands, he divides it 
among the children of Israel according to their tribes; and the 
land rested from war. 

The first sabbatical year, or year of rest; from hence the year of 
Jubilee, or every fifty years’ space, is to be reckoned. 

The tabernacle is set up at Shiloh (thought to be the same with 
Salem), where it continued 328 years. 

The Reubenites, Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manasseh, with 
a blessing, are sent home to their possessions on the other side of 
Jordan. 

Joshua gathers together all Israel, exhorts them to obedience, 
briefly recites God’s benefits to them, reneweth the covenant 
between them and God, and dieth, no years old. 

After the decease of Joshua, and the elders who outlived him, 
and who remembered the wonders which God had wrought for 
Israel, there succeeds a generation of men which forget God, and 
mingle themselves with the Canaanites by marriage, and worship 
their idols. In this time of anarchy and confusion, when every 
man did that which seemed right in his own eyes, all those disor¬ 
ders were committed which are reported in the last five chapters 
of the Book of Judges; to wit, the idolatry of Micah and the child¬ 
ren of Dan; the war of the Benjamites, and the cause thereof. 
God, being highly provoked, gives them up into the hands of 
Cushan, king of Mesopotamia ; which first calamity of theirs holds 
them but eight years. 

Othniel, the son of Kenaz, and son-in-law to Caleb, stirred up 
by God as a judge and avenger of his people, defeats Cushan, and 
delivers the Israelites out of bondage; and the land rested forty 
years after the first rest which Joshua procured for them. 

Othniel dying, the Israelites fall again to sin against God, and 
are given over into the hands of Eglon, king of Moab, who, joining 
with the Ammonites and the Amalekites, overthrows the Israel- 
ites, and takes Jericho; and this second oppression continueth 
eighteen years. 

Ehud, the son of Gera, is raised up by God to be an avenger ot 
his people; for feigning a message to Eglon, he runs him into the 
belly with his dagger; then getting away, he gathers all Israel 

754 


m 


2325 






Before 

Christ 

1325 

1305 

1285 

1252 

1245 


123O 

1235 

12 33 

1232 

1210 

I2c6 

1188 

1187 


Judges. 

HI, 

27-30, 

3 1 - 

IV, 1,2, 3, 
4 - 


V, 1-31. 
VI. 


VII. 

VIII, 


33- 

IX, 1, 2, etc. 


22, 


50. 

2 Sam. XI, 21. 
Judges X, 1, 
3, 

6 , 


15. 

XI. 

XII, 6, 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


into a body on mount Ephraim, and slays 10,000 of the most 
valiant men of Moab : and the land resteth forty years after the 
former rest obtained by Othniel 

After him, Shamgar, the son of Anath, slayeth 600 Philistines 
with an ox-goad, and he also avengeth Israel. 

The Israelites, after the death of Ehud, returning to their old 
sin, are given up by God into the hands of Jabin, king of Canaan; 
and this thraldom of theirs continueth twenty years. 

Deborah, the wife of Lapidoth, a prophetess, who at this time 
judgeth Israel in mount Ephraim, and Barak, of the tribe of Naph- 
tali, being made captain of the host of Israel, in sight of Megiddo, 
overcomes Sisera, captain of Jabin’s army, whom Jael, the wife 
of Heber the Kenite, afterward kills in her own tent. For a 
memorial of which victory Deborah composeth a song; and the 
land resteth forty years after the former rest obtained by Ehud. 

The Israelites sinning again, are delivered into the hands of the 
Midianites; which fourth thraldom lasteth seven years. Here¬ 
upon they cry unto God for help, and are reproved by a prophet. 
Then Gideon, the son of Joash, of Manasseh, is by an angel from 
God sent to deliver them. He first overturns the altar of Baal 
and burns his grove, and is called Jerubbaal. He, out of 32,000 
men which came unto him, chooseth only (God so commanding) 
300; but with them he puts to flight all the host of the Midianites, 
whom the Ephraimites afterward pursue, and slay their princes 
Oreb and Zeeb. Gideon having pacified the Ephraimites, who 
complain that they were not called to the battle at first, passeth 
the river Jordan, and defeats the remainder of the Midianitish 
army; he chastiseth also the men of Succoth and Penuel, who 
had refused him victuals in his journey ; and slays the two kings 
of the Midianites, Zebah and Zalmunna. After which great vic¬ 
tories, the Israelites offering to settle the kingdom upon him and 
his posterity, he refuseth it; but receiving their golden ear-rings, 
he makes thereof an ephod, which afterward proves an occasion 
of idolatry. The Midianites being thus vanquished, the land 
enjoys rest forty years, after the former rest restored to them by 
Deborah and Barak. 

Gideon dieth, and the Israelites, falling back again to idolatry, 
worship Baal-berith for their god. 

Abimelech the son of Gideon (begotten upon his concubine), 
purposing to get to himself the kingdom which his father had re¬ 
fused, slayeth seventy of his brothers all upon one stone; and 
having, by the help of the Shechemites, got to be made king, 
Jotham, the youngest son of Gideon, who only escaped Abime- 
lech’s fury, from the top of mount Gerizim expostulates with them 
the wrong they had done to his father’s house ; and, by way of a 
parable, foretells their ruin; which done, he flies, and dwells 
quietly in Beer. 

Abimelech, having reigned three years over Israel, Gaal, a 
Shechemite, conspires against him; which being discovered to 
him by Zebul, he utterly destroys the city of Shechem, and puts 
all the inhabitants to the sword, and burns the temple of their god 
Berith with fire; from thence he goeth and layeth siege to Thebez, 
where he is knocked on the head with a piece of a millstone, cast 
upon him by a woman from the walls, and then killed outright by 
his armor-bearer. 

Tola, the son of Puah, after Abimelech, judgeth Israel twenty- 
three years. 

Jair the Gileadite succeeds Tola, and judgeth Israel twenty-two 
years. 

The Israelites, forsaking again the true God, fall to worship the 
gods of several nations, and are given up into the hands of the 
Philistines and Ammonites; which fifth thraldom lasteth eighteen 
years. Upon their repentance, and abandoning their idols, at 
length they obtain mercy. 

Jephthah the Gileadite, being made captain of the host of 
Israel, subdues the Ammonites ; before the battle he vows his 
daughter unaware to be offered in sacrifice, and afterward performs 
it. He puts to the sword 42,000 Ephraimites, who had behaved 
themselves insolently against him, and judgeth Israel six years. 

75 o 





AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


Before 

Christ 

1182 

H75 

1x64 

1156 


TI 55 

ii37 


1136 


1117 


Judges. 

xir, s. 


11. 


13- 


1 Samuel. 
IV, 18. 

Judges. 

XIII, 

I, 3, 

XIV. 


XV. 


XVI. 


1116 


i Samuel. 
IV. 


V. 


VI. 


1096 


VII. 


Ibzan, the Bethlehemite, succeeds Jephthah, and judgeth Israel 

ven years. , . , , T . . 

Elon the Zebulonite succeeds Ibzan, and judgeth Israel ten 


years. 

Abdon the Ephraimite 


succeeds Elon, and judgeth Israel eight 


^ Eli the high priest (in whom the high priesthood was translated 
from the family of Eleazar to Ithamar’s) succeeds Abdon, and 
judgeth Israel forty years. The Israelites again provoke the Ix>rd 
to anger, and he delivers them into the hands of the Philistines. 
This sixth thraldom begins seven months after Eli’s entering upon 
the government, and lastetli forty years, even till seven months 
after his death, when the ark was brought back again. 

Samson the Nazarite, as an angel had foretold, is born at Zorah. 

Whilst Eli the high priest executeth the office of a judge in civil 
causes under the Philistines, Samson takes an occasion to quarrel 
with them, by marrying a woman of Timnath : for haying on the 
day of his* betrothing propounded a riddle to the Philistines, and 
laid a wager, his wife tells them the meaning of it; enraged here- 
at he goes and slays thirty men of Askelon, and gives them the 
suits of raiment which he had stripped off their bodies, in perform¬ 
ance of the wager which he had lost, and returns home to his 

Samson again in harvest-time goes to present his wife with a kid 
at her father’s house, but finds her given away in marriage to 
another man; Samson resolves to be avenged; he catches 300 
foxes, and tying firebrands to their tails, turns them all into the 
corn-fields of the Philistines, and into their vineyards, and olive- 
gardens, and sets them all on fire. The Philistines take Samson’s 
wife and father-in-law, and burn them; Samson in revenge slays 
a great multitude of them, and sits down upon the rock Etam, 
from whence being taken by 3000 of the Jews, and by them de¬ 
livered into the hands of the Philistines, he slays of them a thousand 
men with the jawbone of an ass; in which place he is miracu¬ 
lously refreshed, when thirsty and ready to faint. 

Samson is betrayed by Delilah his concubine, bereaved of the 
hair of his Nazariteship, and delivered to the Philistines, who 
put out his eyes, and bind him with chains of brass. The Philis¬ 
tines gather together to offer sacrifice to Dagon their god, and 
Samson is brought to make them sport; whose hair being grown, 
and his strength in a great measure restored, he takes hold of the 
two chief pillars whereon the house stood (wherein were the 
princes of the Philistines, and a great multitude of people), and 
pulls down the house, killing more men at his death than he did 
in all his lifetime. So he died, having judged Israel in the days 
of the Philistines twenty years. 

The Israelites take up arms against the Philistines, but with 
very ill success, for they lose 4000 men in one battle. Then they 
send for the ark of the covenant from Shiloh, and cause it to be 
brought into the camp. The Philistines, seeing now all lie at 
stake, encourage one another to behave themselves like men that 
day; and so falling on, they slay of the Israelites 30,000 men. 
The ark of God is taken, and Hophni and Phinehas, priests, and 
sons of Eli, are slain. Of all which, when tidings are brought to 
old Eli, frighted thereat, he falls from his chair and breaks his 
neck, in the 98th year of his age. 

The Philistines, having brought the ark into Ashdod, set it in 
the house of Dagon their god. But when Dagon had been found 
two several times fallen groveling before it, and broken in pieces, 
and the inhabitants of the place sorely plagued, they remove it 
from thence to Gath, and from thence to Ekron. But the same 
plagues and judgments following wherever it went, after seven 
months, by the advice of their priests, they send home the ark 
again, with presents and gifts, into the land of the Israelites, and it 
is brought to Beth-shemesh, where 50,070 men are smitten for look¬ 
ing into the ark. From hence it is carried to the house of 
Abinadab, in Kiijath-jearim, who sanctifieth his son Eleazar to 
keep it. 

, After twenty years the Israelites, by Samuel's persuasion, 


75 <> 












AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


Before 

Christ 

1096 

1095 

1085 

1063 

1060 
1056 

1055 


*053 

1048 


1 Samuel. 
VII, 
* 3 - 


VIII. 

Hosea XIII, 

10. 

1 Samuel. 
XI, 

* 5 - 

XVII, 12. 

XVI, 1. 

XVIII. 

XXIV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 


XXVIII. 
i Chron XII. 


1 Samuel. 
XXVIII. 


XXIX. 


XXXI. 

a Samuel. 
I. 


II. 


1 Chron. XII, 

23. 

Samuel. 

11 , 8 , 

12. 


111 , 6 , 


22. 


IV. 


solemnly repent at Mizpeh, and, upon their conversion, God by 
thunder from heaven delivers them from the invasion of the 
Philistines, who are subdued, the hand of the Lord being against 
them all the days of Samuel. 

Samuel, being grown old, takes for his assistance in the govern¬ 
ment his sons, by whose ill management of affairs the Israelites 
require a king to be given them: whereupon God gives them a 
king in his wrath, to wit, Saul, the son of Kish, after Samuel had 
judged Israel twenty-one years. Saul is privately anointed b\ 
Samuel, and afterward publicly proclaimed king at Mizpeh 
About a month after Jabesh-gilead is besieged by Nahash, king of 
the Ammonites, and the siege raised by Saul: whereupon the 
whole congregation of Israel, coming together at Gilgal, again 
proclaim Saul king. 

David, the son of Jesse the Ephrathite, born at Beth-lchem- 
judah, thirty years before he succeeded Saul in the kingdom. He 
was his father’s youngest son. 

God rejects Saul, and sends Samuel to Beth-lehem, there to 
anoint David king, whom Saul ever after extremely persecuteth. 

Yet Jonathan, Saul’s son, loveth him, and oftentimes rescueth 
him from Saul’s cruelty. 

David, having Saul twice in his power, forbears to hurt him. 

David, fearing he may some time or other fall into the hands of 
Saul, flies to Gath under king Achish, carrying with him 600 men ; 
and having obtained of him the town of Ziklag to dwell in, he con- 
tinueth one year and four months in the land of the Philistines : 
from whence he invadeth the countries of the Geshurites, Gezrites, 
and Amalekites, and puts to the sword all, both men and women, 
not leaving one alive to carry the news thereof to king Achish. 

Achish, proposing to make war upon the Israelites, takes David 
along with him in that expedition, to whom, whilst he is upon his 
march with his 600 men, repair a great many others of the tribe of 
Manasseh, and join with him. 

Saul, seeing the army of the Philistines, is in great fear, and 
(Samuel being now dead) goes to En-dor to consult with a witch 
there; the woman raiseth an apparition of Samuel, and Saul re¬ 
ceives from it that dreadful doom. The Lord will deliver Israel, 
together with thyself, into the hands of the Philistines. 

The princes of the Philistines growing jealous of David, he and 
his company early the next morning leave the army, and return to 
Ziklag. 

The armies join battle, and the Israelites are defeated; the 
three sons of Saul are slain, and he himself falls on his own sword. 

Three days after, an Amalekite brings Saul’s crown, and the 
bracelet that was upon his arm, and presents them to David, pro¬ 
fessing that, finding him fallen upon his sword, he had killed him 
outright, and taken the crown from off his head : whereupon 
David causeth him to be put to death for stretching forth his hand 
to slay the Lord’s anointed, and lamenteth the death of Saul and 
Jonathan his son in a funeral song. David, having asked counsel 
of God, goes up to Hebron with those that are about him, where 
he is anointed king by the men of Judah, his own tribe, in the 
30th year of his age; and there he reigns seven years and six 
months. 

Abner, who was captain of the host of Saul, carries Ishbosheth, 
Saul’s son, to Mahanaim, and there makes him king over the rest 
of Israel. . 

After two years there arise frequent and mortal skirmishes be¬ 
tween a party of men on David s side, headed by Joab, David s 
nephew, and another party on Ishbosheth’s side, whereof Abner 
is chief; but the former still grows stronger and stronger. 

Abner, affronted by Ishbosheth, revolteth to David, and deals 
with the’chief men of Israel to transfer the whole kingdom unto 
him, and this in the hearing of the Benjamites. 

He comes to David, and is kindly received; returning, he is 
treacherously murdered by Joab. David much laments his un¬ 
timely death, and buries him at Hebron. 

Baanah and Rechab murder their lord and master Ishbosheth, 
as he lieth resting himself upon his bed. They bring his head to 

757 







fielbre 

Christ 

1048 

1047 

1045 

1044 


1035 

1034 

1033 

1032 

1030 

1027 

1025 

1024 

1023 


1017 


iox6 

1015 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


2 Samuel. 

IV. 

V. 

1 Chron. XI. 
2 Sam. V, 

5> 6 , 7, 9- 


VI. 

1 Chron. 

XVI. 

2 Chron. I, 4. 

2 Sam. 

VII. 

1 Chron. 

XVII. 
XXII. 

2 Sam. VIII. 

1 Chron. 
XVIII. 
Gen. XV, 18. 
Deut. 

XI, 2 4 . 

1 Kings IV. 

2 Sam. XI. 

1 Chron. 

XX. 


2 Sam 
XII, 

25- 

1 Chron. 
XXII, 9. 


2 Sam. 
XIII. 


XIV. 


XV, 


7 - 


XVII. 

XVIII. 

XXIV. 


i Chron. 
XXI. 


i Kings. 
XIV, 21. 

1 Kings I. 


David, who in detestation of their treason causeth them immedi. 

ately to be put to death. . 

The captains and elders of all the tribes, coming to Hebron, 
anoint David a third time, and make him king over all Israel. 

David with all Israel marcheth to Jerusalem against the Jebu- 
sites, and taketh the fort of Zion, and calls it the city of David, 
and making Jerusalem the seat of his kingdom, reigneth there over 

all Israel 33 years. , . , 

The ark of the covenant, which in the first sabbatical year was 
brought from Gilgal to Shiloh, is this year, being also a sabbatical 
year, brought from Kirjath-jearim, out of the house of Abinadab, 
and placed at Zion; 30,000 choice men of Israel attending it. and 
singing the 68th Psalm. , , 

David now dwelling in his house of cedar, which he had built, 
and living in a full and perfect peace, imparteth to Nathan the 
prophet his purpose of building a house for God; but is answered 
from God, that this was a work which should be done, not by him, 
because he was a man of blood, and trained up in war, but by his 
son Solomon, a man of peace, which should be born unto him. 
The time which passeth from hence till the birth of Solomon is 
spent in wars, wherein David subdues the Philistines, Edomites, 
Amalekites, Moabites, Ammonites, and Syrians, and extends his 
kingdom to the utmost bound of that land which had been promised 
to the seed of Abraham, and never possessed by any of them, save 
only by David and his son Solomon. _ 

At the end of this year Joab, going with the army against the 
Ammonites, besiegeth Rabbah, the metropolis of Ammon, whilst 
David takes his ease at Jerusalem, and there commits adultery 
with Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah the Hittite, who was then in 
the army, whom he also procures to be slain. 

The cnild so gotten in adultery is born. David is convicted by 
Nathan the prophet of his sin, and he^ repents; in testimony 
whereof he composeth the 51st Psalm, dhe child dieth. 

Bathsheba becomes now David’s wife, and beareth him a son, 
unto whom, as unto one who should prove a man of peace, God 
gives the name of Solomon; and, as to one beloved of the Lord, 
the name of Jedidiah. 

Amnon, David’s eldest son, defloureth his sister Tamar. 

Absalom avengeth his sister Tamar, and killeth his brother 
Amnon; for which thing he fleeth to Geshur in Syria, where he 
continues three years with king Talmai, his grandfather by the 
mother’s side. 

After three years’ exile he returns to Jerusalem, where he con¬ 
tinues two years, before the king his father admits him into his 
presence, and is reconciled to him. 

This rebel son having got chariots and horses, and a guard to 
attend him, insinuates himself into the favor of the people, and 
steals away their hearts from his father David. 

The next year following, under pretence of a vow, he obtaineth 
leave to go to Hebron, where, by Ahithophel's counsel, he breaks 
out into open rebellion, and forcethhis father to fly from Jerusalem. 

Ahithophel, because his counsel in all matters is not followed by 
Absalom, hangs^himself. 

Absalom having lost 20,000 men, fleeth, and a bough of an oak 
catching hold of him, he there hangs, and is run through by Joab. 

David, tempted by Satan, commandeth Joab to number the 
people : God, offended thereat, sends a prophet to put three 
plagues to his choice, viz., the famine, sword, or pestilence. 
David chooseth to fall into the hands of a merciful God, rather 
than into the hands of men. So God sends a pestilence, whereof 
70,000 men die in one day. The angel being about to destroy 
Jerusalem, God bids him hold his hand; for he beholds David re¬ 
penting in sackcloth ; and entreating him to spare the innocent 
people, and to turn his hand upon himself, and upon his father’s 
house. 

Rehoboam is born unto Solomon by Naajnah, an Ammonitish 
woman. — 

David being now 70 year9 of age, and broken with continual 
cares and wars, grows so weak and feeble that clothes can no 

75 8 






Before 

Christ 

1015 


1014 


1012 

1005 

1004 

975 


974 


g 7 i 

958 

957 

955 


1 Kings. 


II. 


Ill, 1. 

2 Chron. 
VIII, ix. 


1 Kings. 

HI, 5. 


VI, 1. 

2 Chron. 
Ill, 1. 

1 Kings. 
VI, 38. 
VIII. 

2 Chron. 
V, VI, VII. 
i Kings XI. 

2 Chron. 
IX. 


1 Kings. 
XII, 


25 - 


XIV, i 7 . 
XII, 28. 


XIV. 

2 Chron 

XII. 

XI, 17. 


i Kings. 

XII, 32. 

XIII, 2. 


XIV, 25. 
2 Chron, 

XII. 

1 Kings. 
XV. 

2 Chron. 

XIII. 


1 Kings. 
XV, 8, 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


longer preserve heat in him. Therefore, Abishag, a young virgin 
is appointed to keep him warm. Adonijah, seeing his father thus 
declining, by the assistance of Joab and Abiathar, makes himself 
king : which David understanding, he presently commands Zadok 
the priest, and Nathan the prophet, with other great men to 
anoint Solomon king. Adonijah hearing this, betakes himself to 
the sanctuary, and is pardoned. 

David, having given instruction to his son Solomon, dieth 
after he had reigned in Hebron seven years and six months and 
33 years in Jerusalem over all Israel. ’ 

Pharaoh, king of Egypt, gives his daughter in marriage to 
Solomon. 

The Lord appears to Solomon in a dream, and bids him ask 
what he will, and it shall be given him. Solomon asketh wisdom * 
God gives him wisdom from above, and adds thereunto riches and 
honor. Of this divine wisdom Solomon makes an eminent mani¬ 
festation in judging between two harlots. 

THE FIFTH AGE OF THE WORLD. 

SOLOMON layeth the foundation of the temple in the 480th 
year after the departure of the children of Israel out of Egypt. 

Solomon’s temple finished in the eleventh year of his reign, 
having been seven years and a half in building. 

Solomon this year (being the 9th Jubilee, and opening the fourth 
Millenary of the world) with great magnificence celebrates the 
dedication of the temple : at which time God giveth a visible sign 
of his favor. 

Solomon having, as it is with reason believed, forsaken his 
lusts and vanities, to which he had been too intemperately ad¬ 
dicted, and written, as a testimony of his repentance, his book 
called the Preacher, dieth. He reigned 40 years. 

The Israelites assemble at Shechem to crown Rehoboam, Solo¬ 
mon’s son, king over all Israel. The people by Jeroboam sue 
unto him for a removal of some grievances ; to whom Rehoboam, 
by the advice of young men, returning a harsh answer, alienates 
the hearts of ten tribes from him, who make Jeroboam king over 
them, and fall at the same time from the house of David, and from 
the true worship of God. 

Jeroboam, in the beginning of his reign, repairs Shechem, de¬ 
stroyed by Abimelech 258 years before, and there dwells; after¬ 
ward going over Jordan he builds Penuel, and at length makes 
Tirzah the seat of his kingdom. But fearing lest his new subjects, 
by going to Jerusalem to worship, may be induced to revolt from 
him, he deviseth a new form of religion, setting up two golden 
calves, the one at Beth-el, the other at Dan, for the seduced people 
to bow down unto. 

From the time of this dismal rent Rehoboam reigneth over Judah 
and Benjamin 17 years, and Jeroboam over Israel, or the other 
ten tribes, 22 years. 

The Priests and Levites, and other Israelites who feared God, 
stick to Rehoboam, and maintain the kingdom of Judah three 
years ; after which time Rehoboam falls to idolatry, and walketh 
no more in the ways of David and Solomon. 

Jeroboam sacrificing to his calf at Beth-el, a prophet is sent 
unto him from God, who foretells the judgment which should one 
day be executed upon that altar, and the Priests (viz., those whom 
Jeroboam had made of the lowest of the people) that served at it. 
Which prophecy then and there is confirmed by signs and wonders 
upon the king himself, and upon the altar. 

Shishak, king of Egypt, spoileth Jerusalem and the temple; but 
the king and the princes repenting at the preaching of Sheinaiah 
the prophet, God gives them not over to utter destruction. 

Abijam, the son of Rehoboam, succeeds his father in the kingdom 
of Judah, and reigns three years. 

He obtains a great victory over Jeroboam, killeth 500,000 men 
in one battle, and taketh Beth-el. 

Asa, in the twentieth year of Jeroboam, succeeds his fathel 
Abijam, and reigns 41 years. 

759 












AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


Before 

Christ 

£54 

1 Kings. 
XV, 25, 

953 

27. 

95 i 

941 

2 Chron. 
XIV, 

9 . 


XV. 

930 

1 Kings. 
XVI, 6, 8, 

929 

9 , 

n, 


18, 


21, 

9 2 5 

22, 

924 

23. 2 4 , 

9x8 

29. 

914 

912 

XXII, 41. 
2 Chron. 
XX, 31. 
XVII, 7. 

901 

i Kings. 
XX. 

899 

XXI. 

898 

XXII, 51. 


2 Kings. 
Ill, 1. 

I, 17. 

897 

1 Kings. 
XXII. 

2 Chron. 
XVIII. 


2 Kings. 

I, 1. Ill, 5. 
2 Sam. 
VIII, 2. 

2 Kings I. 


Nadab, in the second year of Asa, succeedeth his father Jeroboam 
in the kingdom of Israel, and reigneth not full two years. 

Nadab, at the siege of Gibbethon (a town of the Philistines), is 
slain by Baasha, of the tribe of Issachar, in the third year of Asa ; 
and the same year, having made himself king over Israel, he 
utterly destroyeth the whole race of Jeroboam, and reigneth 24 
years. At this time lived the prophets Jehu, Hanani, and Azarias. 

Asa destroyeth idolatry, and enjoying ten years of peace, 
strengthens his kingdom with forts and a standing army. 

Zerah the Ethiopian, with an innumerable army, invadeth 
Judah: Asa overcomes him, sacrificeth to God of the spoil, and 
maketh a solemn covenant with God. He also deposeth Maachah 
his grandmother, a great patroness of idolatry ; bringeth into the 
temple those things which his father and himself had consecrated 
unto God, and enjoys a long peace. 

Elah, the son of Baasha, succeeds his father in the kingdom of 
Israel. 

In the second year of his reign, and the twenty-seventh of Asa’s. 
Zimri, one of his captains, conspires against him, kills him, ana 
reigneth in his stead. As soon as he sits on the throne, he de¬ 
stroyeth the whole family of Baasha; but the army which then 
lay before Gibbethon makes Omri then king, who presently 
besiegeth Tirzah, and taketh it; which Zimri seeing, he sets on fire 
the king’s palace, and perisheth in the flames. 

The people of Israel are now divided into two factions ; one 
follows Tibni, the son of Ginath, and endeavors to make him king; 
the other adheres to Omri; but Tibni dying, Omri reigns alone, in 
the 31st year 9f Asa. 

Omri having reigned six years in Tirzah, removes the seat of 
his kingdom to Samaria, a place which he himself had built. 

Ahab succeeds his father in the kingdom of Israel, and reigneth 
22 years in Samaria. He did evil in the sight of the Lord above 
all that were before him. 

Jehoshaphat succeedeth his father Asa in the fourth year of 
Ahab, king of Israel, and reigneth 25 years in Jerusalem. 

Jehoshaphat being settled in his kingdom, and having de¬ 
molished the high places and groves, in the third year of his 
reign he sends Levites with the princes to instruct the people in 
the law. God in the meantime subdueth his enemies under nim. 

Ben-hadad, king of Syria, layeth siege to Samaria, who by the 
direction of a prophet is beaten off, and a vast number of the 
Syrians slain. 

Ahab not being able to persuade Naboth to sell him his vine¬ 
yard, falls sick upon it; Jezebel, his wife, suborning false witnesses 
to accuse him of blasphemy, causeth Naboth to be stoned, and 
puts the king in possession of the vineyard. Whereupon the 
prophet Elijah denounceth judgments against Ahab and Jezebel; 
wicked Ahab repenting, God defers the judgment. 

Ahab, in the seventeenth year of the reign of Jehoshaphat, 
maketh his son Ahaziah his associate in the government of his 
kingdom. 

Jehoshaphat also maketh Jehoram his son copartner with him ; 
whence it is, that Jehoram, the son of Ahab, who succeeded his 
brother Ahaziah in the kingdom of Israel, in the eighteenth year 
of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, is said to have begun his reign in 
the second year of Jehoram, the son of Jehoshaphat. 

Ahab having got Jehoshaphat to assist him in the siege of 
Ramoth-gilead, before he goes, he asketh counsel of 400 false 
prophets, who promise him victory and success ; but, by Jehosha- 
phat’s advice, Micaiah, a true prophet of God, is consulted, who 
foretells his overthrow, and according to his word Ahab is slain at 
Ramoth-gilead, and buried at Samaria. 

Ahab being dead, the Moabites revolt from Israel, who had 
continued in subjection ever since king David’s days. 

Ahaziah, king of Israel, lying ill of a fall, sends to consult 
Baalzebub, the god of Ekron, concerning his recovery. Elijah the 
prophet meeteth the messenger, and telleth him Ahaziah shall 
surely die; whereupon two captains, with over fifty men apiece, are 
sent to apprehend him, and bring him before the king; Elijah 

■760 





Before 

Christ 

896 

892 

889 

888 

885 

884 


' 878 

857 


2 Kings. 
I. 


x Kings. 
XXII. 

2 Kings. 
Ill, 1. 

n, 11. 

2 Chron. 
XXI, 2, 3. 


2 Kings. 
VIII, 16. 

2 Chron. 
XXI, 4, 5. 

Genesis. 
XXVII, 40 


2 Chron. 
XXI, 10, 11, 


12. 


2 Kings. 
VIII, 25, 


28. 

IX. 


2 Kings. 
X. 


IX. 

X. 


XI. 

2 Chron. 
XXII, 10. 


2 Kings. 
XI. 

2 Chron. 
XXIII. 

2 Kings. 

XII, 7. 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


calleth for fire from heaven, and destroyeth both ,them and theit 
companies. A third captain, with his fifty men, being sent, and 
behaving himself submissively, Elijah goes along with him ; the 

E rophet certifies the king that he shall not come down from his 
ed alive. So Ahaziah dieth, having governed (partly by himself, 
and partly together with his father) two years. 

Jehoram succeedeth his brother Ahaziah in the kingdom of 
Israel in the latter end of the eighteenth year of Jehoshaphat, and 
reigneth twelve years. 

Elijah is taken up into heaven in a fiery chariot. 

Jehoshaphat, grown old, gives to his sons many gifts, with fenced 
cities in Judea; but his eldest son, Jehoram, he now more abso¬ 
lutely investeth with the throne of the kingdom, in the fifth year of 
Jehoram, king of Israel. 

Jehoram now, by the death of his father, has the kingdom of 
Judah to himself, which he holds four years. He is no sooner 
settled in his throne, but he puts all his brethren to the sword, 
with many of the princes of Israel. At this time the Edomites, 
who ever since king David’s time had lived in subjection to 
Judah, revolt, and (as it was foretold by Isaac) they forever shake 
off his yoke; Libnah also, a city of the priests in the tribe of 
Judah, falls off from him about this time. 

Jehoram, following the counsel of his wicked wife Athaliah, the 
daughter of Ahab, king of Israel, sets up in Judah, and even in 
Jerusalem itself, the idolatrous worship of Baal, and compels hi$ 
subjects thereto; a letter which was left for him by Elijah the 
prophet comes to his hands, which reproves him, and denounces 
all those calamities and punishments which afterward befell him. 

Ahaziah succeeds his father in the kingdom of Judah (having 
had part of the government bestowed upon him the year before), 
in the 12th year of Jehoram, king of Israel, and reigneth one year 
in Jerusalem. 

Jehoram, king of Israel, and Ahaziah, king of Judah, lead their 
armies to Ramoth-gilead against Hazael, who had newly suc¬ 
ceeded Ben-hadad in the kingdom of Syria: Jehoram is danger¬ 
ously wounded, and retires, himself, to Jezreel to be cured. In the 
meantime Elisha sendeth a young prophet with instructions to 
anoint Jehu, the son of Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi, at 
Ramoth-gilead, king over Israel, and to open to him the will of 
God for the rooting out of the house of Ahab; who, being pro¬ 
claimed king by the soldiers, marcheth straight to Jezreel, killeth 
Jehoram in the field of Naboth, and causeth Jezebel to be cast out 
at a window, where she is eaten by dogs. He dispatcheth letters 
also to Samaria, and causeth seventy of Ahab’s children to be be¬ 
headed. Then taking with him Jehonadab, the son of Rechab, 
he comes himself to Samaria, and destroys the whole family of 
Ahab, and all the priests of Baal. Nevertheless, having put down 
the worship of Baal, he departs not from the worship of Jeroboam’s 
golden calves, but maintains that idolatry all the time of his reign, 
which was 28 years. 

Jehu proceeds further, and executes the divine vengeance upon 
the idolatrous house of Judah; he pursues Ahaziah, who fied 
toward Megiddo, and overtaking him at Gur, causeth him to be 
killed in his chariot. Going also to Samaria, he meeteth with 42 
of Ahaziah’s kinsmen, whom he causeth to be slain. 

Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab, seeing her son Ahaziah dead, 
usurps the kingdom, destroying those that had right to the suc¬ 
cession ; but Jehosheba, the daughter of king Jehoram, and wife 
to Jehoiada the high priest, takes Jehoash, being then an infant, 
and son to her brother Ahaziah, and hides him in the temple, and 
so saves him from that massacre which was made of the rest of the 
blood royal. 

Jehoiada, the high priest, brings out Jehoash, now seven years 
old, and anoints him king; causeth Athaliah to be slain, and 
restoreth the worship of the true God, destroying the house of 
Baal and commanding the idolatrous priest Mattan to be killed 
before his altars. Jehoash now beginning his reign, in the seventh 

year of Jehu, reigneth 40 years in Jerusalem 

Jehoash, in the 23d year of his reign, giveth order for the repall 

761 






AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


Before 

Christ 

857 


84I 


O4O 


839 


836 


S26 


2 Kings. 

XII, 7. 

XIII, I. 


VIII, 12. 
XIII, 10. 


2 Chron. 
XXIV, 
21. 

2 Kings. 
XII, 20. 
XIII. 


XV, I. 


XIV. 

2 Chron. 
XXV. 


825 

810 


808 


784 


773 


772 


771 


2 Kings. 
XIV, 16. 
2 Chron. 
XXV. 

2 Kings. 
XV. 


XV, 8, 


10. 


Amos. 

vn, 9 . 

2 Kings. 
XV, 14, 




! of the temple, committing the charge thereof to Jehoiada the high 
| priest. 

i Jehoahaz succeedeth his father Jehu in the kingdom of Israel, 
and reigneth 17 years : during all which time Hazael, king of Syria, 
oppresseth him, and exerciseth all those cruelties upon the Israel¬ 
ites which Elisha the prophet had foretold. 

Jehoash, the son of Jehoahaz, king of Israel, is taken into the 
consortship of that kingdom by his father, in the 27th year of 
Jehoash, king of Judah, and reigneth 16 years. 

Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada the high priest, for reproving the 
people of Judah that fall to idolatry after the decease of Jehoiada, is 
stoned to death in the court of the house of the Lord by the com¬ 
mandment of king Jehoash, who the next year after is murdered 
by some of his servants, as he lay in his bed ; and Amaziah his 
son succeedeth him. 

Jehoahaz dieth, and Jehoash his son succeedeth in the kingdom 
of Israel. Not long after his father’s funeral he visits Elisha the 
prophet, then lying sick, and with many tears asketh counsel of 
him, who promiseth him victory over the Syrians. A dead man 
is brought to life by being laid in Elisha’s grave. 

Jeroboam the second is this year taken into the consortship of 
the kingdom of Israel by his father Jehoash, going to war against 
the Syrians. This is gathered from Azariah king of Judah’s be¬ 
ginning to reign in the 27th year of this Jeroboam. 

Amaziah, king of Judah, growing proud upon a victory obtained 
against the Edomites, this 14th year of his reign, provoketh 
Jehoash, king of Israel, to battle. Jehoash overcomes him, and 
takes him prisoner, breaks down 400 cubits of the wall of Jeru¬ 
salem, and, having spoiled the temple and the king’s house of a 
vast treasure, returns to Samaria. 

Jehoash dies, fifteen years before Amaziah, and Jeroboam the 
second, his son, reigneth in Samaria 41 years. 

Amaziah, finding a conspiracy against him at Jerusalem, flies to 
Lachish, where he is murdered ; after whom comes his son Uzziah, 
or Azariah, in the 27th year of Jeroboam the second, and reigneth 
52 years in Jerusalem. 

Now is held the 13th Jubilee, under the two most flourishing 
kings; in whose times live sundry great prophets in both king¬ 
doms; Isaiah and Joel in Judah; Jonas, Hosea, and Amos, in 
Israel. 

Jonas of Gath-hepher, a town belonging to the tribe of Zebulon 
in Galilee of the Gentiles (observe here the blindness of the Phari¬ 
sees, John vii, 52), was afterward sent into Nineveh, the metropo¬ 
lis of Assyria, where both king and people at his preaching 
repented. 

Jeroboam, king of Israel (under whom that kingdom came to 
its full height of glory), dieth ; after his death all things fall into 
confusion, and the state is reduced to a plain anarchy, which 
lasteth 11 years and a half; for such an interregnum or vacancy 
the synchronism of Kings requires, that the six months of Zach- 
ariah, the son of Jeroboam, may answer the 38 years and one 
month of Shallum, who murdered him, in the 39th year of Azariah, 
or Uzziah, king of Judah. 

Zachariah, the son of Jeroboam, the fourth and last of the race of 
Jehu (as was foretold), begins his reign over Israel, in the 38th 
year of Azariah, or Uzziah, king of Judah, and reigneth six 
months. 

Shallum, the son of Jabesh, at the end of six months, murders 
him in the sight of the people, and reigns one month, in the 39th 
year of Uzziah, king of Judah. After Zachariah’s death follow 
those direful calamities foretold by Amos the prophet. 

Menahem, the son of Gadi, going from Tirzah to Samaria, 
killeth Shallum, wasteth Tiphsah and the borders thereof, and 
because the town would not open to him, he takes it, and rips up 
all the women with child. » 

While Menahem in these broils labors to get the possession of 
the kingdom, Pul, king of Assyria, invadeth his country, to whom 
Menahem giveth 1000 talents of silver, and afterward reigneth 
quietly 10 years. 

7 62 





AM INDEX To the: HOLY BIBLE. 


Before 

Christ 2 Kings. 

761 XV, 23, 


759 25 , 27, 


758 


3 2 - 

2 Chron. 
XXVII, 5. 
Mic. I, 1. 


742 


2 Kings. 
XVI, 1. 

2 Chron. 
XXVIII, 1 
Isa. VII. 


74i 


739 


2 Kings. 
XV, 30. 


730 

728 ! XVII, 3. 


726 


725 

724 


XVIII, I. 
2 Chron. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 
XXXI 
2 Kings. 
XVII, 4. 


721 


713 


XVIII. 


XX. 


710 


Isaiah. 
XXXVIII. 
2 Kings. 
XIX. 

Isaiah. 

XXXVII. 


698 


2 Kings. 

XXI. 

2 Chron. 

XXXIII. 


Pekahiah succeedeth his father Menahem, in the 50th year of 
Uzziah, king of Judah, and reigneth 2 years. 

Pekah, one of his captains, kills him in his own palace at 
Samaria, and reigneth 20 years. 

Jotham succeedeth his father Uzziah in the kingdom of Judah, 
at the age of 25 years, and reigneth 16 years in Jerusalem. 

Jotham subdues the Ammonites, and makes them tributary for 
3 years. Under him and his two successors the prophets Micah 
and Hosea execute their prophetical office. About this time lived 
the prophet Nahum, and prophesied the destruction of Nineveh. 

Ahaz succeedeth his father Jotham, in the 17th year of Pekah, 
king of Israel, and reigneth 16 years. 

This year Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah, king of Israel, are 
confederate against Judah, which strikes a great terror into that 
nation; but unto Ahaz, God, by the prophet Isaiah, sends a 
gracious message, with a promise of deliverance; for a sign whereof 
(when the incredulous king, being bid to ask a sign, refused to do 
it) God. gives him the promise of Immanuel to be born of a virgin. 
Rezin and Pekah now lay siege to Jerusalem, and therein to Ahaz, 
but are beaten off; Ahaz is no sooner delivered from his enemies 
but he forsakes God his deliverer, and falls to idolatry. Where- 
fore God gives him over into the hands of the king of Israel, who 
slays of the men of Judah 120,000 in one day, with a great many 
of the nobility, and carrieth away 200,000 captives; but these, by 
the advice of the prophet Obed, are released and sent home. 

Hoshea, the son of Elah, murders Pekah, king of Israel, and 
gets the kingdom into his own hands, it is said, in the 20th year 
of Jotham, that is, from the time that Jotham first began to reign, 
which is the same with the 4th of Ahaz his son. Hoshea, Dy 
1 reason of the tumults and disorders which ensued, cannot be said 
! to have reigned till 9 years after, the state continuing all that time 
in great confusion, without any form of government. 

Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, comes up against Hoshea, and 
makes him to serve him, and pay him tribute. 

Hezekiah succeedeth his father Ahaz in the kingdom of Judah : 
he destroyeth idolatry, and prospers ; he also celebrates a solemn 
passover, and reigneth 29 years in Jerusalem; his father had 
made him, in the last year of his reign, his assistant in the govern¬ 
ment. 

Hoshea, king of Israel, having consulted with So, king of Egypt, 
refuseth to pay tribute to Shalmaneser: provoked hereby, and 
jealous of some further design in that confederacy of Hoshea with 
the king of Egypt, Shalmaneser layeth siege to Samaria, and 
toward the latter end of the third year taketh it, and carrieth 
away the Israelites captive into his own country. This was the 
end of the kingdom of Israel, when it had stood divided from the 
kingdom of Judah 254 years. 

Sennacherib, king of Assyria, coming up against Judah, be- 
siegeth their fenced cities, and taketh many of them, but is pacified 
by a tribute. 

About this time Hezekiah falls sick, and is told by Isaiah that 
he shall die, but pouring out his tears and prayers unto God, he 
recovereth his health, and obtaineth a prolongation of his life and 
kingdom for 15 years. For a sign whereof the sun goes ten degrees 
backward. 

Sennacherib, not observing the articles of peace, layeth siege to 
Jerusalem, and sendeth a blasphemous letter to Hezekiah; which 
he opening, and spreading before the Lord in the temple, with 
many tears, craves assistance from God against the Assyrians. 
Whereupon the prophet Isaiah assures him that Cod will deliver 
him, and defend that city. The self-same night an angel of the 
Lord slays 185,000 men in the Assyrian army; and the next 
morning Sennacherib departeth, and returns to Nineveh; where 
not long after, whilst he is worshiping in the house of Nisroch 
his god, he is slain by his own sons. 

Manasseh, at 12 years of age, succeedeth his father Hezekiah, 
and reigneth 55 years. He setteth up idolatry, and sheddeth 
much innocent blood. Wherefore God delivers him up into the 
hands of the Assyrians, who in the 22d year of his reign carry him 











Dhris 

677 

656 

643 

641 

630 

624 

610 

609 

607 

606 

605 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


2 Chron. 
XXXIII. 

Judith. 

XIII. 

2 Kings. 

XXI, 19. 
2 Chron. 
XXXIII, 

21 , 22 . 

2 Kings. 

XXII, x. 
2 Chron. 
XXXIV. 


2 Kings. 

XXIII. 
2 Chron. 
XXXIV. 


2 Kings. 
XXIII, 29 

Zech. 
XII, n. 


2 Chron. 
XXXV, 25. 
Lam. 

IV, 20. 

2 Kings. 
XXIII. 

2 Chron. 
XXXVI, 


5 - 

Jer. 

XXVI. 

XXV, I 

2 Chron. 
XXXVI, 6. 


XXV,' 11. 
XXIX, 10. 
Daniel. 

I, 3 , 7 - 
Isaiah. 
XXXIX, 7. 


away captive to Babylon : but upon his repentance God restore* 
him to his liberty and kingdom. 

This year Nabuchodonosor, king of Assyria, purposing to make 
himself universal monarch, sends Holofernes, his general, against 
Judea, who layeth siege to Bethulia, and there hath his head taken 
off by Judith, a woman of the tribe of Simeon. 

Amon, aged 22 years, succeedeth his father Manasseh, and 
reigneth two years. An idolater indeed, as his father, but no 
penitent: he is murdered by his own servants. 

Josiah, a child of 8 years old, succeedeth his father Amon, and 
reigneth 31 years. In his time lived Jeremiah and Zephaniah the 
prophets, and Huldah the prophetess. 

In the 12th year of his reign he begins a refortnation in Judah 
and Jerusalem, and carries it on successfully. 

This year he giveth order for the'repair of the temple. Hilkiah 
the high priest, having found a book of the law, sends it to the 
king, who hears it read all over to him, and thereupon asketh 
counsel of Huldah the prophetess, who prophesieth the destruction 
of Jerusalem, but not in his days. Josiah, calling to him the 
elders of Judah and Jerusalem, with the priests and prophets, 
causeth the book of the law to be read over before all the people, 
and reneweth the covenant between God and his people; he 
burneth also dead men’s bones upon the altar at Beth-el, as was 
foretold, and keepeth a most solemn passover. 

At this time a war breaks out between the king of Egypt and 
the king of Assyria. Josiah unadvisedly engageth in the war 
against Necho, king of Egypt, and is slain in the valley of 
Megiddo. The good king being thus taken out of the world, 
whose life only kept off the Babylonish captivity from that nation, 
not only the people then living bewailed his death, but even in 
after-time a public mourning for him was kept. The prophet 
Jeremy also, in remembrance thereof, composeth his Lamentations, 
wherein, bewailing the calamities which were shortly to befall that 
people, as present before his eyes, in a most compassionate man¬ 
ner he points, as it were with his finger, at the death of Josiah as 
the source and original of all those ensuing miseries. 

After the death of Josiah, the people anoint Jehoahaz, one of his 
younger sons, to be their king. After three months’ reign, he is 
deposed by Pharaoh Necho, who makes Eliakim, his elder brother, 
king over Judah and Jerusalem, and changes his name into 
Jehoiakim ; but Jehoahaz he carries along with him captive into 
Egypt, where he ends his days. 

Jehoiakim, at 25 years of age, begins to reign, and he reigneth 
11 years. 

Uriah and Jeremiah prophesy against Jerusalem ; the former is 

R ut e L ,; , e \ atter is acquitted, and set at liberty. About this 
time Habaickuk also prophesieth. 

™ s y ear is Nebuchadnezzar the Great made, by his father, 
Nebopolazzar, his associate in the kingdom of Assyria and Baby- 
on , into whose hands God delivers up Jehoiakim who is put in 
chains, to be carried to Babylon; but upon his submission and 
promises of obedience is left in his own house, where he lives a 
servant to Nebuchadnezzar 3 years. From which entering of the 
ing and people of the Jews into the subjection and service of 
IN ebuchadnezzar are the 70 years of the captivity of Babylon to be 
re <*oned which were foretold by the prophet Jeremy. 

,, /jtmchadnezzar gives order to Ashpenaz, master of the eunuchs, 
™ at , , j C w rry from thence the children of Israel, both of 
the blood royal (as was foretold by the prophet Isaiah to Hezekiah) 
and also of the nobility, the choicest youths, both for beauty and 
wit, that he can find l; who, being educated 3 years in the language 
and sciences 01 the Chaldeans, may afterward be fit to serve the 
king in his palace; among whom, of the tribe of Judah, are 
Daniel called Belteshazzar; Hananiah, called Shadrach; 
Mishael, called Meshach; and Azariah, called Abed-nego • their 
names being thus changed by the master of the eunuchs. 

Whilst Nebuchadnezzar pursues his victories over the king of 
Egypt his father dies, which coming to his knowledge, he gives 
order for the bringing away of the captives, and posts with a 

764 











Before 
Christ! 

605 1 


6^3 


600 


599 


588 


Dan. I, 2. 

2 Chron. 
XXXVI, 7. 

2 Kings. 
XXIV, 1. 
Dan. II. 


2 Kings. 
XXIV, 2. 

Jer. 

XXII, 18. 
XXXVI, 

2 flings. 
XXIV, 8. 

2 Chron. 
XXXVI, 9. 


Isaiah. 
XXXIX, 6. 
Jer. 

XXIV, r. 
Ezekiel. 
XVII, 12. 

I, 2, 3. 
Baruch. VI. 


2 Kings. 
XXIV, 17. 

2 Chron. 
XXXVI. 


2 Kings. 
XXV. 
Jer. I, 3. 
XXXIX. 
LII, 


26. 

2 Kings. 
XXV, 21. 

Jer. 

XLIX, 7. 
Ezekiel. 

XXV, 12. 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


small company the nearest way to Babylon, where he is receive* 
as the lawful successor to his father’s dominions. He causeth 
to be brought to Babylon what he thinks fit of the vessels and fur¬ 
niture of the temple, and placeth them in the house of his god, 
viz., Belus. 

Jehoiakim, having lived 3 years in subjection to the king of 
Babylon, falls off, and rebels against him. 

This year (being the second of Nebuchadnezzar’s reign, taking 
it as begun at his father’s death) Daniel recovers Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar’s dream, and interprets it to betoken the four chief mon¬ 
archies; whereupon he and his companions are highly ad¬ 
vanced. 

Nebuchadnezzar sends an army, consisting of Chaldeans, 
Syrians, Moabites, and Ammonites, against Jehoiakim; these 
waste the whole country of Judea, and carry away from thence 
3023 captives. Jehoiakim also is taken prisoner, whom they put 
to death, cause his carcass to be drawn out at the gate of Jerusa¬ 
lem (as was foretold by the prophet Jeremiah), and leave it with¬ 
out the walls unburied. 

Jehoiachin (called also Conias and Jeconias), at 18 years of age, 
succeeds his father Jehoiakim, and reigns three months in Jeru* 
salem. 

Against him Nebuchadnezzar leads an army, and besiegeth 
Jerusalem : Jehoiachin, with all his kindred and courtiers, come out 
to meet him. Nebuchadnezzar makes them all prisoners, enters 
Jerusalem, and takes all the treasure he can find in the temple and 
the king’s palace, breaking in pieces all the vessels of gold and 
furniture which Solomon had made for the temple; he carriet'r. 
away captive to Babylon the king, his mother, wives, courtiers, 
magistrates, and 10,000 able men out of^Jerusalem, leaving none 
behind but the poorer sort of people ; and out of the country round 
about he carried also away 8000 artificers. Among the captives 
are Mordecai, and Ezekiel the priest; Ezekiel, therefore, in his 
prophecy reckons the time all along from the beginning of this 
captivity. An epistle, said to be Jeremiah’s, is now sent to tha 
captives, admonishing them to beware of the idolatry which they 
shall see in Babylon. 

Nebuchadnezzar, before his departure from Jerusalem, makes 
Mattaniah, Jehoiachin’s father’s brother, king, changing his name 
into Zedekiah. 

Zedekiah, beginning his reign at 21 years of age, reigneth ix 
years ; he, by rebelling against Nebuchadnezzar, or rather by 
continuing in open rebellion (as his father had done) against God, 
brought upon J erusalem and the whole nation of the Jews those long- 
deserved calamities which God had so often forewarned them of 
by his prophets ; for, in the latter end of the nth year of Zedekiah, 
Jerusalem, after a long siege, is taken by Nebuchadnezzar, and 
his Chaldeans enter it. Zedekiah flees away by night, but, being 
pursued, is taken, and brought prisoner to Riblah, Nebuchadnez¬ 
zar’s headquarters ; there having first seen his children slaugh¬ 
tered before his eyes, he has afterward those eyes put out, and, 
being loaded with chains, is carried away captive to Babylon. 
About a month after the taking of the city, Nebuzaradan, captain 
of the guard, sent by Nebuchadnezzar, makes his entry into it, 
sets fire to the temple, the king’s palace, and some noblemen's 
houses, and so layeth the whole city in ashes ; the walls of Jeru¬ 
salem being razed to the ground ; all that were left in the city, 
and those that a little before had fallen to the Chaldeans, with 
what treasure he can find, doth Nebuzaradan carry with him into 

B£ And°thus was Judah carried out of her own land, 468 years after 
David began to reign over it, 388 years after the falling off of the 
ten tribes, and 134 years after the destruction of the kingdom of 
Israel 

Obadiah, the prophet, denounceth God’s judgments against the 
Edomites, ’who now exult over the calamity of the Jews. The 
same do Jeremy and Ezekiel, and the author of the 79th and 137th 
Psalms, who wrote all about the same time. 


765 













AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


537 


Before 

Christ 

569 

The 

Baby¬ 

lonian 

Em¬ 

Daniel. 

iv, 

29* 33 > 

pire. 

562 

34 - 


2 Kings. 
XXV, 27. 
Jer. LII, 


3 1 - 

555 

Daniel. 

VII, 1. 

553 

VIII, 1. 

538 

V. 

Jer. 

XXVII, 7. 


Dan. V. 


Isa. XIII. 
Hab. II. 

Jer. 

XXV, 12. 

L, LI. 
Dan. V, 31. 


VI. 


IX. 

Jer. 

XXIX, TO. 
Dan. IX. 


THE SIXTH AGE OF THE WORLD, 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR, proud of his victories over Egypt, and 
his conquest of Judea and other countries, and boasting the magni¬ 
ficence of his buildings, falls distracted, and is driven from the 

society of men. , , . , 

After seven years spent among the beasts of the field, his under¬ 
standing returning to him, he humbly acknowledgeth the power of 
God, and his goodness toward him, and is restored to his king¬ 
dom. A few days after, he dies, having reigned about 20 months 
together with his father, and 43 years by himself. 

Evil-merodach, his son, succeeds him, in the 37th year of the 
captivity of Jehoiachin, or Jeconiah, who presently gives order for 
the enlargement of Jehoiachin, and two days after changeth his 
prison clothes, sets him above all the princes of his court, and 
causeth him to eat at his own table. Jehoiachin dies about two 
y ear s sftcr 

y Belshazzar, having removed some persons who had murdered 
his father, Evil-merodach, and usurped his throne, succeeds in 
the kingdom of Babylon. In the first year of this king s reign 
Daniel has the vision of the four beasts, signifying the four great 
monarchies of the world, and of God delivering over all power 
and sovereignty to the Son ot Man. 

In the third year of Belshazzar, Daniel receives the vision of the 
ram and the he-goat, betokening the destruction of the Persian 
monarchy, and the great misery which Antiochus should bring 
upon the people of God. 

This year Belshazzar makes a great feast for all the nobles, and 
causeth to be brought forth all the vessels of the house of the Lord, 
which Nebuchadnezzar, his grandfather, had brought away from 
Jerusalem, to the glory of his idols, and dishonor of the true God. 
In the midst of all this jollity a hand appears writing on the wall 
of the room in which the king and his numerous guests sit drink¬ 
ing. The king, greatly terrified hereat, sends for his Chaldean 
astrologers and wizards, and commands them to read the writing, 
and give him the interpretation of it; but they not being able to 
do either, Daniel is sent for, who reads the writing, and gives the 
king the interpretation of it: whereupon Daniel is publicly pro¬ 
claimed the third man in the kingdom. The same night Belshaz¬ 
zar is slain, Babylon is taken by Cyrus, and the empire translated 
to the Medes and Persians, as had been sundry times foretold by 
the prophets. 

Cyrus having given the kingdom of Babylon to Darius the 
Mede, reserving some palaces in the city for himself, he returns 
through Media into Persia. 

Daniel’s greatness raising envy in some principal courtiers and 
officers, these contrive his ruin : but finding nothing in his man¬ 
agement of affairs whereof to accuse him, they resolve to order 
matters so that Daniel’s piety toward God shall become an offence 
worthy of death. They move the king to make a decree that for 
30 days no petition shall be made to any god or man, but to him¬ 
self only. Which decree Daniel breaks by making supplication 
to his God, and is, for so doing, cast into a den of lions ; but being 
found to have received no hurt there, Darius commands the con¬ 
spirators to be cast into the same den, who are presently devoured ; 
and the king publisheth a decree that all persons throughout his 
dominions shall reverence and fear the God of Daniel. 

Toward the end of the first year of the reign of Darius the 
Mede, to be reckoned from the subversion of the Babylonish 
empire, begins the 70th year of the captivity of the Jews, which, 
by Jeremiah’s prophecy, was to be the last year of their calamity. 
Upon consideration of which time, so near at hand, Daniel pours 
out his most fervent prayers to God for the remission of his own 
sins, and those of his people, and for that promised deliverance 
out of their captivity; to whom the angel Gabriel brings an 
answer not only of this, but also of the spiritual deliverance of the 
church by the death of the Messiah ; uttering that memorable 
prophecy of the seventy weeks. 

1 Cyrus, his father Cambyses, and his father-in-law Cyaxares, 

70 ^ 


536 










Before 

Christ 

536 


The 

Per¬ 

sian 


Em¬ 

pire. 


Ezra. I, 2. 


Isaiah. 
XLIV, 28, 
XLV, 

1, * 3 - 


Ezra I, 
5 , 6 . 
II. 
Neh. 
VII 


Acts. 
XXVI, 7. 
Lam. I,i. 
Luke II, 
36. 



2 Chron. 
XI, 16. 

535 

Ezra III 

8 , 13- 

534 

IV, 5, 

529 

6 . 


520 


V, 1. 


Hag. II, 
i , 9. 


5i9 

518 

5i5 


Zech. I, 
1, 6. 
Esther. 
I, II. 
Ezra. 
VI, 
15-22. 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 

both dying, Persia falls to him by inheritance, and Media by con* 
tract of marriage: and so he is possessed of the whole eastern 
empire ; from which time both Xenophon (Inst., lib. 8) reckons 
the 7 years of his reign; and the Holy Scripture, out of the records 
of the Medes and Persians, reckons this his first year; for it 
teacheth us that in this year came forth that renowned edict of 
his Thus saith Cyrus, king of Persia, The Lord God of Heaven 
| hath given me all the kingdoms of the earth, and hath charged 
me to build him a house at Jerusalem which is in Judah etc. At 
which time the 70 years of the Babylonish captivity being expired 
(a s was foretold by Isaiah and Jeremiah, the former making men- 
tion of Cyrus by name), he gives leave to all the Jews, dwelling 
in all parts of his dominions, to return into their own country, and 
commands them immediately to fall in hand with rebuilding of 
the temple. 

He restoreth also all the vessels of the house of God, which 
Nebuchadnezzar had brought from thence; and contributes 
toward the building. 

The Jews, therefore, return into their own country, the poorer 
sort haying allowance made them to defray their charges upon the 
way.. The number of the children of the province, or Hebrews 
born in Chaldea, which, with their captain, Zerubbabel, and their 
high priest, Jeshua, return out of captivity, is 42,360, besides 
proselytes, men-servants, and maid-servants, to the number of 
7337- Now the particular sums of Ezra’s catalogue being cast up 
amount only to 29,818; and those in Nehemiah’s account make 
but 31,031, both which come far short of that general sum of 
42,360, which at the bottom of each catalogue is said to be the 
number of the whole congregation. Wherefore the Hebrews, in 
the xxixth chapter of their great chronicle, tell us, that to complete 
the full sum of 42,360, we must cast in those of the other ten tribes 
of Israel who came up out of the captivity with the Jews. For 
even till the last extirpation of the Jewish State there remained 
some relics of the other ten tribes, not only in the dispersion, 
and at Jerusalem, and other cities of Judah, but also of those 
who kept still in their own seats; for Shalmaneser swept not 
away all out of the whole ten tribes, but left a remnant of them in 
their own country, who were afterward, together with the Jews, 
Benjamites and Levites, carried away by Nebuchadnezzar into 
Babylon, and are now dismissed and sent back again by Cyrus. 

In the second year after their return from Babylon, in the second 
month, they appoint Levites to oversee the work of the house of 
God, and lay the foundation of the temple; the old men lamenting, 
who 53 years before had seen the old temple standing, and the 
younger sort rejoicing to see the new one going up. 

The Samaritans, by the means of certain courtiers about Cyrus, 
whom they had bribed for that purpose, disturb the Jews in their 
work of the temple. 

In the beginning of the reign of Artaxerxes (called in profane 
story Cambyses) the Samaritans, who, whilst Cyrus lived, had 
secretly undermined the Jews, now openly frame a direct accusa¬ 
tion in writing, against the inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem, 
and present it to the king, who presently forbids the Jews to pro¬ 
ceed in the building. 

In the second year of king Darius Hystaspes (the same with 
Ahasuerus), Zerubbabel and Jeshua, incited by the prophets 
Haggai and Z'echariah, set forward the building of the temple. 

Haggai prophesieth that the glory of this second temple shall be 
greater than that of the former ; not as being a more magnificent 
structure, but in regard that the blessed Messiah shall one day 
honor it with his presence, and from thence propagate peace to all 
nations. 

About this time Zechariah the prophet exhorteth the Jews to 
repentance. 

Ahasuerus puts away queen Vashti, his wife, and not long after 
espouseth Esther, the niece of Mordecai the Jew. 

In the sixth year of Darius, or Ahasuerus, the temple is finished, 
the dedication whereof is celebrated with great joy and abundance 
of sacrifices, the priests and Levites, every one in his place, attend¬ 
ing on the ministry of the temple. The passover also is celebrated. 

767 












Before 

Christ : 
510 ■ 


509 

467 

455 


442 

415 


335 

332 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


Esther, 

III. 


Deut- 
XXV, 19. 


Esther. 

IV. 


VI. 


VII. 


IX. 

Ezra. 

VII. 


VIII. 

IX, X. 

Neh. 

II. 

Dan. IX, 
24 - 

Neh. V, 14. 
XIII, 6. 


XIII. 


Malachi. 
IV, 4. 
Luke I, 17. 
Matthew. 

XI, i 4 . 
XVII, 12. 


Jos. Ant. 

. 11, c. 8. 
Id. ibid. 


Haman, an Agagite, of the race of the Amalekites, a great 
favorite of king Ahasuerus, offended at Mordecai, because he falls 
not down and adores him, as others do, resolves to be revenged of 
the whole nation of the Jews (which was ever averse to his), and 
to root it out; for the executing of which purpose, that he may 
find a successful time, he causeth Pur, that is, the lot, to be cast 
before him, for to know the day and month wherein the Jews shall 
be destroyed, and the lot falls on the 12th month, Adar. 

Haman obtains an edict from the king, that all Jews, without 
respect to sex or age, upon the thirteenth day of the month Adar, 
be put to death, in all the provinces of the king’s dominions. Here¬ 
upon Mordecai, Esther, and all the Jews, humble themselves 
before the Lord by fasting and prayer. 

Ahasuerus, hearing it read in the chronicles that a conspiracy 
had been discovered to him by Mordecai, commandeth that he be 
publicly honored, and that by Haman himself, his deadly enemy. 

Esther, entertaining the king and Haman at a banquet, maketh 
suit for her own life, and her people’s, and accuseth Haman. 
The king, understanding that Haman had provided a gallows for 
Mordecai, causeth him to be hanged thereon. In memory of this 
great deliverance the two days of Purim are made festival. 

Ezra the priest, a man skilled in the law of Moses, obtains a 
large commission from king Artaxerxes to settle the Jewish com¬ 
monwealth, and to reform the church at Jerusalem. 

In the seventh year of Artaxerxes, Ezra, with a great multitude 
of Jews, sets out from Babylon. 

Ezra obligeth those who had taken strangers to wife to send 
them back. 

In the twentieth year of king Artaxerxes, Nehemiah, a Jew, 
one of his cup-bearers, being made governor of Judea, obtains 
leave to build the wall of Jerusalem, and finish that great work. 
Here begins Daniel’s 70 weeks, to be fulfilled before the passion 
of our Saviour. 

Nehemiah, having governed Judea 12 years, returns to the king 
of Persia. 

This year is the 21st Jubilee, the last that ever the prophets of 
the Old Testament saw; for that place in Nehemiah, chap, xii, 22, 
is not to be understood of the last Darius, but of Darius Nothus, 
who now reigns in Persia; the full history of Nehemiah ending 
with the time of Artaxerxes Longimanus, father of this Darius 
Nothus. 

Hitherto (saith Eusebius, in his chronicle, to the 32d year of 
Artaxerxes) the Divine Scriptures of the Hebrews contain the 
annals of the times ; but those things which were done among 
them afterward we must deliver out of the books of the Maccabees, 
and out of the writings of Josephus, who have delivered a general 
history of the Jewish affairs from thence down to the times of the 
Romans. 

That Malachi, the last of the prophets, was contemporary with 
Nehemiah, appears from hence, that he nowhere exhorts the 
people to the building of the temple, as Haggai and Zachary did ; 
but the temple being now built, he reproves those disorders which 
Nehemiah, at his second return with a new commission from 
Babylon, saith he found in his absence to have crept in among the 
Jews, as marriage with strange women, withholding of tithes, 
and abuses in the worship of God; and because a succession of 
prophets was not to be expected, as before, he exhorteth the 
people constantly to adhere to the law of Moses, till Christ, the 
chief prophet, should appear, whose forerunner, John the Baptist, 
should come in the spirit and power of Elias, to turn the hearts of 
the fathers unto their children, and the disobedient to the wisdom 
of the just. See 1 Mac. iv, 46, and ix, 27. 

ALEXANDER the Great, king of Macedonia, passeth out of 
Europe into Asia, and begins to lay waste the Persian empire. 

Manasses, brother to Jaddus the high priest, refusing to put 
away his strange wife, is driven from the sacrifice : Sanaballath, 
his father-in-law, governor of Samaria, revolteth from Darius, 

1 obtains leave of Alexander to build a temple on mount Gerizim, 

768 









Before 

Christ 

333 


& 

Mace¬ 

do¬ 

nian 

Em¬ 

pire. 

323 

320 


Jos. Ant. 


1. ix, c. 8. 


Daniel. 
VIII, 7 - 
XI, 13. 




os. Ant. 

, 12, c. 1. 
1 Mac. I. 


377 


*77 


176 

175 

172 

170 


Jos. Ant. 
1. 12, c. 1. 


1. 12, c. 2. 


2 Mac. III. 


1 Mac. I, 
10. 

2 Mac. IV, 7, 
23, 24, 


27. 


1 Mac. I, 
21, 22. 

2 Mac. V. 
Jos. Ant. 
I. 12, c. 7. 

Daniel. 

XI, 28. 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


and makes Manasses high priest thereof, to which resort all such 
as are entangled in unlawful marriage, with all such offenders as 
think themselves not safe at Jerusalem. This was the rise of that 
schismatical -onventicle of the Samaritans. See John iv, 20. 

Alexander marcheth toward Jerusalem, intending to besiege it. 
Jaddus the high priest, hearing of it, putteth on his priestly orna¬ 
ments, and, accompanied with the people all in white, goeth out to 
meet him. Alexander, seeing his habit, falls prostrate before him, 
saying that, whilst he was in Macedonia, a man appeared unto 
him in the very same habit, who invited him to come into Asia, 
and promised to deliver the Persian empire into his hands. After 
this he goes to the temple, and offers sacrifice, according to the 
high priest’s direction. They show him the prophecy of Daniel, 
that a Grecian should come and destroy the Persians, whereby 
he is mightily confirmed in his persuasion that he himself is the 
man. Lastly, he bestoweth on the Jews whatever favors they 
desire, and departeth. 

The Persians are overcome, Darius slain, and Alexander re¬ 
mains universal monarch of the eastern world 

Alexander, having reigned six years and ten months, dieth ; his 
army and dominions are divided among his captains. Antigonus 
makes himself governor of Asia, Seleucus of Babylon and the 
bordering nations ; Lysimachus hath the Hellespont; Cassander, 
Macedon; and Ptolemeus, the son of Lagus, gets Egypt. 

Ptolemeus, surnamed Soter, makes himself master of Jerusalem 
by a stratagem, for he enters the city on a Sabbath-day, under 
pretence of offering sacrifice, and whilst the Jews suspect nothing, 
but spend the day in ease and idleness, he surpriseth the city, 
without resistance, and maketh the citizens captives. He sendeth 
several colonies of Jews into Egypt, and puts great confidence in 
them. 

Ptolemeus Philadelphus, son of Ptolemeus Soter, being a great 
favorer of learning, builds a most magnificent library at Alexan¬ 
dria. Demetrius Phalerius, to whom he had committed the care 
of procuring all sorts of books, and out of all countries, persuades 
him to employ 72 Jews in translating the Holy Scriptures out of 
the original Hebrew into the Greek tongue, which was done, in 
the seventh year of his reign. The king also dismisseth many 
captive Jews, and dedicates many presents to the temple of God 
at Jerusalem. 

One Simon, a man of the tribe of Benjamin, governor of the 
temple, falling out with Onias the high priest, goes to Apollonius, 
the governor of Celosyria, and informs him that there is a vast 
treasure in the temple; Apollonius acquaints king Seleucus, his 
master, with it,, who presently sends his treasurer, Heliodorus, to 
Jerusalem, to bring this money away. Heliodorus, entering the 
temple, is by angels struck down in the very place, and carried 
from thence half dead ; but by the prayers of Onias he is soon after 
restored to his health. Returning to Seleucus that sent him, he 
magnifies the holiness of the temple, and the power of God dwell¬ 
ing in it. . 

Antiochus Epiphanes succeeds Seleucus in the kingdom of 
Syria, and reigneth 11 years and some months. 

Jason, by corrupting king Antiochus, obtaineth the office of high 

priest. , , . , , 

Menelaus, brother to Simon the traitor, being employed by 
Jason to carry the money to the king, promiseth 300 talents of 
silver above what Jason had sent, and getteth the priesthood to 

himself. . . . 

Menelaus, not paying the money he had promised the king at 
his admission, is summoned to appear before Antiochus ; he sub¬ 
stituted Lysimachus, his brother, in his place. _ 

Antiochus taketh Jerusalem, and. sacking it, pillaged the 
temple, destroyed 40,000 of the inhabitants, and selleth as many 
more. He endeavoreth also to abolish the worship of God, and 
forced many Jews to forsake their religion. The Samaritans now 
disown their relation to the Jews, to whom in prosperity they pre¬ 
tended alliance, and consecrate the temple op mount Gerizim t<? 


Jupiter. 


7 6 9 


% 





AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


Before 

Christ 

168 


i Mac. 
VIII, 5- 


167 


I, 45 - 


x Mac. II. 
2 Mac. VI. 
Jos. Ant. 
1. 12, c. 8. 


166 


165 


164 


x Mac. III. 

2 Mac. VIII. 
Jos. Ant. 

1. 12, c. 9. 

1 Mac. III. 
Jos. Ant. 

1. 12, c. 10. 
x Mac. 

HI, 13. 
Joseph, 
ut supra. 

1 Mac. 

Ill, 27. 
Jos. Ant. 

1. 12, c. 11. 

1 Mac. VI. 

2 Mac. IX, 9. 
Jos. Ant 
I h 12, c. 13. 


163 


2 Mac. XIII. 


Jos. Ant. 

1. 12, c. 15. 


162 1 Mac. VII. 



2 Mac. XIV. 
Jos. Ant. 

1. 12, c. 17. 


1 Mac. IX. 
Jos. Ant. 

1. 12, c. 18, 
19. 

1 Mac. 
VIII, 19. 
Jos. Ant. 

1. 18, c. 17. 
1 Mac. IX, 
55 , 7 °- 


Perseus, having made war upon the Romans, is this year over* 
come by them, and the kingdom of the Macedonians ends, when, 
from Caranus, it had stood 626 years. Nevertheless, the relics of 
the Macedonian empire, while that of the Roman was rising, did 
yet survive in the Ptolemies of Egypt and the kings of Syria. 

King Antiochus, by a public edict, commands all nations that 
are subject unto him to observe the same way of divine worship, 
and, laying aside their peculiar customs, to profess the same reli¬ 
gion with the Grecians, the punishment of death being threatened 
unto such as shall be disobedient; and he appoints overseers over 
every people and nation, who shall compel them hereunto. Of the 
Jews many choose rather to undergo the most cruel torments than 
to offer sacrifice unto idols; all which martyrdoms, with those 
glorious sufferings of the seven Maccabean brethren, are recorded 
in the two books of Maccabees. 

Mattathias, a priest, with his five sons, slay those that are sent 
by king Antiochus to compel them to offer abominable sacrifices, 
and after betake themselves to the desert. They are followed by 
many others, of whom a great number are stifled in their caves, 
because they would not defend themselves on the Sabbath- 
day. Mattathias abolisheth that superstition, and exhorts his 
sons to assert their privileges, and deliver their country from 
bondage 

Mattathias dies, and Judas Maccabeus takes upon him the 
management of this affair. He delivers his country, and purgeth 
it from the abominations which had been committed in it. 

Apollonius, governor of Samaria, having raised an army among 
the Gentiles and Samaritans, falls upon the Jews, but is discom¬ 
fited and slain by Judas Maccabeus. 

Seron also, governor of the lower Syria, musters up all the 
forces under his command, and invades Judea ; him Judas Mac¬ 
cabeus encounters, slays 800 of his men on the place, and puts the 
rest to flight. 

Judas Maccabeus defeats a great army which Antiochus sent 
against the Jews. Lysias returns with a great power; Judas 
kills 5000 of his men, and causeth him to retreat. He purifieth 
the temple, and setteth it in order, after it had lain desolate three 
years, and buildeth a wall about Zion. 

Antiochus is taken with a violent pain in his bowels, and such 
a rottenness seizeth his flesh that worms breed in it; he confesseth 
that he is plagued for the wrong done to Jerusalem, and dieth, in 
the 149th year of the kingdom of the Grecians. His son, Antiochus 
Eupator, a child about nine years old, succeeds him. He maketh 
peace with the Jews, but quickly breaketh it; he puts to death 
Menelaus the high priest, and confers that honor upon Alcimus,or 
Jacimus. 

Onias, the son of Onias III, retires into Egypt, where Ptolemeus 
Philometor, and Cleopatra his wife, permit him to build a temple 
at Heliopolis in imitation of that at Jerusalem, and they constitute 
him high priest there. 

Demetrius Soter, the son of Seleucus, escapes from Rome, and 
comes into Syria, where he causeth himself to be crowned king, 
and putteth to death Antiochus and Lysias. 

Demetrius, at the instance of Alcimus, sends Nicanor with a 
great army against Judas Maccabeus, whom he endeavors to sur¬ 
prise. They join battle, and Nicanor is slain. 

Here ends the continued history of the second book of Macca¬ 
bees, being an abstract and breviary' of the five books of Jason, a 
Jew of Cyrene. 

King Demetrius sends Bacchides with a new army, consisting 
of 20,000 men, against Judas Maccabeus ; Judas, having with him 
but 800 men, ventures to engage him, and is slain. His brother 
Jonathan is chosen general in his stead. 

Jonathan enters into an alliance with the Romans. Josephus 
observes, that this was the first league that ever was known to be 
between the Jews and the Romans. 

Whilst Alcimus commands the wall of the inner court of the 
temple to be pulled down, God strikes him suddenly with a palsy, 
so that without speaking a word he dies in great torment, 

77 ° 














Atf INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLI 5 . 


Before 

Christ 

158 

153 


Jos. Ant. 

I. 13, c. 2. 
i Mac. X, 1. 
Jos. Ant. 

1. 13, c. 3. 


152 


150 


148 


146 


1 Mac. 

X, 3, 10. 
Jos. Ant. 

1. 13. c. 4. 

J 1 Mac. X, 15. 
Jos. Ant. 

1. 13, c. 5. 

1 Mac. X, 21. 
Id. ibid. 

1 Mac. X, 


49 . 5 °- 
Joseph, 
ubi supra. 

1 Mac. X, 51. 
Jos. 1 . 13, c. 7. 
1 Mac. X, 75. 
Jos. Ant. 

1. 13, c. 8. 

1 Mac. XI. 
Jos. loc. citat. 


145 


144 


143 


142 


1 Mac. XI, 

T 54 - 
Jos. Ant. 

1. 13, c. 9. 
1. Mac. 
XI, 55 - 
XII. 

Jos. Ant. 

L 13, c. 

9, c. 10. 


1 Mac. XIII. 
Jos. Ant. 

lib. 13, 
c. 10, 11. 


1 Mac. XIII, 

3 D 3 2 - 
Jos. Ant. 

1. 13, c. 12. 


Jonathan, having wearied Bacchides by war, compelleth hint 
to make a league and draw off his army. 

Alexander Balas, the son of king Antiochus Epiphanes, enters 
with an army into Syria : the garrison of Ptolemais set open their 
gates to him, by reason of their hatred to king Demetrius, who 
prepares himself for war. 

Demetrius desireth an alliance with Jonathan, who makes use 
of this occasion to repair the fortifications of Jerusalem. 

Alexander Balas is no less careful to obtain the friendship of 
Jonathan, and, to oblige him, confers on him the high priesthood. 

Jonathan puts on the holy vestment on the seventh month of 
the 160th year of the kingdom of the Grecians, at the feast of 
tabernacles. He was the first high priest of the Hasmonean 
family. 

Demetrius and Alexander come to battle, and Demetrius is 
slain. 

Alexander Balas, finding himself in the peaceable possession of 
the kingdom of Syria, espouseth Cleopatra, the daughter of Ptole- 
meus Philometor, king of Egypt. Alexander highly honors 
Jonathan the high priest at his nuptials. 

Demetrius Nicanor, eldest son of Demetrius Soter, enters into 
Cilicia with an army. King Alexander Balas gives the command 
of Syria to Apollonius, who sets upon Jonathan the high priest; 
Jonathan defeats him, and takes Joppe and Azotus, and burns the 
temple of Dagon. 

Ptolemeus Philometor, king of Egypt, comes to the relief of 
king Alexander, his son-in-law ; Alexander ungratefully sets Am- 
monius to lie in ambush to kill him. The treachery being discov¬ 
ered, Ptolemeus takes away his daughter from Alexander, and 
marrieth her to Demetrius. Alexander having been driven from 
Antioch, the inhabitants of that place make offer of the kingdom 
to Ptolemeus; but he refuseth it, and persuadeth them to accept 
of Demetrius for their king. 

Alexander returns with a great army. Ptolemeus and Deme¬ 
trius unite their forces, and overcome him in a pitched battle; but 
Ptolemeus dies of the wounds which he received, after he had seen 
the head of Alexander, sent to him by Zabdiel, an Arabian prince. 
Jonathan besiegeth the citadel at Jerusalem, held by a garrison of 
Macedonians. Complaint hereof being made to Demetrius, Jona¬ 
than appeaseth him by presents, and obtaineth new favors for the 
Jews. Demetrius incurreth the hatred of his soldiers by abridging 
their pay in time of peace. 

Tryphon, with some soldiers that revolted from Demetrius, un¬ 
dertakes to establish Antiochus, the son of Alexander Balas, in 
the kingdom of Syria. 

Demetrius is vanquished by young Antiochus, and made to fly 
into Seleucia. Great honors are by Antiochus conferred on Jona¬ 
than, who assists him against Demetrius. 

Jonathan renews his alliance with the Romans and Lacedemo¬ 
nians, and fortifies Jerusalem. 

Tryphon contrives how he may quit himself of Antiochus, and 
reign in his stead; but fearing Jonathan’s opposition, he invites 
him to come to Piolemais, and bring with him some few of his 
soldiers, promising to deliver that city into his hands. Jonathan, 
suspecting no treachery, comes only with 1000 men to Tryphon at 
Ptolemais; but as soon as he is entered the city, Tryphon com¬ 
mands the gates to be shut. Jonathan is taken prisoner, and all 
his men put to the sword. 

The-Jews hereupon make choice of Simon Maccabeus for their 
general, in the place of his brother Jonathan. Tryphon leads an 
army against Simon. He promiseth for 100 talents of silver to 
release Jonathan; the rtjpney being paid him, he breaks his 
promise, and puts Jonathan to death. Simon erects a stately 
monument for his father and his brethren. 

Tryphon murders the young king Antiochus, and puts the crown 
on his own head. 

The Romans and Lacedemonians renew their leagues with 
Simon, and write them in tables of brass. 

Simon has the government and high priesthood settled on him 

771 













AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 




Before 

Christ 

x Mac. 

142 

XIV, 18. 
Jos. Ant. 


1. 13, c. 13. 

*39 

1 . 13, C. 12. 

*38 


*35 

i Mac. 
XVI. 


Jos. Ant. 

1. 13, c. 14. 

130 

1. 13, c. 17. 

107 

Jos. I, I. 

Bell. c. 3. 


Ant. lib. 


13. c. 19 and 
lib. 20, c. 8. 

88 

Luke II, 37. 


Jos. 1 . 1. 

6 3 

Bell. c. 5. 

Ant. lib. 

14, c. 8. 

49 


The 


Rom. 


Emp. 

Jo*. 1 . 14, 


c. 25. 

40 

Id.Ibid, 
c. 28, 1. 1. 

38 

Bell. c. 13. 

37 


3 1 


28 

Dionys. 
lib. 52. 

Jos. Ant. 

27 j 

lib. 20. 

18 ! 

John II, 20. 

6 

Luke I, 11, 

i 

5 

26, 

4 

57 - 


and his heirs; the Jews are by his means discharged from all 
manner of tribute to any foreign prince. He takes Sion, the for¬ 
tress of Jerusalem, drives out of the city all idolaters, clears the 
houses of their idols, and placeth in the city such as are true wor¬ 
shipers of God. 

Tryphon’s vices render him so odious to his soldiers, that they 
submit themselves to Cleopatra, Demetrius’ relict. She marrieth 
Antiochus Soter, Demetrius’ brother, and causeth him to be 
crowned king. Antiochus drives Tryphon out of Syria, and be- 
siegeth him in Dora, whence he flies to Apamea, where he is taken 
and slain. 

Simon the high priest, traversing the cities of Judea, and taking 
care for their orderly government, comes down with his two sons, 
Mattathias and Judas, to Jericho ; Ptolemeus, the son of Abubus, 
Simon’s son-in-law, invites them to the castle which he had forti¬ 
fied, called Dochus, and there, whilst he entertains them at a 
banquet, barbarously murders them. John Hircanus succeeds 
his father in the high priesthood. 

Here ends the first book of Maccabees, containing the history 
of forty years. 

John Hircanus takes Shechem, and demolisheth the temple on 
mount Gerizim, 200 years after it had been built by Sanaballat. 

Judas, eldest son of Hircanus, otherwise called Aristobulus, 
and surnamed Philellen, succeeds his father in the government 
and the high priesthood. He was the first of any that, after the 
return from the captivity of Babylon, set a crown upon his head, 
and changed the State into a monarchy. 

Anna, the prophetess, daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Aser, 
this year becoming a widow, departs not from the temple, but 
serveth God with fasting and prayer night and day, for 84 years 
together, until such time as she sees Christ in the temple. 

Jerusalem in this year is taken by Pompey, who meddles not 
with any of the treasure which was in the temple, but makes the 
' :ws tributary to the Romans. 

n khere begins the empire of the Roman Ccesars, when Julius 
Ccesar, having overthrown Pompey at the battle of Pharsalia. 
'’‘/as made perpetual dictator. 

Herod, the son of Antipas, or Antipater, an Idumean, is this 
ear by the Romans declared king of Judea. 

Herod, assisted by Sosius, the Roman general, lavs sieere to 


1,1 01 me Kingdom, 

a Babylonian, descended from David, 
on nf ITy^.Vl J e J usa * em : one °f whose disciples was Jonathan, the 
n V fam ° US , author of the Chaldee paraphrase, 
b wituf lanu !’ nephew to Julius Caesar, in his fifth consul- 
ie P titlZ th J h aSSent of the senate and people of Rome, assumes 
. emperor; at which time the government among the 

■'h, ;! n V VaS le / a! y chan S ed from a republic into a monarchy, 
lie next year following he is by the senate surnamed Augustus, 
neroa this year begins to enlarge, or rather to rebuild, the 
' m Pie at Jerusalem, 46.years before the first passover of the min- 
try Of Christ, and in nine years and a half finisheth that magnifi- 
= nt structure. 

The angel Gabriel appears to Zachary the priest, as he is oflfer- 
lg incense in the temple, telling him that a son shall be born 
nto him, whom he shall call John ; who also shall be a Nazarite 
nd the forerunner of the Lord in the spirit and power of Elias. ' 
In the sixth month after John was conceived, the same aneel 


ilia iicxnit jxjov/a. 

John the Baptist bom, six months before Christ. 

77 2 
















Before 

Christ 


Luke II, 6 , 


3 


^ a. 

Matthew. 

II, 

I, 12, 

14 , 

16. 

Jos. Ant. 

1. 17, c. 17. 

Matt. II, 


After i 
Christ 
8 
14 


Luke II, 
46. 


26 

27 


Jos. Ant. 

1. 18, c. 3. 
Matt. Ill, 1. 
Mark I, 2. 
Luke III, 3. 
John I, 7. 
Isa. LX I, 1. 


Matt. Ill, 

13- 

Mark I, 10. 
Luke III, 


j John I, 34. 
30 I Matt. IV, 1. 
Mark I, 12. 
Luke IV, 

I, 14. 
John. 

I, 35, 47- 

II, 1. 


John. 
II, 13-19. 


Matt. XIV, 3. 
Mark VI, 17. 
Luke III, 19. 
31 John IV, 7, 42. 
Luke IV, 43. 

V, 27. 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


THE SEVENTH AGE OF THE WORLD. 

♦K C S RIS ?<r° Ur - L u r T d and Sa J io , ur , in the fullness of time, is born of 
the blessed Virgin Mary, at Bethlehem, and laid in a manger. 

JESUS Clghth day after his nativit y he is circumcised, ancfnamed 
thJjews iSC mCn ° f thC CaSt bring presents t0 the new-born king of 

mother Ph EgYPt With tHe child Jesus ’ and Mai T his 

Herod commands the infants in and about Bethlehem to be 
slain. 

Herod dieth, and his son Archelaus is by Caesar made tetrarch 
ot Judea; other dominions which belonged to Herod are divided 
among his sons. 

Christ by God’s appointment, is brought back out of EevDt into 
Nazareth. J ^ 


The first year of the vulgar Christian Era begins here. 

By occasion of the passover our Lord goes up with his parents 
to Jerusalem, and there disputes with the doctors in the temple. 

Augustus dies, and Tiberius succeeds him. 

Josephus, called Caiaphas, is made high priest of the Jews by 
the favor of Valerius Gratus, the Roman governor. 

Toward the end of this year Pontius Pilate is sent to be pro¬ 
curator of Judea, in the place of Valerius Gratus. 

John the Baptist begins to preach and to baptize in the desert of 
Judea, thereby preparing the way of the Lord, and doing his en- 
aeavor that Christ, coming after him, may be made known unto 
Israel. Unto John God gives a sign whereby he may know the 
Lord’s Christ, that upon whom he shall see the Spirit descending 
and remaining on him, the same is he which shall baptize with 
the Holy Ghost. 

Jesus, entering upon the thirtieth year of his age, comes from 
Galilee to Jordan, and is baptized of John, at which time a most 
illustrious manifestation is made of the blessed Trinity; for the 
Son of God ascending out of the water, and praying, the heavens 
are opened, and the Spirit of God in the shape of a dove descends 
upon him ; and the voice of the Father is heard from heaven, say¬ 
ing, This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased. 

John sees it, and bears record that this is the Son of God. 

Jesus, full of the Holy Ghost, returns from Jordan, and is led by 
the Spirit into the wilderness, where he fasteth forty days and forty 
nights, and is tempted by the devil. 

After this our Lord returns into Galilee. 

John gives testimony to our Saviour passing by him ; Andrew, 
Peter, Philip, and Nathanael acknowledge him to be the Messias’ 
and become his disciples. 

Christ, at a marriage in Cana of Galilee, turneth water into 
wine; this was his first miracle. 


The first passover of Christ’s public ministry, from which the 
first year of the seventieth and last of Daniel’s weeks begins : 
In which the covenant is confirmed with many, Dan. ix, 27, 
compared with Matt, xxvi, 28. 

JESUS cometh to Jerusalem at the time of the passover, and 
entering into the temple, scourgeth out those that bought and sold 
there. The Jews require a sign of his authority : Christ bids them 
destroy that temple (understanding the temple of his body), and in 
three days he will raise it up. 

Herod, the tetrarch, casteth John the Baptist into prison for rep¬ 
rehending his incest with his brother Philip’s wife, and other 
evils done by him. 

Christ discovers himself to the woman of Samaria. 

He goes throughout all Galilee, teaching in the synagogues, and 
working miracles. 

Matthew called to be a disciple. 

77-3 















AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


After 

Christ 

3 * 1 


John. 


V, i, 


19. 


32 


Matt. X, r. 
Mark III, 14. 
Luke VI, 13. 
Matt. V, 
VI, VII. 
Luke VI, 20. 
Mark VI, 7. 
Matt. X, 1. 
Matt. XIV, 10. 
Luke IX, 12. 
John VI, 

1-15. 




33 


Matt. XVII, 1. 
Mark IX, 2. 
Luke IX, 28. 
Matthew. 
XVII, 24. 
Luke. 

IX, 54- 

X, 1. 

XI. I. 

John XI, 1, 
49 - 


Luke XIX, 1. 
Mark X, 46. 
John XII, 3. 

Matt. XXI. 
Mark XI. 
Luke XIX. 
John XII. 
Zech. IX, 9. 

Matt. 
XXI, 19. 


XXVI 
Mark XIV. 
Luke XXII. 

John XIII- 
XVII. 

Matt. XXVI. 

Mark XV. 
Luke XXIII. 
John XIX. 
Ps. XXII. 
Matthew, j 
XXVIII. 
Mark XVI. 


The second passover 0/ Christ's ministry, John v, 1, compared 
with iv, 3, 5, from which the second year of the seventieth 
week of Daniel begins. 

JESUS comes up to Jerusalem at the time of the feast, and heals 
on the Sabbath-day a man that had an infirmity 38 years, lying at 
the pool of Bethesda. He makes a most divine apology to the 
Jews that sought to kill him, because he said that God was his 
father. 

Christ out of the multitude of his disciples chooseth 12, whom he 
calleth Apostles: namely, Peter, Andrew, James, John, Philip, 
Bartholomew, Matthew, Thomas, James the son of Alpheus, 
Simon called Zelotes, Judas the brother of James, and Judas 
Iscariot. To these our Saviour chiefly directs his discourse in 
that glorious, full, and admirable sermon on the mount. 

Jesus sends his 12 apostles by two and two, to preach, and heal 
the sick. 

John the Baptist is beheaded in prison by Herod’s command. 
Jesus feeds 5000 men, besides women and children, with five 
barley loaves and two little fishes. He refuses to be made a king. 


The third Passover of Christ’s ministry, John vi, 4 , front which 

the third year of the seventieth week of Daniel begins. 

JESUS is transfigured on the mount; Moses and Elias are seen 
to talk with him ; and a voice from heaven is heard a second time, 
saying, This is my beloved Son; hear him. 

Christ payeth tribute to Caesar. 

A certain village of the Samaritans refuseth our Saviour enter¬ 
tainment in his way to Jerusalem: the disciples, desiring to call 
for fire from heaven to consume them, are severely reprehended. 

The seventy disciples are sent out by two and two to work mira¬ 
cles, and to preach. 

Christ teacheth his disciples to pray. 

Christ raiseth Lazarus, that had been buried four days. 

Caiaphas, high priest of the Jews, prophesieth concerning the 
death of Christ. 

Zaccheus, a publican, converted. 

Christ restoreth to blind Bartimeus his sight. 

Mary, the sister of Lazarus, anoints our Saviour’s feet with 
cftstly spikenard, and wipeth them with the hair of her head. 

Christ rideth in triumph into Jerusalem: the multitude spread 
their garments in the way, and cry. Hosanna to the Son of David. 
Coming near the city, he weeps over it, and foretells its destruction. 
He enters the temple, and casteth out those that bought and sold 
there, and heals the blind and lame. 

He curseth the fruitless fig-tree, and the next morning it is 
found dried up and withered. Thence he takes occasion to show 
the power of faith. 

Thefourt h passover, in wh ich Christ our Passover 7vas sacrificed, 

1 Cor. v, 7, and so an end is put to all legal sacrifices prefigur- 

i ng this great expiation. The fourth or middle year of 

Daniel’s last week begins, Dan. ix, 27. 

ON the first day of unleavened bread, when the passover of thf? 
Jews was to be slain (April 2), in the evening, Jesus eateth the 
passover with his disciples, and institutes the sacrament of his 
body and blood in bread and wine. 

Christ washeth his disciples’ feet, and exhorteth them to humil¬ 
ity and charity. 

In the self-same night Christ is betrayed by Judas, mocked, 
buffeted, and spit upon by the soldiers. 

Next day he is condemned by Pilate, and crucified; the sun 
during the crucifixion is darkened, and the vail of the temple rent 
in the midst. Christ, praying for his enemies, gives up the ghost. 
Joseph of Arimathea begs the body, and lays it in a new sepulchre. 
^ On the third day, the next after the Jewish Sabbath (April 5), 
Christ riseth from the dead ; his resurrection is declared by angels 
to the women that came to the sepulchre. Christ first appeareth 
to Mary Magdalene, and afterward to his disciples, and dineth 
with them. 

774 










AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


After 

Christ 

33 


Luke. 
XXIV. 
John XX. 
Acts I. 
Matt. 
XXVIII. 


Acts. 

II. 


III. 

IV. 


V, I-IO, 
1 7 " 4 2 - 


33 


VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 
5 , 

x 4 > 


26. 

IX, x. 


38 


23- 

2 Cor. XI, 32. 
Gal, I, 18. 


Christ bringeth his apostles to mount Olivet; commandeth them 
to expect in Jerusalem the sending down of the Holy Ghost; 
sends them to teach and baptize all nations, and blesses them ; and 
while they behold, he is taken up, and a cloud receives him out of 
their sight. After his ascension the disciples are warned by two 
angels to depart, and to set their minds upon his second coming; 
they accordingly return, and, giving themselves to prayer, choose 
Matthias to be an apostle in the place of Judas. 

On the day of Pentecost {May 24), the Holy Ghost descendeth 
on the apostles in the form of cloven tongues, like as of fire, and 
enableth them to speak all languages. Peter the same’ day 
preacheth Christ and the resurrection, and about 3000 believers 
are added to the church. 

Peter, by faith in Christ’s name, healeth a lame man. 

.1 he rulers of the Jews, offended at Peter’s sermon, and his 
miraculous cure of the lame man, cast both him and John into 
prison ; upon their examination they boldly avouch the lame man 
to be healed by the name of Jesus, and that by the same Jesus we 
must be eternally saved. After this the Jews forbid them to speak 
any more in that name; but the apostles answer, That it is fit 
they should obey God rather than men. They are threatened and 
let go. 

Ananias and his wife Sapphira, for their hj'pocrisy, are suddenly 
struck dead. 

Ihe apostles are again cast into prison by the high priest; but 
an angel sets them at liberty, and bids them preach the gospel to 
the people without fear: being taken again teaching in the temple, 
they are brought before the council, where, by the advice of 
Gamaliel, a Pharisee, and doctor of the law, they are delivered. 

The number of believers increasing at Jerusalem, the apostles 
ordain seven deacons, who should distribute the alms of the whole 
church to the widows and poorer sort of believers. Stephen, one 
of these deacons, having confounded some that disputed with him, 
is by them falsely accused of blasphemy, and brought before the 
council, where he reprehends their rebellion, and murdering of 
Christ. Whereupon they cast him out of the city, and stone him; 
he in the meantime praying for them. 

A great persecution of the Church at Jerusalem follows after the 
death of the first martyr, Stephen. 

Philip, one of the seven deacons, preacheth at Samaria, and 
converteth many; worketh miracles, and healeth the sick. 
Simon the sorcerer, seeing the wonders that are done by Philip, 
believeth, and is baptized. 

The apostles at Jerusalem, hearing that Samaria had received 
the faith, send thither Peter and John to confirm and enlarge the 
Church. The apostles by prayer and imposition of hands confer 
the Holy Ghost on all believers. Simon Magus offers them 
money, that he may receive the power of conferring the same, 
whose impiety is sharply reproved by Peter. Having completed 
their ministry in those parts, they return to Jerusalem. 

An angel sendeth Philip to teach and baptize the Ethiopian 
eunuch. 

Saul, a violent persecutor of all that call on the name of Jesus, 
and one who consented to the death of Stephen, goes now toward 
Damascus, with commission from the high priest and the council 
to apprehend all Christians in those parts, and to bring them 
bound to Jerusalem ; on the way he is miraculously converted by 
a voice from heaven, and three days after baptized by Ananias at 
Damascus, where he preacheth the gospel of Christ with great 
boldness, to the astonishment of those that knew upon what design 
he was sent thither. 

Saul having preached the gospel at Damascus a long time, the 
Jews lay wait to kill him, but he escapeth from thence, and comes 
to Jerusalem ; there he sees Peter, and James, the brother of our 
Lord, and abides with them fifteen days. Here he speaks boldly 
in the name of Jesus, and disputes with the Grecians, or rather 
Jews that used the Greek tongue. These also consult how they 
may kill him. 

While Saul prays in the temple, he is in a trance, and the Lord 

775 


Acts XXII, 17, 







After 

Christ 

33 


44 


45 


46 


52 


Acts. 

XXII, 17. 


IX 


Gal 

IX 


, 30 - 

.... I, 21. 
Acts. 

, 32, 36. 

X. 


XI. 


XII. 


XIII. 


XIV. 


2 Cor. 

XI, 25. 

XII, 2. 


2 Tim. I, 2, 5. 


Acts. 

XV. 


AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


appears unto him, and bids him to depart from Jerusalem, because 
they will not receive his testimony; adding, that he will send him 
to tne Gentiles. 

Saul, leaving Jerusalem, goes to his own country. Tarsus, and 
from thence travels into Syria and Cilicia. 

Peter visits the churches of Judea, Galilee, Samaria, etc. At 
Lydda he cureth Eneas of the palsy, and at Joppa restoreth 
Tabitha to life. 

At Cesarea, Cornelius, a centurion, by prayers and alms finds 
favor in the sight of God, and is commanded by an angel to send 
for Peter, now at Joppa. God by a vision teacheth Peter not to 
despise the Gentiles. 'Peter,being sent for by Cornelius, goes and 
preacheth Christ to him and a great company that were met at his 
house : while Peter preacheth the Holy Ghost falls upon them all, 
and immediately the apostle baptizeth them. 

Peter, at his return to Jerusalem, is accused by those of the cir¬ 
cumcision for conversing with the Gentiles; but he declares to 
them his vision, and the whole matter concerning Cornelius, and 
they glorify God for granting to the Gentiles also repentance unto 
life. 

The believers, who ever since the martyrdom of Stephen, and 
the persecution thereupon ensuing, had been dispersed throughout 
all Phenice and Cyprus, come now to Antioch, and preach the 
gospel to the Greeks there, having before preached to none but the 
Jews. The church at Jerusalem, understanding this, and that the 
number of believers increased exceedingly, sends Barnabas thither 
to confirm them; he goes to Tarsus, and takes Saul along with 
him to Antioch, where they continue a whole year, converting 
multitudes to the faith. Here the disciples were first called 
Christians. 

About this time James, the brother of John, is beheaded by the 
command of Herod Agrippa. He also imprisoneth Peter, whom 
an angel delivers upon the prayers of the church. This same 
Herod, not long after, speaking to the people at Cesarea, some of 
them cry out. It is the voice of God, and not of man: and imme¬ 
diately an angel of the Lord smites him, because he gave not the 
glory to God, and he is eaten of worms, and dieth. 

Barnabas and Saul set forward in their preaching of the gospel. 
They plant the Christian faith in Seleucia, Cyprus, and other 
places. At Paphos they preach the gospel to Sergius Paulus, 
governor of that country : Elymas, a sorcerer, withstanding them, 
and endeavoring to turn away Sergius from the faith, is at Saul’s 
rebuke struck blind. From this time Saul is always called by his 
new name, Paul; he preacheth at Antioch ; the Gentiles believe, 
but the Jews gainsay and blaspheme. Whereupon he and his 
assistants turn to the Gentiles, and come to Iconium. 

At Iconium they are persecuted and ready to be stoned. From 
hence they fly to Lystra and Derbe, cities of Lycaonia. At 
Lystra, Paul healing a cripple, the multitude cry out that the 

f ods are come down, and call Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul 
lercurius, and would have sacrificed to them, had not the apos¬ 
tles, with clothes rent, run in among them, and assured them that 
they were men like themselves. Soon after there come Jews from 
Antioch and Iconium, who excite the people against them. Paul 
is by the furious multitude stoned, and drawn out of the city as 
dead; but whilst the disciples stand about him, he riseth up, and 
the next day departs with Barnabas to Derbe. 

In this year, perhaps at this very time, Paul was caught up into 
the third heaven, and heard unspeakable words, fourteen years 
before he wrote his second epistle to the Corinthians. 

About this time Timothy, though a child, with his mother 
Eunice, and his grandmother Lois, embrace the Christian faith 
preached by Paul. 

Certain Judaizing Christians come from Judea to Antioch, and 
teach that the Gentiles ought to be circumcised, and observe the 
law of Moses ; these Paul and Barnabas oppose, and a council 
is held by the apostles and others at Jerusalem to determine 
this controversy. The decrees of the synod are sent to the 
churches. 


776 





AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 


After 

Christ 

53 


54 


55 


56 


57 

58 
60 


63 


Acts. 
XV, 39. 

XVI. 


XVII. 


XVIII, 


18-23. 


XIX. 


i Cor. I, ix. 
XVI, 8. 

Acts XX. 

2 Cor. 
VIII, 1, 

2, 6, 19. 

1 Cor. 
XVI. 5. 

Acts XX, 
3 , 4 , 

6 - 35 - 


Acts. 

XXI. 

XXII. 
XXIII. 


XXIV. 


Paul and Barnabas, thinking to visit the churches together, fall 
at strife, and part asunder : Barnabas and Mark go into Cyprus, 
Paul and Silas into Syria and Cilicia. 

Paul coming to Derbe, finds there Timothy, whom (because his 
mother was a believing Jew, though his father a Gentile) he 
causeth to be circumcised, and takes him along with him. He is 
by a vision admonished to go into Macedonia : coming to Philippi, 
the chief city of that part of Macedonia, he converts Lydia; 
casteth out of a certain maid-servant a spirit of divination, whose 
master, losing a considerable gain thereby, brings Paul and Silas 
before the magistrates : these cause them to be whipped and im¬ 
prisoned; but at midnight, Paul and Silas praying and singing 

f isalms, the doors of the prison fly open, and their bonds are 
oosed : the jailer, ready to kill himself, is converted to the faith, 
and baptized the same night, with his whole family. Next day the 
magistrates come themselves, and pray them to depart the city. 

From Philippi Paul takes his journey through Amphipolis and 
Apollonia, and comes to Thessalonica, where he finds a synagogue 
of the Jev/s ; there he preacheth three Sabbath-days ; some believe, 
others persecute him. Leaving Thessalonica, he comes to Berea, 
and soon after arrives at Athens, disputes with the philosophers, 
and declares unto them that UNKNOWN GOD whom they had 
ignorantly worshiped. He converts Dionysius the Areopagite, 
and thence passeth to Corinth. 

Paul, at Corinth, meets with Aquila and Priscilla, not long 
before banished from Rome by the decree of Claudius. Here he 
continues a year and six months, and thence writes to the Thessa- 


lonians. 

Paul is accused by the Jews, and brought before Gallio, procon¬ 
sul of Achaia, who refuseth to be judge in a controversy about re¬ 
ligion, and so drives them away from the judgment-seat. 

Paul departs from Corinth, and passeth to Ephesus, thence he 
sets out toward Jerusalem, that he may be at the feast; he lands 
at Cesarea, goes down to Antioch, and comes into the regions of 
Galatia and Phrygia, confirming the disciples in all those places. 

Paul returns to Ephesus, disputes daily in the school of Tyran- 
nus, and continues preaching there, and the parts thereabout. 

He writes his epistle to the Galatians. 

At Ephesus, Demetrius, a silversmith, jealous of his gain, raiseth 
a tumult against Paul, which is appeased by the town clerk. 

About this time a schism ariseth in the church at Corinth, which 
causeth Paul (now in or about Ephesus) to write his first epistle to 
the Corinthians. . 

Paul departs from Ephesus, and comes into Macedonia, and 
gathers a contribution for the relief of the saints at Jerusalem. 

The apostle, having learned from Titus the success of his first, 
writes now his second epistle to the Corinthians. Out of Mace¬ 
donia he goes into Greece, and comes to Corinth, where he writes 
his epistle to the Romans. . . 

Paul purposing to go directly from thence into Syria, that he 
may carry the collections to Jerusalem, the Jews lay wait for him ; 
he understanding this, thinks it best to return into Macedonia the 
same way he came, and thence to pass into Asia. 

After the days of unleavened bread Paul sails from Philippi, 
and comes to Troas : there he restores Eutychus to life. Having 
passed through several cities of Greece, he arrives at Miletus; 
from thence he sends to call the elders of the Church of Ephesus, 
whom he earnestly exhorts to the performance of their duty . 

Paul comes to Jerusalem, is apprehended in the temple, and 
secured in the castle; he claimeth the privilege of a Roman, and 

escapeth scourging. . .... . , T , 

Paul pleadeth his cause before Ananias the high priest. I he 
chief captain, understanding that above forty Jews had bound 
themselves under a curse neither to eat nor drink till they had 
killed him, sends him to Felix, the governor of the province, by 
whom he is imprisoned at Cesarea. 

Paul is accused before Felix by Tertullus the orator ; Felix goes 
out of his office, and, to gratify the Jews, leaves Paul in prison 
Portius Festus succeeds him in the government. 


777 




AN INDEX TO THE HOLY BIBLE. 



After 

Christ 

62 


63 


64 


Acts. 

XXV. 


XXVI. 

XXVIII. 


65 


66 


Heb. 
XIII, 24. 

Tit. I, 5. 


Euseb. 

67 Hist, Ec. 

1. 2, c. 24. 
70 Luke XIX, 
43 , 44 - 


96 


The Jews come to Cesarea, and accuse Paul before Festus. He 
answereth for himself, and appeals unto Crnsar. King Agrippa 
comes to Cesarea, and Festus opens the whole matter to him. 

Paul makes his defence in the presence of Agrippa, who ttiereby 
is almost persuaded to be a Christian, and the whole company 
pronounce him innocent. 

Paul comes to Rome, is a prisoner at large, and preacheth there 
two years. 

Here ends the History 0/ the Acts 0/ the Apostles, written by 
St. Luke, St. Paul's beloved companion in his travels. 

St. Paul, from Rome, writes his epistles : 

To the Philippians. 

To Philemon. 

To the Colossians. 

To the Ephesians. 

About the latter end of this year St. Paul is set at liberty, and a 
little before his departure out of Italy into Asia he writes his epistle 
to the Hebrews. 

He preacheth the gospel in the isle of Crete, and leaves Titus 
there to set things in order, and ordain elders in every city. 

St. Paul writes his epistles : 

To Timothy I. 

To Titus. 

To Timothy II. 

About this time the epistles of St. Peter, St. John, and St. Jude 
seem to be written. 

St. Peter and St. Paul are said to have suffered martyrdom at 
Rome toward the latter end of Nero’s reign. 

This year Jerusalem (according to Christ’s prophecy) is besieged, 
taken, sacked, and burned, by Titus ; 1,100,000 of the Jews perish, 
97,000 are taken prisoners ; besides an innumerable company that 
in other places of Judea kill themselves, or perish through famine, 
banishment, or other miseries. 

St. John is banished into the isle of Patmos by Domitian, and 
there receives and writes his Revelation. 

After the death of Domitian, St. John returns to Ephesus, and 
at the request of the Church writes his Gospel. 


ANALYSIS OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 


BOOKS in the Old Testament 

Chapters. 

Verses... 

Words. 

Letters. 

Books in the New Testament.. 

Chapters. 

Verses.... 

Words. 

Letters. 


39 
929 
- 23,2x4 

59 2 .439 
2,728,100 
• 27 

260 

7,959 

181,253 

838,380 


The middle chapter and the least in the Bible, 
is Psalm cxvii. 

The middle verse is the 8th of Psalm 
cxviii. 

The word and occurs in the Old Testament 

, 35,543 times. 

The same in the New Testament also oc¬ 
curs 10,684 times. 


The word Jehovah occurs 6855 times. 

The middle book of the Old Testament is 
Proverbs. 

The middle chapter is Job xxix. 

The middle verse is 2d Chron., chapter xx 
the 17th verse. 

The least verse is 1st of Chron., chapter 1 
and 1st verse. 

The middle book in the New Testament is 
2d Thessalonians. 

The middle chapters are Romans xiii and 
xiv. 

The middle verse is Acts xvii, 17th verse. 

The least verse is in John xi, verse 35. 

The 21st verse, chapter vii, of Ezra, has all 
the letters of the alphabet. 

The xixth chapter of the 2d of Kings and 
chapter xxxvii of Isaiah are both alike. 


n *7 

7 / 


3 


















TABLES OF SCRIPTURE MEASURES, 
WEIGHTS, AND COINS: 

WITH AN APPENDIX, 

CONTAINING THE METHOD OF CALCULATING ITS MEASURES OF SURFACE, 
HITHERTO WANTING IN TREATISES ON THIS SUBJECT. 

BY THE RIGHT REVEREND RICHARD, LORD BISHOP OF PETERBOROUGH. 


A MEASURE is a known quantity applied to another of the same kind that is less 
known, to make its dimensions better known, by help of numbers expressing the propor¬ 
tion that the known quantity bears to the unknown. The dimensions to be measured are 
three: i. Mere length, which hath but one dimension. 2. Surface, which consists of 
length multiplied into breadth ; so it hath two dimensions, as it were, interwoven; and 
this is always measured-by some square surface already known, as by a square foot, or 
a square cubit, or any other square already known, by help of its side. Moses generally 
uset’a the square cubit. 3. Solidity or capacity, which hath three dimensions multiplied 
into each other: length, breadth, and height, or depth. This is measured by a known 
cube. *From solidity ariseth weight in all sublunary bodies ; and by weight we measure 
the value of coins. Therefore, I shall join weights and coins together in the fourth table. 

I use = to signify Equal; :: to express Proportion; . is called Separatrix, parting 

Decimals from hitegers. 


I. TABLE. Measures of Length. 

I express the Cubit, audits Parts, both by Inch Measure and by Foot Measure; which 

I deducefrom Inches by this Proportion : 

Inch Measure. Foot Measure. 


As 12.1 :: 21.888 1.824. 


Inch Dec. Foot Dec. 


ACubitis = to. 21.888 = 1.824 

A Span the longer = a Cubit. = 10.944 = .912 

A Span the less = of a Cubit. = 7.296 = .608 

A Hand’s breadth = ] 4 , of a Cubit. = 3.684 = .304 

A Finger’s breadth = of a Cubit..;. . .912 = .076 


Pleasures of many Cubits length I express only in Foot Measure. 

Feet Dec. 


A Fathom 


= 4 Cubits = 7.296 


Ezekiel's Reed 


6 Cubits = 10.944 


Schcenus, the Egyptian Line for Land Measure, which I 
think Scripture useth to divide Inheritances. Psalm 
xvi, 6, and lxxviii, 55. They used different Lengths, 
but the shortest and most useful was, 


= 80 Cubits = 145.92 


Herodotus mentions a Schcenus just 300 times as long : I judge that all the greater were 
made in proportion to the least. 

The mile....= 4000 Cubits = 7296 Feet. 


Stadium, j 1 ^ of their Mile. 
Parasang, 3 of their Miles 


= 400 Cubits = 729.6 

= 12,000 Cubits = 4 English 
Miles and 580 Feet. 


il. TABLE. Measures of Surface. 

Moses hath described these by square Cubits. I here express them reduced to our 
square Feet. The method of this reduction is taught in an Appendix. I first propose 
three clear examples given by Moses; secondly, I place six instances of greater difficulty. 

THE CLEAREST EXAMPLES ARE : 

I. The Altar of Incense. Only two sides of it, viz., its length and breadth, are ex¬ 
pressed by Moses; each of them is affirmed to be one Cubit. Yet he declares it was 
four-square : whence we collect that it was just one square Cubit. See Exodus xxx, 2. 

779 


















SCRIPTURE MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND COINS. 

Now, it is demonstrated in the Appendix that one Jezuish square Cubit amounts to, In 
surface, three English square Feet, and about 47 square Inches. 

II. The Table of Shew-bread, Exodus xxv, 23. It is affirmed to be two Cubits in 
length, and one in breadth. None doubt but it was rectangular, containing two Jewish 
square Cubits. These amount to six English square Feet, and above half, viz., 94 
square Inches. 

III. The Boards of the Tabernacle, each 10 Cubits in length, and one and a half in 
breadth. Exodus xxvi, 16, being rectangular, must contain 15 square Cubits, Jewish. 
These are proved to contain very near 50 square Feet of English Measure. 

THE MORE DIFFICULT CASES, RESERVED TO THE APPENDIX, ARE I 

I. The Mercy Seat, whose surface is = 12 square Feet and a half. 

II. A general method is taught of reducing any given number of Jewish Cubits to 
English square Feet. 

III. The example of the 15 square Cubits in the Boards of the Tabernacle is made 
clearer. 

IV. The Court of the Tabernacle, described Exodus xxvii, 18, is found to be just half 
the Egyptian Aroura, and to contain 1 Rood, 21 Perches, 27 square Feet, etc. 

V. The whole Aroura is determined, and reduced to our English Measures, 3 Roods, 
a Perches, 55 square Feet. 

VI. The suburbs, or Glebe Land, given to each city of the Levites, Kum. xxxv, 3-5, 
Is shown to be a square, on each of the four sides of every city, containing a million of 
Jezuish square Cubits, or 100 Arource; which amounts to, in each square, 76 Acres, 
1 Rood, 26 Perches, 80 square Feet. Whence we collect that all the four Squares 
amounted to 305 Acres, 2 Roods, 1 Perch, besides 51 Feet square. 


til. TABLE. Measures of Capacity. 

Wine Gal 

Epha or Bath. 

Chomer, Homer in our translation... 

Seah, y of Epha. 

Hin — y of Epha... 

Omer, - of Epha... 

Cab, yj of Epha... 

Log, of Epha... 

Metretes of Syria ( John ii, 6) = Cong. Rom. 

Cotyla, Eastern, y-j^ of Epha. 

This Cotyla contains just 10 Ounces Avoirdupois of Rainwater; Omer 100; Epha 1000; 
Chomer 10,000. So by these Weights all these Measures of Capacity may be expedi¬ 
tiously recovered very near exactness. 


7 

75 

2 

1 


o 

o 

o 


Pints. 

4 

5 
4 

2 

6 

3 

o'A 

7 % 

o y 


Inch Solid. 
15 
7 
3 

1 

0-5 

10 

10 

o 

3 


IV. TABLE. Of Weights and Coins. 


The Jewish Weights are reduced to the 
Standard Grains of our Troy Weight; 
whereof 438 are equal to the Roman 
ounce, and to our ancient English Avoir¬ 
dupois ounce. 


The value of Jewish and Roman Weights 
and Coins, at the present rate of Silver 
and Gold, expressed in Pence and Deci¬ 
mals of a Penny. 


Grains Deo. 

Shekel is the original weight.= 219 

Bekah, y 2 a Shekel.. 109.5 

Gerah, y 1 ^- of Bekah.= 10.95 

Maneh = 100 Shekel \vt.= 21,900 

Maneh in Coin, ■*= 60 Shekels.= 13,140 

Talent of Silver, ==* 3000 Shekels.= 657,000 

Talent of Gold the same Weight. 

The Golden Darics, Ezra ii, 69, seem"} 
to be coins of Darius the Mede. > 

They weighed 12 Gerahs. ) 


Pence Dec. 

= 28.2875 = 

— I 4- I 437 = 

— i-4i437 = 


vV. d. q. 


2 4 1 

1 2 yx 
o j yx 


1. s. d. 

“ l 697- 2 5 “ 7 1 5 

=—84,862.5 = 358 11 100b. 

= 5075 70b. 


I 3 I -4 — 104 


780 






















SCRIPTURE MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND COINS. 
Roman Money Mentioned in the New Testament. 

Pence. 

Denarius, Silver. 7 

Assis, Copper. 0 

Assarium. 0 

Quadrans. o 

A Mite. n 


Farthings, 


y* 

Vi 


AN APPENDIX 

TO THE SECOND TABLE OF MEASURES OF SURFACE, DESCRIBED BY MOSES, SHOWING THE 

METHOD OF REDUCING THEM BY CALCULATION TO THE MEASURES USED IN ENGLAND, 

FOR THE BENEFIT OF THOSE THAT UNDERSTAND DECIMAL ARITHMETIC, AND DESIRE 

TO TRY THE REDUCTIONS GIVEN IN THE TABLE, OR TO MAKE FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS 

IN THIS KIND OF MEASURES. 

1. The Mercy Seat. — 1 shall begin with Reduction of the Measures of the Mercy Seat, 
which was God’s throne of Grace among the Jews. Moses, in Exodus xxv, 17, affirms 
that its length was two Cubits and a half, its breadth one Cubit and a half. The fractions 
adhering to its length and breadth make some difficulty to beginners in Arithmetic, 
which the Decimal way doth much abate. Supposing, therefore, what I have elsewhere 
proved, that the yewish Cubit was in Foot measure 1.824 ; the length must be expressed 
in Foot measure, and Decimals thereof, 4.560. The breadth in like measure will be 2.736. 
Wherefore the product of these numbers multiplied into each other gives its surface 
12.47 616 > number of its square Feet, and Decimals thereof, 12 square Feet, and very 
near half a square Foot; if the Decimals had been .50, it had been just a half a Foot. 
If we desire to express those Decimals of a Foot in square Inches, as is usual in Eng¬ 
land, we must multiply .47,616 by 144, the square Inches of a Foot, and the product will 
be 68.56,704 ; which shows that the Decimals we found amount to 68 square Inches, and 
about half an Inch more : we need not be nicer. 

2. A Square Cubit reduced to our Measure. —2. In the Altar of Incense Moses de¬ 
scribes the yewish square Cubit, which must be reduced to our Foot measure, thus, 

| The product of these numbers multiplied will be the upper surface of this altar, 
3.326,976, that is, three square Feet, and .326,976 Decimals of a square Foot, which we 
may express by 47 square Inches, and a few Decimals of an Inch square inconsiderable. 

3. The Boards of the Tabernacle. —3. Moses’ description of the Boards of the Taber¬ 
nacle, Exod. xxvi, 16, by 10 Cubits in length, and one and a half in breadth, naturally leads 
a man to discern in each Board’s surface 15 yewish square Cubits ; because if we con¬ 
ceive a line drawn from the end of one Cubit at the bottom of the Board to the end of one 
Cubit at the top of the Board, this must needs be 10 whole square Cubits on one side of 
that line, and 10 half square Cubits (= 5 whole) on the other side of that line : here, there¬ 
fore, are 15 square Cubits. The reduction of these into English square Feet is performed 
by multiplying 15, viz., the number of Cubits given, into 3.326,976, the Feet and Decimals 
of one square Cubit, and the product will be 49.90,464, and that is very near to fifty square 
Feet; for those Decimals amount to above 130 square Inches; and little more than 13 
square Inches would make it just 50 Feet, which abatement we need not here regard. 

4. The Court of the Tabernacle. —4. Let us now go to the measure of the surface of 
land. But we will begin with the Court of the Tabernacle, the ground on which the Priests 
performed all the solemn public worship of Israel in Moses’ time. The Area of this Court 
is described by Moses, Exod. xxv, 18, by its length 100 Cubits, and its breadth every¬ 
where 50 Cubits. Wherefore this Area must be in yewish measure 5000 square Cubits 
for that is the product of 100 multiplied into 50. To reduce these 5000 yewish Cubits into 
English square Feet, I must multiply 5000 into 3.326,976; the product is 16,634.88 English 
square Feet. 

But in cases of such long numbers of Feet we use, for brevity s sake, and to help ou 
memories, to reduce them into Perches, or Roods, or Acres, which contain known num 
Iters of square Feet. A Perch contains 272^ square Feet. A Rood is = to 10,890 squan 
Feet. An Acre is = to 43,560 square Feet. It is plain that the number 16,634.88 hatl 
not Integers equal to those of an Acre ; but it hath enough to answer those in a Rood 
and some overplus, therefore I must divide 16,634.88 by 10,890, which is a Rood.* B> 
such division, continued in the Decimal way, until I have a fraction of five or six places 
which is exact enough, I find the quote to be 1.527,537, which assures me that my numbe 
16,634.88 hath but once entirely in it a whole Rood : but it hath moreover in it man) 
Decimal parts of a Rood. These, therefore, I reduce to the Perches contained in them 
by multiplying them into 40, which is the number of Perches that make up a Rood. anc 
cutting off six places from the product, which is 21.101,480 ; so I find there are 21 I erches 
entire, and the figures after the Separatrix are Decimals of a Perch. 1 hese, also, 1 mul- 

78l 










SCRIPTURE MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND COINS. 

tiply by 272.25, which are the square Feet and Decimals of a Perch. The product of this 
last multiplication, after eight places cut off from it by the Separatrix, because there were 
six places of Decimals in one of the multipliers, and two in the other, is 27.62,793,000. 
Hence I learn that there are therein but 27 entire Feet; all the eight Decimal places 
amount to little above half a Foot, and, therefore, I cast them away as inconsiderable in 
the measure of land. This method of reduction by multiplication of Decimals I find to 
be easier than the common way of reduction by division, and, therefore, I propose it to 
be used by beginners in this practice of surveying. So I find this Court to contain in 
English measure 1 Rood, 21 Perches, 27 Feet, and little more than a half a Foot squared. 
But reflecting upon Moses' measure by Cubits, and finding them to be precisely 5000 
square Cubits, I observed that they were just half 10,000, which I had observed from 
Herodotus' Euterpe to be the Area of the Egyptian Aroura, by which their land was as 
generally measured as ours is by Acres and Roods. See Herodot. 1 . 2. c. 168. I called 
also to mind a passage in Manetho, an Egyptian Priest, cited by Josephus in his first 
book against Apion, where he affirms that Manetho, in his history of the reign, wars, and 
expulsion of the Pastors (whom Africanus affirms to be Phoenicians , or Canaanites, and 
Josephus vainly believed to be Jews), wrote out of the public Records of Egypt, that 
these Pastors made at Abaris a very large and strong encampment, that encompassed 
10,000 Arource, sufficient to contain 240,000 men, and long maintain their cattle. Hence 
it appears, that not only the Egyptians, but the Phoenicians or Canaanites also, that had 
dwelt among them, and had reigned there during the time of'six kings successively, used 
the measure of land called Aroura. Now, this was long before Moses’ time : for the be¬ 
ginning of Amosis or Tethmosis, who expelled them out of Egypt, was very near the time 
of Abraham’s death, as appears by the annals of the learned Primate of Ireland. Where¬ 
fore, I believe that Moses, who was skilled in all Egyptian learning, especially surveying, 
did of choice make the Court of the Tabernacle to be just half an ^Aroura, which was a 
known measure to him and his people, who had long dwelt in Egypt, and Divine Author¬ 
ity directed him so to do. 

5. The Reduction 0/ an Aroura to English Measures. —5. Because we have .shown 
from Herodotus that an Aroura is the square of 100 Jewish or Egyptian Cubits, and 100 
such Cubits may in English Foot measure be expressed by 182.4 English Feet, it follows 
that the square of this number will express exactly the number of the English square feet 
that are contained in an Arotira. Now by multiplication of 182.4 into itself, I find the 
product to be 33,260.76; therefore, I conclude that there are 33,269 square Feet entire, 
and .76 Decimals of a square Foot, in an Aroura. Now, to reduce these English square 
Feet into Roods, Perches, and the remainder of square Feet, I use the method used in the 
last paragraph : First, I divide them by 10,800, the square Feet in a Rood ; and the quote 
I find 3.055,094, that is, 3 Roods, and .055,094 Decimals of a Rood. Secondly, I multiply 
those Decimals by 40, which is the number of Perches in a Rood ; the product is 2.202,- 
q6o. Hence 1 conclude there are therein two Perches, and .202,960 Decimals of a Perch. 
Thirdly, I multiply these last Decimals by 272.25, which are the square Feet of a Perch. 
The product is 55.25,586,000, that is, 55 entire square Feet; the eight places of Decimals 
amount to little above ^ of a square Foot, therefore I reject them as inconsiderable in a 
measure of land. By all these reductions it is found that an Aroura is, in English 
measure, three Roods, two Perches, 55^ square Feet. Hence it follows also that it is not 
well translated by Jugerum, for it is much larger: nor is it well in English called an 

Acre, for it is considerably less. To this place I refer the use of the lesser sort of 

which yet is most convenient for the use of the Egyptians, and of the Jews, to measure 
out private men’s inheritances by a line which was 80 Cubits long. For the length of this 
line will measure one side of an Aroura, if the other side be 125 Cubits long, which is the 
length of this line, and its half, and 5 Cubits above half of it, which they might easily 
mark on it by a knot or a ring. And by this means they might easily lay any number of 
Arource together, all of them rectangular and parallel to each other. Such lines I sup¬ 
pose for measure of inheritances are intimated, Psalm lxxviii, 55, and xvi, 6, etc. 

6. The Levite’s Glebe. —6. I shall conclude with an example amounting after reduction 
to a number of English Acres, which measure we have not yet reached to. This I take 
from Num. xxxv, 3, 4, 5, verses. There Moses describes what measure of land the 
Levites were to be allowed for their cattle, their goods, and all their beasts, on the north, 
east, south, and west sides of each of their cities. So that the city was to be in the midst 
of the land belonging to it. This land in our translation is called suburbs, because of its 
nearness to all their cities. But we must not thence imagine that it means houses and 
streets adjoining to their cities, in which sense we sometimes use the word suburbs. For 
Moses plainly tells us they were places for their several sorts of cattle to feed in, such as 
might also be orchards or gardens for fruit, or perhaps for a little corn, comprehended in 
the words their goods. These fields he limits by 1000 Cubits, which was just a quarter 
of an eastern mile, but amounts in mere length to 608 yards "English measure, and, there¬ 
fore, exceeds a quarter of an English mile by 168 yards in length. But it is certain that 
cattle cannot feed upon mere length, but this must signify the side of some surface of land 
bounded thereby, and we must have two sides of that surface given before we can find 

782 


SCRIPTURE MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND COINS. 

the Area, or surface contained. Therefore, Moses, ver. 5, tells us, that on each side of 
each city they must measure 2000 Cubits, which will determine no surface, unless we 
understand it to mean the two sides of a square, bounded on every side by 1000 Cubits; 
these two sides multiplied into each other will produce a square that contains just a 
million of square Cubits, and that is a known and exact measure of just 10 oArourte; and 
this shows that the 2000 Cubits mentioned ver. 5 are the two sides of that square, where¬ 
of the 1000 mentioned ver. 4 is one, and may be called the root of the square. This shows 
the agreement of the two different numbers. The reduction of this million of square 
Cubits will be performed by the same method that I have used before. Therefore, first, I 
express 1000 Jewish Cubits by 1824 English Feet, without any Separatrix, according to 
the principles owned in Decimal Arithmetic; and the square of that number will be 
3,326,976, without a Separatrix. Secondly, I divide this number by 43,560, which are the 
square Feet of an Acre, and find the quote to be 76.376,859, which signify 76 entire Acres, 
and 376,859 Decimals of an Acre. Thirdly, to find what Roods are contained in these Deci¬ 
mals, I multiply them by four, the number of Roods in an Acre, and find the quote to be 
1.507,436, which proves that there is but one Rood in them, and the six figures cut off by 
the Separatrix (because there were six Decimals in one of the multipliers), are all Decimals 
of a Rood. Fourthly, therefore, to find what Perches are in these last Decimals, I multi¬ 
ply them by 40, which is the number of Perches contained in a Rood. The product is 
20.297,440; hereby I find there are 20 entire Perches, besides the Decimals of a Perch 
placed after the Separatrix. Fifthly, to find what square Feet are in those last Decimals, 
I multiply them by 272.25, which are the square Feet and Decimals in a Perch, the pro¬ 
duct is 80.97,804, which is 80 square Feet, and all the Decimals not amounting to a square 
Foot I reject as inconsiderable in measure of land. Thus we have found that this, and 
every other square on each side of every Levitical City, was prescribed to be 76 Acres, 1 
Rood, 20 Perches, 80 square Feet in our measure, but was just a million of square Cubits 
in their measure. 

To add the four squares belonging to one Levitical City together, the best way will be 
to take the first quote that we found in Acre measure, viz., 76.376,859, and we must mul¬ 
tiply it by four, and we shall find, by the method I have used, all the four squares 
together to amount to 305 Acres, 2 Roods, 1 Perch ; we need not take notice of any lesser 
quantities in this case. We may also by this method find the sum of the Acres belonging 
to all the 48 cities of the Levites, and many other improvements in this kind of measuring 
surfaces. But I leave them to the industry of others. 


A TABLE OF TIME. 


March. 
April. 
April. 
May. 

May. 

June. 
Ju?ie. 
July. 

July. 
August. 
August. 
September. 
September. 
October. 
October. 
November. 
November. 
December. 
December. 
January. 
January. 
February. 
February. 
March. 

13 Veadar, intercalary. 


DAYS OF THE WEEK. 


First day of the week. Sunday. 

Second day. Monday. 

Third day. Tuesday. 

Fourth day. Wednesday 

Fifth day. Thursday. 

Sixth day. Friday. 

Seventh day, or Sabbath. Saturday. 


HOURS OF THE DAY. 

The day, reckoning from sunrise, and the 
night from sunset, were each divided into 
12 equal parts, called the 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 
etc. Hours. 

- 

WATCHES. 

The First Watch , from sunset to the third 
hour of the night. 

The Second or Middle Watch, from the 
third hour to the sixth. 

The Third Watch, or Cock-crowing, from 
the sixth to the ninth. 

The Fourth,' or Morning Watch, from the 
ninth hour to sunrise. 


t NISAN, or Abib. 

2 Jiar, or Zif.. 

3 Sivan. 

4 Thammuz. 

5 Ab. 

6 Elul. 

7 Tizri, or Ethanim. 

8 Marchesuan, or Bui. 

g Chisleu. 

xo Thebeth. 

11 Shebath.. ** 

12 Adar.»*•••••••••••••••** 


783 
























A CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX 


OF THE YEARS AND TIMES FROM ADAM UNTO CHRIST, PROVED BY THE 
SCRIPTURES, FROM THE COLLATION OF DIVERS AUTHORS. 


FROM Adam unto Noah's flood are years 
185b. 

For Adam, being 150 years old, begat Seth. 

Seth, being 105 years, begat Enos. 

Enos, being 90 years, begat Cainan. 

Cainan, being 70 years, begat Mahalaleel. 

Mahalaleel, being 65 years, begat Jared. 

Jared, at the age of 162, begat Enoch. 

Enoch, being 65 years, begat Methuselah. 

Methuselah, at the age of 187, begat Lantech. 

Lamech, being 182 years, begat Noah. 

Noah, at the coming of the flood, was 600 
years old, as appeareth in the 7th chapter 
of Genesis. 

The whole sum of the years are 1856. 

From the flood of Noah unto Abraham’s 
departing from Chaldea were 422 years 
and ten days. 

For the said flood continued one whole year 
and ten days. 

Shem (who was Noah's son) begat Ar- 
phaxad, two years after that. 

Arphaxad begat Salah, when he was 35 years 
old. 

Salah, being 30 years old, begat Eber. 

Eber, at the age of 34, begat Peleg. 

Peleg, being 30 years, begat Reu. 

Reu, being 32 years, begat Serug. 

Serug, being 30 years, begat Nahor. 

Nahor, being 29 years, begat Terah. 

Terah, being 130 years, begat Abram. 

And Abraham departed from Chaldea when 
he was 70 years old. 

These, accounted, are 422 years and 10 days. 

From Abraham’s departing from Ur in 
Chaldea, unto the departing of the chil¬ 
dren of Israel, are 430 years, gathered 
as followeth :— 

Abraham was in Charran five years, and 
departed in his 75th year. 

Begat Isaac when 100 years old, in the 25th 
year of his departing. 

Isaac begat Jacob, when 60 years old. 

Israel was in Egypt 220 years. 

Then deduct 80 years from this ; for so old 
was Moses when he conducted the Israel¬ 
ites from Egypt. 

So the rest of the years, that is to say, 130, 
are divided between Amram and Kohath 

Then Kohath begat Amram, at the age of 67 

years. 


Amram, being 65 years, begat Moses, who, 
in the 80th year of his age, departed with 
the Israelites from Egypt. 

So this chronology is the 430 years men¬ 
tioned in the 12th chapter of Exodus, and 
the 3d chapter to the Galatians. 

From the goingforth of the Israelites from 
Egypt, unto the first building of the tem¬ 
ple, are 480 years, after this chronology 
and account. 

Moses remained in the desert or wilderness 
forty years. 

Joshua and Othniel ruled forty years. 

Ehud, 80 years. 

Deborah, 40 years. 

Gideon, 40 years. 

Abimelech, 3 years. 

Tola, 23 years. 

Jair, 22 years. 

Then they were without a captain, until the 
18th year of Jephthah. 
ephthah, 6 years, 
bzan, 7 years. 

Elon, 10 years. 

Abdon, 8 years. 

Samson, 20 years. 

Eli, judge and priest, 44 years. 

Samuel and Saul reigned 40 years. 

David was king 40 years. 

Solomon, in the 4th year of his reign, began 
the building of the temple. 

These are the 480 years mentioned in the 
first Book of Kings, Chapter 6. 

From the first building of the temple, unto 
the captivity of Babylon, are 4iq years 
and a half. 

Solomon reigned yet 36 years. 

Rehoboam, 17 years. 

Abijam, 3 years. 

Asa, 41 years 

Jehoshaphat, 25 years. 

Jehoram, 8 years. 

Ahaziah, 1 year. 

Athaliah, the queen, 7 years. 

Jehoash, 40 years. 

Amaziah, 29 years. 

Uzziah, 52 yqars. 

Jehoahnz, 16 years. 

Ahaz, 16 years. 

Hezekiah, 29 years. 

Manasseh, 55 years. 





OFFICES AND CONDITIONS OF MEN. 


Amon, 2 years. 

Josiah, 31 years. 

Jehoahaz, 3 months. 

Eliakim, 11 years. 

Jehoiachin, jechonias, 3 months. 

And here beginneth the captivity of Babylon. 

The sum of these years is 419 and 6 months. 

Jerusalem was re-edified, and built again, 
after the captivity of Babylon, 70 years. 

The captivity continued 70 years. 

The children of Israel were delivered the 
first year of Cyrus. 

The temple was begun to be built in the 
second year of the said Cyrus, and finished 
in the 46th year, which was the 6th year 
of Darius. After that Darius had reigned 
26 years, Nehemiah was restored to liber¬ 
ty, and went to build the city, which was 
finished in the 32d year of the said Darius. 

All the years from the building of the temple 
again, are 26 years. 

The whole sum of years amount to 70. 


I From tke re-edifying of the city, unto the 
i corning of Christ, are 483 years, after 
l this chronology. 

It is mentioned in the ninth chapter of 
Daniel, that Jerusalem should be built up 
again, and that from that time unto- the 
coming of Christ are 69 weeks, and every 
week is reckoned for 7 years. So 69 
weeks amount to 483 years : for from the 
32d year of Darius unto the 42d year of 
Augustus, in which year our Saviour Christ 
was born, are just and complete so many 
years; whereupon we reckon, that from 
Adam unto Christ are 3974 years, 6 
months, and ten days ; and from the birth 
of Christ unto this present year, is 1876. 

Then the whole sum and number of years, 
from the beginning of the world unto the 
end of the year of our Lord God, 1876, 
are 5850 years, 6 months,and the said odd 
ten days. 


A TABLE 


OF OFFICES AND CONDITIONS OF MEN. 


PATRIARCHS, or Fathers of Families , such as Abraham, Isaac, and facob, and his 
sons. 

fudges, temporary Supreme Governors, immediately appointed by God over the chil¬ 
dren of Israel. 

King*, and they either of the whole nation, or, after the falling off of the ten tribes, of 
fuctu** or Israel. 

Ffitr j. senators, the LXX, or Sanhedrim. . 
pffcccrs, provosts, sheriffs, or executioners. 

fudges, inferior rulers, such as determined controversies in particular cities. 

Israelites, Hebrews, descendants from facob. 

A Hebrew of Hebrews, an Israelite by original extraction. 

A Proselyte of the Covenant, who was circumcised, and submitted to the whole law. 

A Proselyte of the Gate, or Stranger, who worshiped one God, but remained uncir¬ 
cumcised. 

OFFICERS UNDER THE ASSYRIAN OR PERSIAN MONARCHS. 

Tirshatha, or Governor appointed by the kings of Assyria or Persia. 

Heads of the captivity, the chief of each tribe or family, who exercised a precarious 
government during the Captivity. 

UNDER THE GRECIAN MONARCHS. 

Maccabees, the successors of fudas Maccabeus , high-priests, who presided with kingly 
power. 

UNDER THE ROMAN EMPERORS. 

Presidents, or Governors, sent from Rome with imperial power. 

Tetrarchs, who had kingly power in the fourth part of a province. 

Proconsuls , or Deputies of Provinces. 

Centurions, captains of a hundred men. 

Publicans, or Tax-gatherers. 

ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICERS, OR SECTS OF MEN. 

High-priests, who only might enter the Holy of Holies. 

Seeond Priests, or Sagan, who supplied the High-priest’s office in case he were dis¬ 
abled. . 

High-priests for the IVar, set apart for the occasion of an expedition. 

785 




JUDEA, PALESTINE, OR THE HOLY LAND. 

Priests, Levites of the sons of Aaron, divided into twenty-four ranks, each rank serving 
weekly in the temple. 

Levites, of the tribe of Levi, but not of Aaron’s family; of these were three orders, 
Gershonites, Kohathites, Merarites, several sons of Levi. 

Netkinims, inferior servants to the Priests and Levites (not of their tribe), to draw 
water and cleave wood, etc. 

Prophets, anciently called Seers, who foretold future events, and denounced God s 
judgments. 

Children of the Prophets, their disciples or scholars. 

Wise Men, called so in imitation of the eastern Magi, or Gentile philosophers. 

Scribes, writers and expounders of the law. 

Disputers, that raised and determined questions out of the law. 

Rabbins, or Doctors, teachers of Israel. 

Libertines, freedmen of Rome, who, being Jews or Proselytes, had a synagogue or 
oratary for themselves. 

Gaulonites , or Galileans, who pretended it unlawful to obey a heathen magistrate. 

Herodians , who shaped their religion to the times, and particularly flattered Herod. 

Epicureans , who placed all happiness In pleasure. 

Stoics, who denied the liberty of the will, and pretended all events were determined by 
fatal necessity. 

Simon Magus, author of the heresy of the Gnostics, who taught that men, however 
vicious their practice was, should be saved by their knowledge. 

Nicolaitanes, the disciples of Nicholas, one of the first seven Deacons, who taught the 
community of wives. 

Nazarites , who, under a vow, abstained from wine, etc. 

Nazarenes, Jews professing Christianity. 

Zelots, Sicarii, or murderers, who, under pretence of the law, thought themselves 
authorized to commit any outrage. 

Pharisees, separatists, who, upon the opinion of their own godliness, despised all others. 

Sadducees, who denied the resurrection of the dead, angels and spirits. 

Samaritans, mongrel professors, partly heathen, and partly Jews, the offspring of the 
Assyrians sent to Samaria. 

Apostles, missionaries, or persons sent; they who were sent by our Saviour; from their 
number, were called TheTwelve. 

Bishops, Elders, or Presbyters, spiritual overseers. 

Deacons, officers chosen by the Apostles to take care of the poor. 


JUDEA, PALESTINE, OR THE HOLY LAND. 


PALESTINE is bounded on the north by mount Libanus, or Lebanon, which separates 
it from that part of Syria anciently called Phoenicia ; on the east by mount Hermon, 
which divides it from Arabia Deserta ; on the south by Arabia Petrea ; and on the west 
by the Mediterranean sea, or sea of Syria. 

This country received the name of Palestine from the Philistines, who dwelt on the 
sea-coast; it was called Judea, from Judah ; and it is termed the Holy Land, being the 
country where Jesus Christ was born, preached his holy doctrines, confirmed them by 
miracles, and laid down his life for mankind. Palestine is about one hundred and eighty- 
five miles in length, and generally eighty in breadth; it is situated between 31 0 and 33° 
40' north latitude. 

The climate of Palestine is, during a great part of the year, very hot. The easterly 
winds are usually dry, though they are sometimes tempestuous ; and those which are 
westerly are attended wfith rain. The heat here might be expected to be excessive; yet 
mount Libanus, from its uncommon height, is covered all the winter with snow. 

The first rains, as they are called, generally fall about the beginning of November ; and 
the latter rains in the month of April. In the country round Jerusalem, if a moderate 
[piantity of snow falls in the beginning of February, and the brooks soon after overflow 
their banks, it is thought to forebode a fruitful year; and the inhabitants make rejoicings 
upon this occasion, as the Egyptians do with respect to the Nile : this country is seldom 
refreshed with rain during the summer season. 

The rocks of Judea are, in many places, covered with a soft chalky substance, in which 
is enclosed a great variety of shells and corals. The greatest part of the mountains of 

786 



JUDEA, PALESTINE, OR THE HOLY LAND. 

Carmel, and those of Jerusalem and Bethlehem, are overspread with a white chalky 
stratum. In mount Carmel are gathered many stones, which, being in the form of o(ives, 
melon 5 , peaches, and other fruit, are imposed upon pilgrims, not only as those fruits 
petrified, but as antidotes against several diseases. 

With respect to the rivers of the country, the Jordan, called by the Arabs Sceriah, is 
not only the most considerable, but, next to the Nile, is the largest, either in the Levant 
or in Barbary. It has its source at the bottom of mount Libanus, or Lebanon, and is 
formed from the waters of two fountains, which are about a mile distant from each other. 
One of them lies to the east, and is called Jor; the other, which is exposed to the south, 
is named Dan. The confluence of the Two streams is found near the ancient city of 
Cesarea Philippi, which is at present only a village, and called Beline. The river takes 
a course between the E. and S., and, after running seven miles, falls into the lake Samo- 
chon or Mathon, at present called Huletpanias, about six miles in length, from north to 
south, and nearly four in breadth, from east to west. The Jordan issues from this lake, 
and flows through a great plain, passing under a stone bridge called Jacob’s bridge, con¬ 
sisting of three arches well constructed. The river then continues its course as far as the 
lake of Tiberias, near the ancient cities of Chorazin and Capernaum, where it mixes with 
Its waters. When it issues from this lake, which is about eighteen miles in length and 
eight in breadth, it takes the name of Jordan major, dividing Peros from Samaria, the 
plains of the Moabites from Judea, and receiving the waters of the Dibon, the Jazer, the 
Jacob, and.the Carith. After being augmented by these streams, in a course of sixty-five 
miles from the lake of Tiberias, or sea of Galilee, it discharges itself into the Dead sea. 
The Jordan, in the rainy seasons, overflows its banks to the distance of more than four 
miles ; and, on account of the inequality of the ground, forms two or three channels. Ics 
current is extremely rapid, and the water always muddy : but when taken from the river, 
and put into any kind of vessel, it very soon clarifies, and is sweet. 

The Dead Sea is a name of modern date; the ancients call it the lake of Asphaltites, 
the sea of Sodom, the Salt sea, the lake of Sirbon ; the Arabs name it Bahheret-Lut; that 
is, the sea of Lot. It is about fifty miles in length, and ten in breadth. The lofty moun¬ 
tains of the country of the Moabites are on the eastern side, and discharge into it the 
waters of Arnon and the Jaret. On the west and south it is bounded by very high moun¬ 
tains also. It is likewise on the west that the brook Cedron, which rises at Jerusalem, 
empties into this sea. 

We are informed that this vast lake was covered formerly with fruit trees and abundant 
crops, and that from the bosom of the earth, now buried under its waters, arose the superb 
cities of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Segor. No plants of any kind grow in 
this lake. The bottom of it is black, thick, and foetid. Branches of trees which fall 
therein become petrified in a little time. The Dead sea produces a kind of bitumen, 
which may be found floating on the surface, like large lumps of earth. This bitumen is a 
sulphurous substance, mixed with salt; it is as brittle as black pitch, is combustible, and 
exhales, while burning, a strong and penetrating smell. The ancient Arabs used it for 
smearing and embalming their dead, to preserve them from perishing. The mountains 
near this sea produce a kind of black stone, which, when polished, has a beautiful lustre. 

Acra, or Acre (now called St. John de Acre, and which the Arabs call Accho, or Akka), 
is one of the places from which the Israelites could not expel the ancient Canaanites, and 
was formerly reckoned among the ancient cities of Phoenicia. It is also known by the 
name of Ptolemais. The situation is advantageous : on the north and east it is encom¬ 
passed by a fertile plain; on the west, it is washed by the Mediterranean; and on the 
south by a large bay, which extends from the city as far as mount Carmel. I-t contains 
little more than a few cottages, and heaps of ruins. The residence of the bashaw of the 
province is at this place. 

To the south of Acre is Sebasta, the ancient Samaria, the capital of the ten tribes after 
their revolt from the house of David. It is seated on a long mount, which rises in a 
fruitful valley, and is now converted into gardens. 

A little further to the south is Naplosa, the ancient Sychem, which stands in a narrow 
valley, between mount Ebal on the north, and Gerizim on the south. At a small distance 
from Naplosa is Jacob’s well, famous for Christ’s conference with the woman of Samaria. 

Jerusalem is encompassed with hills, so that the city seems as if situated in an amphi¬ 
theatre ; there are few remains of the city as it appeared in Christ’s time; the situation 
being changed ; for mount Sion, the highest part of ancient Jerusalem, is almost excluded : 
while the places adjoining to mount Calvary are nearly in the centre. This city, which 
is about three miles in circumference, is situated on a rocky mountain, on all sides of 
which are steep ascents, except toward the north. The walls are not strong, nor have 
they any bastions. The city has six gates. There are supposed to be about twelve or 
fourteen thousand inhabitants in Jerusalem. 

Jasa, the ancient Joppa, is the port where the pilgrims disembark. They generally 
arrive in November, and repair without delay to Jerusalem. 

Bethlehem, also called Ephrata, and the city of David, is famous for being the birth 
place of Christ. It is about two miles to the S. E. of Jerusalem, on the ridge of a hill, at 
present only an inconsiderable place. 


JUDEA, PALESTINE, OR THE HOLY LAND. 

Raha, the ancient Jericho, is eighteen miles N. E. of Jerusalem, situated in a plain six 
or seven leagues long, by three wide, surrounded by a number ot' barren mountains. 

Hafcroun, or Hebron, is twenty-four miles S. of Bethlehem. The Arabs call it El-Kahil, 
the well-beloved. It is situated at the foot of an eminence, on which are some remains of 
an ancient castle. 

Nazareth, now only a small village, is on the top of a high hill. 

Cana of Galilee, other\1%e called Cana Minor, celebrated for the miracle wrought by 
Christ, of changing the water into wine, is nothing more than a small village, with very 
few inhabitants. 

Sidon, called by the Turks Sayd, is situated on the sea-coast. It was anciently a place 
of great strength, and had a very extensive commerce. Though it is still populous, and a 
place of considerable trade, it has fallen from .is ancient grandeur. Its exports consist in 
silks, with raw and spun cotton, the manufacturing of which employs most of the inhabit¬ 
ants, amounting to about five thousand. The city is defended by an old castle, built in 
the sea. 

Tyre, called by the Turks Sour, is about twenty miles to the south of Sidon. It was 
once very celebrated for its purple, called the Tyrian dye, produced from a shell-fish. 
This city was, in ancient times, the centre of an immense commerce and navigation, and 
the nurse of arts and sciences. The ancient city stood, originally, on an island, joined to 
the main land by a mole, the remains of which appear at present. It has two harbors ; 
that on the north side is very good; but the other is choked up with ruins. The present 
inhabitants are only a few poor fishermen, who live in vaults and caves. 

Cesarea was at first called Strabo’s Tower, and was the capital of Palestine. This 
-city was divided into two parts by a little hill, whereon was erected a temple dedicated 
to Cesar. 

Jericho is situated in a large plain, about twenty miles long and ten broad, bounded 
by a variety of mountains on the southwest, the west, and north ; it is at present inhab¬ 
ited by a few miserable Arabs. 

The Mount of Forty Days is situated on the north side of the plain of Jericho: the 
summit is covered neither with shrubs, trees, nor earth, but consists of a solid mass of 
white marble; it is very difficult and dangerous to ascend, the path leading by a winding 
course, between two dismal abysses. This mountain is one of the highest in the province, 
and one of its most sacred places. It takes its name from the rigorous fast which Christ 
observed here. From this mount may be seen the hills of Arabia, the country of Gilead, 
the country of the Ammonites, the plains of Moab, and that of Jericho, the river Jordan, 
and the whole extent of the Dead Sea. Opposite to Jericho, beyond Jordan, rises Mount 
Nebo. 

Mount Carmel, on the south side of the bay of Acre, projects at one part into the sea, 
forming a great promontory, called the point of Carmel. There are a number of grottoes, 
gardens, and convents, on this mount; as also many cisterns for receiving the rain-water. 
On this mountain was a fortress called Ecbatane. 

Mount Tabor is most delightfully situated, rising amidst the plains of Galilee, distant 
about twelve miles from the city of Tiberias; it is distinguished by different names, as 
Itabyrion, Taburium, and by the Arabs Gibel-el-Tor. It is in appearance like a sugar- 
loaf, and is covered from the top to the bottom with small trees. 

Palestine, which comprehends the ancient country of Canaan, and was occupied by 
nine tribes of Israel, has experienced many and severe revolutions ; the extreme fertility 
of the country, and its many advantages and happy situation, induced the neighboring 
and powerful kingdoms to attempt its subjection; most of them succeeded in reducing to 
obedience and slavery the peaceable inhabitants : the Persians, Saracens, Syrians, and 
Romans, have alternately been masters for a time, and then obliged to yield to superior 
force : they treated the conquered with the utmost barbarity, and committed the greatest 
devastation and slaughter; not even sparing old or young, women or helpless children. 
Thus it continued changing its ferocious masters, until, in the twelfth century, the Turks 
taking Cesarea, the whole country fell into their possession, and has continued under 
their power ever since. The innumerable scenes of blood and desolation exhibited in 
this country have changed it from that happy, fruitful, and prosperous state, so beauti¬ 
fully described in Deuteronomy, to an almost uninhabited desert, and heap of ruins ; few 
traces of its ancient splendor remain; and confusion and doubt hang over all the researches 
of the inquirer. 

The present masters exercise unlimited and tyrannical authority over their slaves in 
Palestine, keeping the miserable inhabitants in the utmost subjection ; governing them by 
Caliphs and Bashaws, with rods of iron ; and holding them in the most deplorable ignor¬ 
ance and superstition. 


738 


CONTENTS. 


PART I. 

PAGE. 

A Comprehensive Dictionary of Art, Science and Literature, arranged 

Alphabetically.1 to 370 


PART IT. 


A Brief Biographical Dictionary, Alphabetically Arranged 


PAGE. 

685 to 73V 


PART III. 


PAGE 

Abandonment (marine insurance).. .477 
Abbreviations Used in Writing aud 


Printing.659 

Aborigines of North America.554 

Abstract (in business).477 

Acceptance.477 

Acceptor.486 

Accounts.477 

Account Current.478 

Account, Sales.478 

Acknowledgment of Deed.499 

Acquittance.478 

Acre, Different Measurements of....536 

Actuary..478 

Adjustment (in insurance).478 

Adjustment (of accounts).478 

Administrator.478 

Adoption of the Constitution.558 

Ad Valorem Duty.478 

Advances (in finance).478 

Adventure (in marine).479 

Africa, Ancient and Modern Geograph¬ 
ical Names of.384 

Africa, Cities and Towns in.388 

Africa, Rivers of.386 

Agencies, Mercantile.479 

Agent.479 

Agio. 479 

Agreement between Landlord and 

Tenant.4S0 

Agreement for Sale of Land.479 

Agreement for sale of Grain.480 

Agreement with a Clerk or Salesman 

for Services.480 

Alabama, Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws of.603 

Amendments to the Constitution of 

the United States.565 

.Americanisms.419 


American Cities, Rate of Mortality of.654 


PAGE 

American Petroleum.654 

American Wars.608 

Ancient Geographical Names.383 

Annuity. 481 

Arbitration.481 

Analysis of the Old and New Testa¬ 
ment .778 

Assyrian and Persian Officers.785 

Arbitration Bond.481 

Arbitration of Exchanges.481 

Area and Population of the Earth... .613 
Area and Population of the United 

States. 574 

Arizona, Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws of. 603 

Arkansas. Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws of.603 

Armies of the World.625 

Army of the United States.586 

Arrests (when allowed in debts).536 

Articles of Copartnership.510 

Aryan Languages. Divisions of. 2 

Asia, Ancient and Modern Geographi¬ 
cal Names of. 384 

Asia Minor. Cities and Towns in....388 

Asia, Rivers in.386 

Assets.481 

Assignm ents. 482 

Assignee.482 

Assignment Laws.603 

Assignment of Account.482 

Assignment of Bond.48 -i 

Attachment (in law).536 

Attorney, Power of.482 

Attorney-General, Salary of.580 

Audit.482 

Auditor of RailroadAccounts Salaryof 580 
Average (in shipping transactions) ..483 

Average of Payments. 483 

Avoirdupois Weight......628 






































































790 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Bailment ..481 

Balance (in A ccounts).484 

Balance-Sheet. 484 

Balancing Accounts.484 

Balance of Trade.484 

Banco . 484 

Banker.485 

Bankrupt.485 

Barratry.485 

Bears and Bulls ..485 

Bill of Adventure. .479 

Bill of Entry.486 

Bill of Exchange.4S6 

Bill of Lading.489 

Bill of Parcels.490 

Bill of Sale.490 

Bill of Sight .490 

Bond.490 

Bond Creditor.492 

Bonded Goods.492 

Business, Guide to.477 

Bond Debt.492 

Bonus.492 

Book Debts.492 

Bottomry.492 

Broker.492 

Broker’s Contracts.492 

Bulk.493 

Bullion.493 

Business Law... .. 522 

Bank Account, To Open and Keep... 528 

Bookkeeper’s Proof .530 

Banks. History of.531 

Bank Rules.531 

Bank Laws.532 

Bank Discount. 537 

By-Laws for a Social Club. 553 

Battles and Losses of the Revolution¬ 
ary War. "55 

Battles of the War of 1812.570 

Boats and Vessels (Names and Tech¬ 
nical Terms).617 

Business Vocabulary.353 

British Imperial Measure.629 

Bays of the World.651 

Common Errors in Speaking and Writ¬ 
ing Corrected.453 

Clerk, Agreement with.480 

Capital.493 

Cargo.493 

Cash Accounts. 493 

Cash Credit.493 

Cashier.493 

Center of Poimlation.395 

Charter Party.493 

Check. 494 

Circular Note.494 

Clearing a Vessel .494 

Clearing (in Banking).494 

C. O. D.494 

Collateral Security.494 

Commission...404 

Commissioner.495 

Commission-Merchant.495 

Compound Interest.495 

Composition...495 

Composition with Creditors.495 


I 


i 


! 




PAGE 

Chronological Index, from Adam to 


Christ.784 

Conditions of Sale.496 

Consignee.496 

Consul.496 

Consulage...496 

Contraband.496 

Contract.496 

Contractor.496 

Contract for Building.496 

Conveyance of Property.497 

Conveyancer.497 

Coupons.497 

Credit ..497 

Creditor.497 

Currency.498 

Customs and Excise.498 

Copartnership, Articles of. ? -510 

Cash-Book, Form of.526 

Commercial Paper.532 

Checks.534 

Checks, Laws Relating to.534 

Commencement of Lawsuits.535 

Contracts.635 

Counterfeit Money.538 

Counterfeit National Bank Notes....538 
Counterfeit National Notes, Official 

List of. 540 

Canada Bills, Counterfeits of.541 

Canadian Failed Banks.542 


Counterfeit Gold Coins, To Detect... 544 
Counterfeit Silver Coins, to Detect..544 
Constitution of the United States.. .559 
Chronological History of the United 

Stat©s • .. • • • • 592 

Coal Production of the World .622 

Counterfeit United States Bonds and 

Interest-Bearing Notes .544 

California Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws .603 

Colorado Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws.603 

Connecticut Insolvent and Assign¬ 
ment Laws.603 

Commissioner of Patents, Salary of. .580 
Commissioner of General Land Office, 

Salary of.580 

Commissioner of Pensions, Salary of .580 
Commander of Marine Corps, Salary 

of.580 

Commissioner of Agriculture, Salary 

of ...580 

Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 

Salary of.580 

Commissioner of Education Salary of 580 
Cities and Towns, Ancient Names of .386 

Christian Names of Men.379 

Christian Names of Women.381 

Classical and Mythological Names. ..638 

Churches in the United States.652 

Chronological Table.630 

Colleges and Universities in the 

United States.6 7 

Cloth Measure.628 

Commerce of Nations. 624 

Canals of United States.584 


Discovery and Discoverers of America. 554 



















































































































CONTENTS. 


791 


PAGE 


Declaration of Independence.556 

Deaf and Dumb Alphabet. 6 

Debts, Revenues, Expenditures, and 

Commerce of Nations.624 

Debts of the Principal Cities and 

Towns of the World.610 

Dictionary of Musical Terms.373 

Due-Bill.489 

Days of Grace.498 

Debenture. 498 

Debit.499 

Debtor.499 

Deed..499 

Del Credere.500 

Demurrage.500 

Deposit.500 

Direlict.500 

Deviation (in Shipping).590 

Director.,500 

Discount.500 

Discounting Bills of Merchandise.... 500 

Dividend.501 

Document Bills.501 

Draft.501 

Drawback (in Exports).501 

Dunnage ..501 

Daily Savings at Compound Interest. 505 

Dissolution of Partnership.511 

Day-Book, Form of.523 

Director of Geological Surveys, Salary 

of .580 

Dry, or Winchester Measure.629 

Director of the Mint, Salary of.580 

Dakota Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws. 604 

Delaware Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws.604 

Dominion of Canada.620 

Ecclesiastical Officers, or Sects.785 

Expectation of Life at All Ages.623 

Expenditures, Revenues, Debts, and 

Commerce of Nations.624 

Europe, Ancient and Modern Geo¬ 
graphical Names.383 

Embargo.502 

Entrepot.502 

Export.502 

False Pronunciation Corrected.422 

Fifth Age of the World.754 

First Age of the World....746 

Foreign Names of Persons and Places, 

To Pronounce.447 

Fourth Age of the World.750 

French Names, To Pronounce.448 

Factor. 479 

Firm ..502 

Free Port.. 502 

Freight.502 

Farmers’ Club, To Organize.551 

Foreign Bills of Exchange.487 

Form of Bill of Lading.490 

Five Cent Pieces, Counterfeit.544 

Foreign Coins, Value of.609 

Florida Insolvent and Assignment 
X<aws.604 


page 

German Names, To Pronounce.i50 

Greek, Latin and Scripture Proper 

Names, To Pronounce.446 

Gram, Agreement for the Sale of.., .480 

i Guide to Business. 477 

Garbles.. 

Garnishment. 502 

Goodwill. 502 

Guarantee. 502 

General Partnership. 512 


Gold and Silver, Certain Test for_536 

Gold Coin, Counterfeit, To Detect... .544 
Guardian, Receipt on Account for.... 515 
Great Britain, Cities and Towns in. ..386 


Gaul, Cities and Towns in.387 

Greece, Cities and Towns in.387 

Grecian Officers.780 

Georgia Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws.. . 604 

Gulfs, Ancient Names of....384 

Germany, Rivers in. 385 

Gaul, Rivers in .385 

Greece, Rivers in. 386 

General Councils of the Church.652 

Geographical Discoveries.631 

Geographical Vocabulary....371 

Geometrical Definitions.372 

History of the United States Flag... .567 
History of the World from the Crea¬ 
tion to the Present Time.630 

Heads of the Principal Nations of the 

World.619 

Highest Mountains in the World.... 6- r 0 

Homesteads on Public Lands.580 

Holder of a Draft, Duty of.532 

House, Mercantile.503 

Holy Land, Topography of.786 

Italian Names, To Pronounce.450 

Inaccurate Terms and Expressions. .398 

Inland Bill of Exchange.487 

Import.503 

Indemnity.503 

Indenture.5 q3 

Index to the Holy Bible.746 

India, Description of.786 

Indorse.503 

Injunction.503 

Insurance.503 

Interest.504 

Interest Table at 6 per cent.504 

Interest Table at 7 per cent.505 

Investment. .506 

Invoice.504 

Interest Policy.513 

Interest Rules.536 


Interest Laws of the Different States. 601 
Insolvent, Assignment and Home¬ 
stead Laws of the Various States.. 003 
Issue and Redemption of Silver and 

Minor Coins.545 

Interest, Legal Rate of.521 

Idaholnsolvent and Assignment Laws 604 
Illinois Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws.604 

Indiana Insolvent and Assignment 
Laws.,.,.. .505 











































































































792 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Iowa Insolvent and Assignment Laws.OuS 


Italy, Cities and Towns in. 387 

Interest Tables. 646 

Illyricum, Rivers in. .386 

Italy, Rivers in. 386 

Islands, Ancient Names of. 385 

Interest, How it Increases. 629 

Jetsam. 506 


Kansas Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws. 605 

Kentucky Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws. 605 

Knots and How to Make Them. 394 


Latin Proper Names, To Pronounce. .446 


Letter of Advice.479 

Land, Agreement for the Sale of.479 

Landlord and Tenant.480, 535 

Lazaretto.506 

Lay Days.506 

Lease.506 

Lease of House.507 

Letter of Credit.507 

Letter of License.507 

Liabilities.507 

Lien. 507 

Lighterage. 508 

Liquidation.508 

Lloyd’s Register.508 

Log-Book.508 

Laws Relating to Checks.534 

Laws Relating to Wills.535 

Limitation of Actions in Different 

States.602 

Ledger, Form of.526 

Laws and Decisions Relating to 

Drafts. .533 

Limited Partnership .612 

Lost Time Calculations.536 

Lease of a Farm.528 

Legal Rate of Interest in Different 

States.521 

Laws Relating to Business.522 

Longest Rivers of the World.651 

Lakes, Ancient Names of.384 

Linear Measure. 628 

Legal Weight of a Bushel.649 

Lakes of the World..651 

Louisiana Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws .605 

Levites Glebe.787 

Mercantile Agencies. 479 

Manifest (in Shipping).508 

Marking Goods, Method of .508 

Measurement Goods .. .508 

Merchantable Goods.509 

Mercantile and Commercial Goods 509 

Monopoly.509 

Mortgage.5,09 

Mensuration. 537 

Multiplication, Rapid..537 

Military Strength of the United States 
during the Rebellion....590 


PAGE 

Minor Coins, Issue of.646 

Minor Coins, Redemption of.546 

Maryland Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws.605 

Mercy Seat, Measurement of.781 

Mechanical Movement.741 

Metric System of Weights and 

Measures. 3 

Massachusetts Insolvent and Assign¬ 
ment Laws.605 

Michigan Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws.606 

Minnesota Insolvent and Assign¬ 
ment Laws .606 

Mississippi Insolvent and Assign¬ 
ment Laws.606 

Missouri Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws.606 

Montana Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws. 606 

Macedonia, Cities and Towns in.387 

Mesopotamia, Cities and Towns in. .388 

Mexican W 7 ar, Battles of.672 

Merchant Shipping of the World... .626 
Mythological and Classical Names.. .638 

Mountains of the W T orld.650 

Musical Terms, Dictionary of.373 

Maine Insolvent and Assignment 
Laws.605 


Note on Demand.488 

Note on Time.488 

Note not Negotiable. .488 

Note, Negotiable in Merchandise... .489 

Negotiable Note.489 

Negotiable Paper.509 

Notary. 509 

Notice of Dissolution of Copartner¬ 
ship ..511 

National Banks. 531 

National Bank Blank Bills, List of 

Stolen. 543 

National Bank Notes, Official List of 

Counterfeit.640 

Navy of the Revolution.569 

Naval Battles of the War of 1812.671 

Navy of the United States.588 

Navy Yards of the United States.... .588 

Navies of the World.626 

National Debts, Expenditures, and 
Commerce of Nations, per head.. .627 

Nails, Sizes of. 537 

Number of Plants and Quantity of 

Seed to Use.650 

Newspapers and Periodicals in the 

United States.656 

Nautical Vocabulary.360 

Nebraska Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws .606 

Nevada Insolvent and Assignment 

XT Law T s -.606 

New Hampshire Insolvent and As¬ 
signment Laws..606 

New Jersey Insolvent and Assignment 

XT La "'®.606 

New Mexico Insolvent and Assign¬ 
ment Laws.,,... 606 




































































































\ 


CONTENTS. 


795 


PAGE 

New York Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws. 607 

New York and Brooklyn Bridge.390 

North Carolina Insolvent and Assign¬ 
ment Laws .607 

Objectionable Words and Phrases...398 

Oceans of the World.651 

Ohio Insolvent and Assignment Laws.607 
Old and New Testaments, Analysis of.778 
Oregon Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws.607 

Odd Arithmetical Question.538 

Occupations of the People of the 
United States.658 


Principles of Correct Pronunciation. .422 


Partnership.509 

Partnership Settlements.511 

Pass-Book, Uses of.512 

Per cent.512 

Permit.513 

Policy, Insurance.513 

Policy, Interest.513 

Policy Wager.513 

Posting (in Bookkeeping).513 

Post-Obit Bond.513 

Premium.513 

Price-Current.513 

Price-List. .513 

Principal (in Business).514 

Procuration.514 

Pro forma.514 

Prompt (in Business).514 

Pro rata .514 

Public Meetings, To Organize and 
Conduct.548 


Presidents of the Continental Con¬ 


gress.658 

Public Debts of the United States.573,576 
Paper Money of the United States... .573 

Population of the United States.574 

Population of the Towns and Cities of 

the United States. . 578 

Public Lands of the United States.. .582 

Parlimentary Proceedure.396 

Pay of the Army of the United States.587 
Pay of the Navy of the United States.589 
Principal Towns and Cities of the 
United States. 610 


Population and Debts of Cities, &c., 

of the United States.612 

Population of the United States, by 

Races. .615 

Popular and Electoral Vote for Presi¬ 
dent, 1880, of the Various States. 616 
Prices of Commodities for 53 years. .653 

Petroleum, Statistics of. 654 

Palestine, Description of.791 

Palestine, Towns in.388 

President of the United States, Salary 

of.580 

Postmaster-General, Salary of. 580 

Power of Attorney. 482 

Promissory Notes.. • • 488 

‘Pennsylvania Insolvent and Assign- 

ment Laws.607 

Population of the Earth..580 


PAGE 

Quarantine.614 

Quotations (in Stocks). .514 

Rebate (in Business).514 

Receipts.614 

Receipt on Account. .515 

Receipt in Full.515 

Receipt for Cash Payment.515 

Receipt in Full of all Demands.615 

Receipt in Full of Account.515 

Receipt Rendered.515 

Receipt in Full for Goods. 515 

Receipt, Sold and Delivered without 

a Bill.515 

Receipt to Guardian for Payment on 

Account of his Ward .515 

Receipt of Lading for Wagon.515 

Receipt for Stock put out to Winter.. 516 

Re-exchange.516 

Register (in Shipping).516 

Re-insurance.516 

Release for Freight . 516 

Remittance.516 

Rente’.516 

Returns.516 

Reversion.516 

Rules for Detecting Counterfeit 

Money. .642 

Revolution, Troops Furnished in.... 555 
Receipts and Disbursements of Uni¬ 
ted States Government.614 

Railroads of the World.621 

Revenues, Expenditures and Com¬ 
merce of Nations. 624 

Rate of Mortality of American Cities.664 

Rivers, Ancient Names of. 385 

Representatives in Congress, Salary 

of. 580 

Rhode Island Insolvent and Assign¬ 
ment Laws.607 

Rate of Mortality.623 

Rapid Multiplication.537 

Religions of the World.580 

Races of the World.580 

Rate of Mortality in American Cities.654 

Rivers of the World...651 

Roman Officers.785 

Salesman, Agreement with. 480 

Short Form of Deed.499 

Surety, Form of. For Landlord and 

Tenant.481 

Special Partnership. 512 

Second Age of the World.745 

Scripture Weights, Measures and 

Coins.779 

Scripture Time-Table .783 

Stock, Receipt for Wintering.Mu 

Salvage.MS 

Sample.PI'6 

Scrip. 

Securities .517 

Set-off (in LaAv).517 

Share. 617 

Ship’s Papers.517 

Shipping Articles. 517 

Short Exchange. ...... 517 




































































































794 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Sinking Fund.518 

Solvent.518 

Specie.518 

Specification. . 518 

Standard.518 

Staple.513 

Sterling Coin.518 

Stock, Varieties of. 518 

Stock Exchange.518 

Stoppage in Transitu.519 

Subpoena (in Law).519 

Supercargo..,.. 519 

Suspension of Payment. .519 

Suits, Commencement of.535 

Summons at Court.536 

Shoemakers’ Measure.537 

Stolen National Bank Blank Bills... .543 
Silver Coin, Counterfeit, to detect.. .544 

Silver Coin, Issue of.545 

Silver Coin, Redemption of.546 

Social Club, By-Laws for.553 

Scripture Proper Names, To Pro¬ 
nounce .446 

Settlers of the United States.555 


Settlement of the United States.555 


Signers of the Declaration of Inde¬ 


pendence. i.558 

State Laws Relating to Limitation of 

Action.602 

Summer Heat in Various Countries.. 608 

Shipping of the World.626 

Square Measure in the United States 628 
Solid Measure in the United States.. 628 
Seas of the World.651 


Statistics of Churches in the United 
States.652 


Seas, Ancient Names of.384 

Sarmatia, Rivers in.385 

Spain, Towns and.Cities in.....386 

Spain, Rivers in.385 

Syria, Towns and.Cities in...388 

Salaries of the Principal Civil Officers 

of the United States .580 

Secretary of State, Salary of. 580 

Secretary of the Treasury, Salary of 580 
Secretary of the Interior, Salary of.. .580 

Secretary of the Navy, Salary of.580 

Secretary, of War, Salary of.580 

Sixth Age of the World..766 

Seventh Age of the World.768 

Speaker of the House of Representa¬ 
tives, Salary of.580 


Superintendent of the Census, Salary 


of.580 

Superintendent of the Naval Observa¬ 
tory, Salary of.580 

Superintendent of Patents, Salary of. 580 
Superintendent of the Nautical Al¬ 
manac, Salary of.580 


South Carolina Insolvent and Assign¬ 


ment Laws.607 

Savings Banks.531 

Straits, Ancient Names of.384 


i 




Third Age of the World. . 748 

Tables of Scripture Measures,Weights 

&c. 774 

Tabernacle, Measurement of .. ,.,. .781 


PAGE 

Table of Officers and Conditions of 


Men. 785 

Traveler, Commercial.520 

Tret .520 

Test for Gold and Silver.. r 36 

Troy Weight (U. S.).628 

Tennessee Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws.. - .607 

Texas Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws.('07 

Tale Quale.519 

Tare.51 •* 

Tariff.519 

Tender (in Money).519 

Time Bargain.520 

Tonnage.520 

Troops Furnished by each State dur¬ 
ing the Rebellion.591 

Theological Seminaries in the United 
States.658 


United States Coin, Penalty for Muti¬ 
lating ..543 

United States Coin, Table Showing 

when Coined, Weight, &c.547 

United States Senators, Salaries of. ..580 
United States Judges, Salaries of ...580 
United States Ministers, Salaries of . 580 
Universities and Colleges in the Uni¬ 
ted States.6.7 

Utah Insolvent and Assignment Laws.607 

Ullage.520 

Underwriter.520 

Usance.E20 

Usury.520 


Vermont Insolvent and Assignment 


Laws.607 

Virginia Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws.608 

Vendor.521 

Voucher.521 

Vessels, Technical Terms of.610 

Vice-President, Salary of.580 

Vocabulary of Business.353 


Words Commonly Mispronounced.. 429 


Wills .535 

Wager Policy.513 

Wagon, Receipt for Lading.515 

Warranty.521 

Wharfage. 521 

Warehousing .522 

Warrant of Attorney.522 

Ways and Means. ; .522 

Wages Table by the Day.6 6 

Wages Table by the Week .657 

Weights and Measures of United 

States and Other Countries.628 

Wine Measure.629 

War of 1 9 12, Battles of.670 

Washington Territory Insolvent and 

Assignment Laws.608 

West Virginia Insolvent and Assign¬ 
ment Laws.608 

Wisconsin Insolvent and Assignment 

Laws. 608- 

Wyoming Insolvent and Assignment 
Laws.....608 












































































































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